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Social Cognitive Theory Variables Associated with Physical Activity Among

High School Students

Article  in  International Journal of Sports Medicine · April 2005

DOI: 10.1055/s-2004-821135 · Source: PubMed

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 R. L. Petosa
B. V. Hortz
Social Cognitive Theory Variables Associated with C. E. Cardina
Physical Activity Among High School Students R. R. Suminski
Behavioral Sciences

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe the relationships be-
tween Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) variables and frequency of
moderate-vigorous physical activity in a sample of high school
students. Days of moderate and vigorous physical activity were
assessed using a previously validated one-day recall instrument
administered on seven consecutive days. The SCT variables test-
ed were: self-regulation, social situation, social outcome expect-
ations, physical appearance outcome expectations, general
health outcome expectations, negative outcome expectations,
self-efficacy for ability, and self-efficacy for barriers. The SCT var-
iables studied are potentially modifiable via educational inter-
ventions. Results revealed that 15% of the subjects reported 3 or
more days of physical activity. Four of the SCT were retained in
the regression model accounting for 31% of the variance in days
or moderate-vigorous physical activity. SCT is useful for under-
standing frequency of moderate-vigorous physical activity
among adolescents.
Key words
Physical activity ´ adolescence ´ social cognitive theory

Introduction low, vary by method of assessment, and decrease during high

Regular physical activity has many documented health benefits
158 for young people [3,19]. Yet rates of physical activity among
youth are low. The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance data indi-
cates that 64% of U.S. students participated in vigorous physical
activity, three or more days a week for more than 20 minutes [8].
The National Children and Youth Fitness Study found that min-
utes of physical activity declined sharply between grades 9 and
12 [18]. Biddle found that 48 % of adolescents are physically ac-
tive at least 60 minutes per day [6]. In a study that assessed exer-
cise intensity, Petosa et al. surveyed 1200 students in grades 5 ±
11 and found only 15% participated in aerobic activity. Most im-
portant, this study reported an increase in frequency of students
who report no bouts of physical activity from 61% to 81% be-
tween the 5th and 11th grades [16]. Collectively, these studies
suggest that frequency of physical activity among youth: are
school years.
Because the adolescent years are characterized by a significant
decline in physical activity, the study of physical activity during
this stage of life is critical. Research is needed to examine the fac-
tors related to adolescent physical activity participation. More-
over, it is vital that the relationships between theoretical varia-
bles and physical activity behavior be clarified [4]. This informa-
tion would support development of evidence-based models of
physical activity. Empirically verified, theoretically based models
can serve as a guide to the development of interventions to en-
hance physical activity rates among adolescents.
The purpose of this study was to describe the relationships be-
tween Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) variables and days of physi-
cal activity in a sample of high school students from a small, mid-

Affiliation
Health Promotion and Exercise Behavior, School of Physical Activity and Educational Services,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Correspondence
Rick Petosa, Ph.D., AAHB, Associate Professor ´ School of PAES ´ 344 Larkins Hall, The Ohio State University ´
Columbus, Ohio 43210 ´ USA ´ Phone: + 6142 92 83 45 ´ E-mail: Petosa.1@osu.edu

