SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF

TRANSISTOR
Small-Signal Models
After the BJT has been biased, we can focus on small-signal operation, and small-signal analysis
is easier when we replace the BJT with simpler circuit elements that produce functionality
equivalent to that of the transistor. Just remember that these models are relevant only to small-
signal operation, and furthermore, you can’t use the models until you have established the
large-signal bias conditions.

The Hybrid-π Model

The first small-signal model that we’ll discuss is called the hybrid-π model, and it looks like this
(for an NPN transistor):

As you can see, it has three terminals corresponding to the BJT’s base, collector, and emitter.
The current flowing into the base is determined by the base-to-emitter voltage (VBE) and Rπ, and
the collector current is generated by a current-controlled current source. Just as with a large-
signal NPN, the collector current flows into the collector, the base current flows into the base,
and the emitter current flows out of the emitter and is the sum of the base current and the
collector current.

The collector current is equal to β times IB, which is not surprising. IB is determined by VBE and
Rπ, and this is where the biasing conditions come into play:

R π = β gm Rπ=βgm

gm = t ranscon d uc t ance = I C BI AS Vt gm=transconductance=ICBIASVt

So we need IB to determine IC, and we need Rπ to determine IB, and we need gm to determine
Rπ, and we need ICBIAS (i.e., the large-signal collector current) to determine gm.
It is possible to reformulate the hybrid-π model so that you calculate directly from VBE to IC. If
you replace β with gmRπ, you have IC = IBgmRπ = gmVBE.

The T Model
In some cases you might prefer to use the following alternative to the hybrid-π model:

This is called the T model. It looks quite different from the hybrid-π model, but they are both
valid in all cases and will produce equal results (as long as you get the math right). With the T
model, you again need to know the large-signal collector current (to calculate gm), because the
resistance RE is calculated as follows:

RE = αgm RE=αgm

You can use the following formula to calculate the parameter α:

α = ββ + 1 α=ββ+1
As with the hybrid-π model, the T model can use either a voltage or a current as the variable
that controls the current source. In the T model, the current source’s expression is either

gmVBE (as shown above) or αIE:

Using the Models

The BJT small-signal models are drop-in replacements for the BJT symbol in a circuit diagram.
Once you have determined the bias conditions, you remove the BJT, insert the small-signal
model, and connect the previous base, collector, and emitter nodes to the model’s base,
collector, and emitter terminals.

The next step is not so obvious: you need to replace each DC voltage source with a short circuit
and each DC current source with an open circuit, because this corresponds to their behavior in
the context of small-signal operation. Note that a “voltage rail” (e.g., VCC, VDD) that appears in
the schematic as simply a supply voltage becomes a ground connection, because the rail is
actually a shorthand way of drawing a normal voltage source that has one terminal connected to
ground.

At this point you have converted the circuit from large signal to small signal, and you’re ready to
proceed with standard circuit-analysis procedures.

Accounting for the Early Effect

I have an article that serves as an introduction to the Early effect if you'd like a more thorough
explanation. To make a long story short, however, the Early effect refers to a phenomenon that
occurs inside a BJT and causes the active-mode collector current to be affected by the collector
voltage. More specifically, an increase in the collector-to-emitter voltage results in an increase in
the collector current.

If you ponder the small-signal models shown above, you can see that they don’t incorporate the
Early effect: the only small-signal variable that affects the collector current is the base current,
the emitter current, or the base-to-emitter voltage. If we want the small-signal models to be
more accurate, we need to account for the Early effect.

Fortunately, this is easily done. All we need is a resistor connected between the collector and the
emitter.
Conclusion
We briefly covered the concept of separating large-signal conditions from small-signal behavior
in the context of amplifier analysis, and we looked at two circuit structures (the hybrid-π model
and the T model) that correspond to the small-signal functionality of a bipolar junction
transistor. After a quick explanation of how to incorporate these models into BJT circuit analysis,
we discussed improved versions that use a collector-to-emitter resistor to account for the Early
effect.