Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70 (2000) 505–509

www.elsevier.nl/locate/jgeoexp

Application of coupled deformation, fluid flow, thermal and

chemical modelling to predictive mineral exploration
B.E. Hobbs*, Y. Zhang, A. Ord, C. Zhao
CSIRO Exploration and Mining, P.O. Box 437, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia

Abstract
The mineralisation process consists of complex interaction and feedback between mechanisms involving deformation, fluid
flow, thermal transport and chemical reactions. Through quantitative modelling of specific regions with detailed structure and
simple ‘what-if’ scenarios, we may explore and provide bounds for the various parameters involved in mineralisation and even
determine parameters critical for predictive exploration. 䉷 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: mineralisation; predictive exploration; coupled deformation–fluid flow–thermal transport–chemical reaction

1. Introduction Hobbs and Ord (1997), following Phillips (1991),

Finding new giant ore deposits at low cost is
becoming an increasingly challenging task and is
critical to the success of the mineral industries world-
wide in the new Millennium. In assisting the industry
to carry out this task, we have committed ourselves to
modelling the geo-dynamic evolution of crustal scale
ore forming systems, with the goal of constraining the
critical factors responsible for mineralisation, that is,
those factors responsible for localising high grade,
high quality deposits.
Mineralisation is commonly the result of full feed-
back coupling between the four processes of mechan-
ical deformation, non-isothermal fluid flow, thermal
transport and chemical reaction (which includes
mineral dissolution, transport and precipitation), as
shown in Fig. 1. The generation of a large orebody
means that these feedback mechanisms must reinforce
one another in such a way that the rate of mineralisa-
tion, integrated over time, is optimised.
* Corresponding author. Fax: ⫹61-8-9389-1906.
E-mail address: b.hobbs@per.dem.csiro.au (B.E. Hobbs).
0375-6742/00/$ - see front matter 䉷 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0375-674 2(00)00099-6
discussed how mineralisation rate in systems invol-
ving gradient reactions depends upon the relationship
between fluid velocity and gradients in temperature,
fluid pressure and chemical concentrations. This
approach has given the study of mineralisation a quan-
titative meaning that is an important step towards
numerical modelling for predictive exploration. As a
continuation of this work, we present some results of
our application of deformation, fluid flow, thermal
transport and chemical modelling to key areas in
Australia. These application models basically explore
questions such as: ‘What would happen if we have a
given structural architecture under a given set of
conditions?’
2. Coupled deformation–fluid flow modelling
Deformation is an important factor influencing fluid
flow patterns. This is mainly because deformation can
modify significantly regional topographic configura-
tions, lead to the development or reactivation of struc-
tures (e.g. shear bands, fractures and faults) and
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Fig. 1. Flow chart illustrating first-order interactions and feedback relations between deformation, fluid flow, thermal transport and chemical
reactions in hydrothermal systems.

induce volume changes (dilatancy) that further affect
rock permeability and pore pressure gradients. We
describe here an application of coupled deforma-
tion–fluid flow modelling using an existing commer-
cial finite difference code, FLAC, to the Yilgarn block
in the Eastern Gold Fields of Western Australia.
A deep seismic transect across the Yilgarn
(Drummond and Goleby, 1993) provides the best
constraints at present on the deep structural frame-
work of the region. Based on this transect 2D coupled
deformation–fluid flow models have been built, simu-
lating upper crust, lower crust, lithospheric upper
mantle, a greenstone layer within the upper crust
and a fault network (Ida Fault, Bardoc Shear and

Fig. 2. Coupled deformation-fluid flow modelling. (a) Instantaneous Darcy fluid flow vectors (maximum rate: 6.3 × 10 ⫺8 m s ⫺1) in the 2D
model, showing fluid flow focusing into the Ida Fault, Bardoc Shear and east-dipping shears. (b) Instantaneous Darcy fluid flow vectors
(maximum rate: 5 × 10 ⫺7 m s ⫺1) in a 3D model. A cross cutting fault facilitates the migration of fluids into the upper crust. Initial fluid pressure
gradient was lithostatic.
 B.E. Hobbs et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70 (2000) 505–509 507

Fig. 3. 2D deformation–fluid flow–thermal conceptual model simulating a crustal block containing a half-graben basin overthrust by basement
rock. (a) Temperature gradient developed from Proterozoic aged internal heat production and a Moho heat flux of 20 mW m ⫺2. (b) Fluids are
released (maximum rate: 2.9 × 10 ⫺8 m s ⫺1) from the basin by deformation-related hydrofracturing and focus into the areas with high dilation
(volume increase).

Zuleika Fault); an upper crustal layer covering the
greenstone is incorporated in the model to simulate
a situation at the time of mineralisation, that is, assum-
ing a layer existed in the past but eroded away in the
present day.
A major implication of the models is that fluids
focus into east dipping shear zones in the green-
stones, with two major faults (Ida Fault and
Bardoc Shear) providing crustal scale fluid trans-
port channels (Fig. 2a). This concept has been
used successfully by an exploration company in
undertaking an exploration program. The expan-
sion of the model into 3D confirms the role of
the two major faults in transporting and focusing
fluids into the greenstones (Fig. 2b). More inter-
estingly, the 3D coupled deformation-fluid flow
models indicate that ENE faults that cross-cut
the NNW–SSE trending Ida Fault and Bardoc
Shear are even more efficient in moving fluids
into shallower levels from deeper levels of the
crust. This process appears to be important in
localising the 3D site for major gold mineralisa-
tion in the region; the giant Golden Mile gold
deposit sits at such a site.
3. Thermal deformation–fluid flow modelling
Based on a high temperature and high pressure
scenario proposed by Hobbs et al. (1998), a study
involving thermal transport, deformation–fluid flow
modelling has been carried out for the Broken Hill
region, Australia. This conceptual model simulates a
half-graben sedimentary basin loaded by the Himala-
yan style nappe structures resulting in a much thicker
crust (Fig. 3a).
The thermal model incorporates depth-related,
Proterozoic aged, internal heat production, a
Moho heat flux and a constant thermal conductiv-
ity. The model was taken to steady-state to derive
the geotherm for the thickened crustal profile.
Clearly, at steady-state, there is a significant
temperature rise in the thickened part of the
crust compared to the unthickened part (Fig. 3a).
The resulting high temperature combined with the
high pressure generated by thrusting is sufficient
to lead to peak granulite facies metamorphism in
the region and also to generate partial melting,
serving as fluid sources arising from devolatilisa-
tion and/or crystallisation of melts. This scenario
508 B.E. Hobbs et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70 (2000) 505–509