Accepted after revision: May 20, 2004

Bibliography
Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 158 ± 163  Georg Thieme Verlag KG ´ Stuttgart ´ New York ´
DOI 10.1055/s-2004-821135 ´ Published online December 22, 2004 ´
ISSN 0172-4622
western city in the United States. Days of physical activity were
assessed using a previously published one-day recall instrument
administered on seven consecutive days [23]. The SCT variables
tested were: self-regulation for exercise, social situation, social
outcome expectations, physical appearance outcome expecta-
tions, general health outcome expectations, negative outcome
expectations, self-efficacy for ability, and self-efficacy for bar-
riers. Each of these SCT variables is potentially modifiable by ex-
posure to educational programs. The results of the study should
provide insight into designing effective interventions to promote
physical activity among adolescents.
Review of Literature
Mediators of physical activity among adolescents
In a review of the literature, Baranowski et al. concluded that ef-
fective physical activity interventions for adolescents need to be
based on a foundation of descriptive research which identifies
determinants of physical activity [4]. Furthermore, Baranowski
et al. have made a call for the use of theory in the design and in-
terpretation of research on physical activity. Social Cognitive
Theory (SCT) provides a framework by which psychological, so-
cial and environmental factors can be examined [8, 9]. The fol-
lowing review defines selected aspects of the SCT and reviews
evidence of association between each SCT derived variable and
the behavior of physical activity.
Social situation is defined as a cognitive or mental representa-
tion of the social environment that may affect a persons behav-
ior. Social situation has not been carefully studied as a factor in
youth physical activity. Investigators have focused on social sup-
port for physical activity. Some social support instruments focus
on actions of family or friends which may facilitate physical ac-
tivity. Other instruments assess perceptions regarding how sup-
portive the individual believes his family or friends are. Studies
suggest that both types of social support are correlated with
physical activity among youth [6,16,17, 20, 24]. Correlations be-
tween social support and various physical activity measures
ranged from r = 0.13 to r = 0.38. The magnitude of correlation be-
tween social support and physical activity varies and may be due
to the range of physical activity instruments used. A previous day
recall of physical activity yielded a low correlation (0.13) [20]
while a more comprehensive 7-day recall produced a higher cor-
relation (0.38). [6, 23]. Regardless of method, social support is
consistently associated with rates of physical activity among
adolescents.
Outcome expectations are beliefs about the likelihood that phys-
ical activity will produce desired or undesired results. Examples
of outcome expectations include beliefs about social or appear-
ance benefits of physical activity. Examples of costs might be dis-
comfort or injury due to physical activity. A wide variety of out-
come expectations of physical activity have been operational-
ized. Some studies have generally been shown outcome expect-
ations to be associated with physical activity [17, 20, 24]. Trost et
al. found that the relationship between outcome expectations
and physical activity was different for males (r = 0.32) and fe-
males (0.08). Butcher reported a significant association (r = 0.15)
between physical appearance outcome expectations and exer-
Petosa RL et al. Social Cognitive Theory and Physical Activity ¼ Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 158 ± 163
cise in adolescents [7]. In a review of the youth literature Sallis
concluded that the relationship between outcome expectations
and physical activity is inconsistent among studies. CITATION.
Self-efficacy for exercise has been operationalized as the belief
that one can consistently overcome barriers to adherence [17,
20, 22, 24]. The magnitude of the correlations between self-effi-
cacy and physical activity ranges from r = 0.20 to r = 0.29 [17, 20,
22, 24]. It appears that when a person believes they can over-
come potential barriers to exercise, they exercise at higher fre-
quency. It is important to note that self-efficacy to overcome
barriers is but one dimension of Banduras conceptualization of
self-efficacy. Winters et al. [25] have cited this shortcoming in
the physical activity literature indicating that no studies have ex-
Behavioral Sciences
amined the different dimensions of self-efficacy in the youth
physical activity literature.
Self-regulation is the strategic use of skills to remind, cue or re-
inforce a target behavior. Examples include goal setting, self-
monitoring and self-reward. Bandura hypothesizes that self-reg-
ulation is an important aspect of adherence to goal-directed
behavior [1, 2]. While the importance of self-regulation has been
documented for adults [11,12], it has yet to be studied as a deter-
minant of physical activity in adolescents.
Across studies, SCT constructs have consistently accounted for
variance in physical activity frequency among adolescents. Phys-
ical activity has been measured in a variety of ways. Some stud-
ies employ one-day recalls and while other studies used seven-
day recalls. There are clear trade-offs between these two meth-
ods. While a one-day recall taxes memory retrieval less, it is not
likely to adequate sample the pattern of activity occurring over a
week. Seven-day activity recalls tend to be less precise descrip- 159
tions of actual performance, reflecting general perceptions of
how physically active a respondent is. This difference in physical
activity assessment can help explain differences in results be-
tween studies. While all of the studies reviewed claimed to be
testing SCT, most tested only two or three of the theoretical con-
structs. The present study builds upon this literature by simulta-
neously testing eight SCT variables and their relationship with
physical activity. The study also used seven one-day physical ac-
tivity recalls. This approach combines accurate, daily recall of ac-
tual behavior with adequate sampling of physical activity across
one week.
Methods
Description of sample
The population from which the study sample was drawn con-
sisted of 349 students in the ninth (n = 183) and twelfth
(n = 166) grades attending a small mid-western city school in
the United States. The primary occupations of adults in the com-
munity are manufacturing, service and farming. From the pool of
349 students, 330 volunteered to participate in this study. Sixty-
four of those who volunteered were considered non-respondents
due to incomplete data sets and an additional 10 students were
excluded from the study because of health conditions that lim-
ited their participation in physical activity. Thus, the final sample
consisted of 256 students. This sample reported their ethnic de-
 scent as: Caucasian (96 %), African American (3%), or other (1%).
Fifty-one percent of the sample was male. Each of the students
and their legal guardian completed an informed consent form.
The methods of this investigation were approved by the Univer-
sity Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects.
Instrumentation
Physical activity beliefs of adolescents
A set of instruments was developed and validated to measure
SCT predictors of physical activity among adolescents. The as-
sessment tool was designed to measure eight SCT variables: 1)
self-efficacy skill/ability, 2) self-efficacy for barriers, 3) negative
outcome expectations, 4) general health outcome expectations,
5) physical appearance outcome expectations, 6) social outcome
Behavioral Sciences
expectations, 7) social situation, and 8) self-regulation. Each
item contained within each of the seven instruments was scored
on a six-point Likert Scale with values ranging from strongly
agree to strongly disagree. An initial item pool was developed
based on a review of the SCT literature [5, 7,10,16].
To establish content and face validity, a two-stage review by a
panel of experts was conducted. The panel was comprised of four
university faculty members with expertise in SCT, adolescence,
and measurement. The reviewers followed a structured protocol
for reviewing each item for face validity and each scale for con-
tent validity. If two or more experts proposed a revision, it was
incorporated into the instrument. A second review was conduct-
ed on the revised instrument by the same panel of experts to
achieve consensus on all revisions. A pilot-test was then con-
ducted with a separate sample of high school students (n = 95)
to establish the instruments reliability. One week test-retest
stability was at r = 0.85 for the entire instrument. Internal reli-
160 ability was tested with Cronbachs alpha at 0.76. A confirmatory
factor analysis was conducted to examine the construct validity
of each scale. A factor loading of 0.30 was used as the criterion for
retention of items on a scale. Four items were deleted from the
scale using this procedure [25].
Previous day physical activity recall (PDPAR)
The PDPAR is a self-report instrument that segments the pre-
vious day into 30-minute time blocks. A set of empirically de-
rived, daily behaviors (both sedentary and active) are listed and
sequentially numbered on the form. The use of memory aids and
time anchors (i.e. meal times, etc.) helps the student recall all the
activities of the previous day. By having the student recall all the
major activities of the previous day recall bias for physical activ-
ity is minimized. The respondent does not know that their phys-
ical activity pattern is being studied. By placing physical activity
recall in the context of all daily activities it reduces the tendency
for students to over-report time spent in physical activity. For
each time block, the student assesses the physical intensity of
each activity. The intensity levels are defined and example activ-
ities are provided. The intensity scale is also illustrated a se-
quence of pictures illustrating sedentary, light, moderate and
vigorous physical activity. The methods and procedures were de-
veloped in previous studies that established the validity and reli-
ability of the PDPAR. A test-retest reliability of 0.98 was reported,
and validated using pedometers with a correlation of 0.88
[16, 23].
Petosa RL et al. Social Cognitive Theory and Physical Activity ¼ Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 158 ± 163
The dependent variable in this study was days of physical activ-
ity during one week. Each student reporting 30 or more minutes
of continuous, moderate or vigorous activity using the PDPAR
was considered to have one day of physical activity. For each sub-
ject, all seven one-day recalls were reviewed using this protocol
to establish the number of days of physical activity reported that
week.
Data collection
All data were collected in school over an eight-day period in the
month of March. After informed consent and assent were se-
cured, a protocol was established to collect data from all partici-
pating students during the same eight days. This was done to
minimize reactive effects that might have developed over a lon-
ger time frame. All of the first period teachers for ninth and
twelfth grade students received training on the data collection
protocol developed by the principal investigator. On the first
day of data collection, the teachers administered the Physical Ac-
tivity Beliefs of Adolescents survey. On data collection days two
to eight students completed the PDPAR during the first class
period. Thus, students were asked to recall actual physical activ-
ity on the previous day for seven consecutive days. On site during
the entire data collection period, the principal investigator im-
mediately went to each classroom to collect the instruments
towards the end of the first period. Being on site each day also
allowed the principal investigator to maintain consistent data
collection practices across teachers and respond to problems or
concerns.
Statistical analyses
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was used to analyze the
data [21]. Frequency distributions, means, standard deviations
and a Pearson product-moment correlation matrix were pro-
duced to describe the sample. Hierarchical multiple regression
was used to test the ability of the SCT variables to collectively ac-
count for variance in physical activity. An alpha level of 0.05 was
used as the decision rule for retention of variables in the model.
Results
Days of moderate and vigorous physical activity are presented in
Table 1. For the entire week no bouts of physical activity were re-
ported by 57.4 % of the students. Additionally, 18.8 % reported one
day of physical activity, and 8.6 % reported two days of moderate
to vigorous physical activity. Most important, 5% of the sample
reported meeting recommended standards of five or more days
of moderate or vigorous physical activity [26].
Means and standard deviations for each of the SCT variables can
be found in Table 2. Self-regulation scores were comparatively
the lowest, given that the mean score was 69% of highest pos-
sible score. The mean score for social situation was 68 % of the
highest possible score. The mean scores for self-efficacy skill
and the outcome expectation scales were about 80% of the
highest possible score. In general, self-regulation and social situ-
ation scores had the most room for improvement.
Pearson correlations between SCT variables and physical activity
are reported in Table 3. All of the SCT variables were significant at
 Table 1 Days of moderate and vigorous physical activity reported Table 2 Social cognitive theory variables: means, standard devia-
over seven days tions and ranges