Fig. 4. Chemical modelling of orebody formation due to hydrogen sulphide and sulphate mixing in hydrothermal/sedimentary basins. The
model considers temperature (T) dependent reaction rates, T-dependent equilibrium constants for the relevant minerals and T-gradient driven
pore-fluid. (a) Initial geometry, permeabilities (m 2) and temperatures (25⬚C at upper boundary; 325⬚C at lower boundary). (b) Contours of
steady-state temperature (⬚C). (c) Contours of stream function (m 2 s ⫺1) (stream lines) indicating fluid flow trajectories; the flow pattern here
represents a clockwise convection cell as shown by arrows. (d) Precipitation rate (kg/tonne of rock/million years) of PbS (negative: precipita-
tion; positive: dissolution).

is probably a widespread thermal-metamorphic where the temperature is less than approximately

fluid flow system commonly associated with crus-
tal-scale thrusting structures at least until the end
of the Proterozoic.
A coupled deformation–fluid flow model for this
structure shows that under the influence of regional
shortening and high topographic loading, hydrofrac-
turing (expressed as mechanical yielding coupled with
permeability increase) occurs in the sedimentary
rocks within the basin. This releases fluids trapped
in the basin, so that fluids focus into areas with high
dilation (deformation-related volume increase) and
also discharge into foreland areas (Fig. 3b).
Factors in this type of scenario, which define the 2D
location of a Pb/Zn deposit, include the delineation of
sites where u·7T is highest (where u is the Darcy fluid
velocity and 7T is the temperature gradient) and
350⬚C (the temperature below which crustal fluids
are likely to be saturated with respect to Pb and Zn).
Fluid mixing scenarios may be added to these consid-
erations but the overall conclusion is that the most
likely site for massive Pb/Zn mineralisation is near
point A in Fig. 3a.
4. Chemical modelling
A conceptual model for the formation of a Pb/Zn
deposit is explored through a finite element code
coupling chemical reaction, thermal transport and
fluid flow. A block of material 10 × 10 km 2 is
presented with two permeable and gently folded
layers contained within a less permeable matrix
 B.E. Hobbs et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70 (2000) 505–509
(Fig. 4a). A temperature gradient is imposed, leading
to a steady-state convective system as shown in Fig.
4b. The associated flow regime (Fig. 4c) shows a
single clockwise convecting system, perturbed by
the structure of the higher permeability layers. The
concentration of H2S is fixed at the bottom left hand
corner and the concentration of SO 42⫺ is fixed at the
bottom right hand corner, leading to steady-state
gradients in the concentration of H ⫹. The dissolution
(red)–precipitation (blue) pattern as a result of fluid
mixing and chemical reactions is given in Fig. 4d. A
maximum precipitation rate of 35 kg/tonne of rock/
million years could result in a deposit such as Century,
at 10–12% Zn, forming in 10 million years. Fig. 4d
also illustrates a number of types of ore body styles
including the pipe like cross cutting style of Elura and
the more common stratiform styles.
5. Conclusions
Mineralisation represents complex interaction and
feedback between deformation, non-isothermal fluid
flow, thermal transport and chemical reactions, which
includes mineral dissolution, transport and precipita-
tion. Numerical modelling provides a powerful tool to
study this complex process and system. Through
509
quantitative modelling of simple ‘what-if’ scenarios,
we can explore and provide bounds for the various
parameters involved in mineralisation. This approach
is particularly useful for the study of specific regions,
by incorporating the details of regional structures (e.g.
faults and stratigraphy), hydrothermal conditions (e.g.
temperature, pore pressure gradient and chemistry)
and deformation kinematics (e.g. shortening orienta-
tion), as demonstrated by examples presented here.
Such detailed analyses enable us to determine para-
meters critical for predictive exploration.
References
Drummond, B., Goleby, B.R., 1993. Seismic reflection images of
the major ore-controlling structures in the Eastern Goldfields
Province, Western Australia. Explor. Geophys. 24, 473–478.
Hobbs, B.E., Ord, A., 1997. Plumbing systems responsible for the
formation of giant ore deposits. Proceedings of Geofluids II’97,
Belfast, Northern Ireland, pp. 100–102.
Hobbs, B.E., Walshe, J.L., Ord, A., Zhang, Y., Carr, G.R., 1998.
The Broken Hill ore body: a high temperature, high pressure
scenario. In Finlayson, D.M., Jones, L.E.A. (Eds.), Proceedings
of the. Symposium on Mineral Systems and the Crust-Upper
Mantle of Southeast Australia, Canberra, Australia, AGSO
Record 1998/2, pp. 98–103.
Phillips, O.M., 1991. Flow and Reactions in Permeable Rocks,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.