Days of physical activity % of subjects SCT variables Mean Standard Range

deviation
0 57.4 %
1 18.8 % Self-regulation 38.70 9.78 12 ± 56

2 8.6 % Social situation 33.47 7.91 8 ± 48

3 7.4 % Self-efficacy for skill/ability 29.33 4.67 6 ± 36

4 2.7 % Self-efficacy for barriers 67.10 12.77 16 ± 90

5 3.1 % Negative outcome expectations 25.86 5.39 6 ± 36

6 1.6 % Social outcome expectations 4.75 1.10 1±6

Physical appearance outcome 9.93 1.75 2 ± 12

Behavioral Sciences
7 0.4 %
expectations
General health outcome expec- 34.43 5.08 9 ± 42
tations

Table 3 Correlations: social cognitive theory variables and days of physical activity

SCT variables Physical SR SS SE (S/A) SE (B) NOE SOE PAOE

activity

SR .52
SS .39 .62
SE (S/A) .43 .57 .57
SE (B) .47 .68 .50 .62
NOE .13 .07* .02* .24 .21
SOE .15 .39 .45 .41 .33 ± .08*
PAOE .23 .35 .23 .38 .40 .01* .35 161
GHOE .28 .43 .37 .48 .48 .10* .37 .61

p = 0.05 * Not significant at p = 0.05; Abbreviations: Self-regulation (SR); Social situation (SS); Self-efficacy for skill/ability (SE (S/A)); Self-efficacy for barriers (SE (B)); Neg-
ative outcome expectations (NOE); Social outcome expectations (SOE); Physical appearance outcome expectations (PAOE); and General health outcome expectations
(GHOE)

the p < 0.01 with the exception of negative outcome expectations
and social outcome expectations which were significant at
p < 0.05. Self-regulation had the highest correlation coefficient
(r = 0.52) followed by the two self-efficacy scales (r = 0.43 ± 0.47)
and social situation (r = 0.39). The four outcome expectation
scales yielded the lowest correlation coefficients ranging from
r = 0.13 to r = 0.28. The correlation matrix for the SCT variables
are listed. As expected, most of the SCT variables are intercorre-
lated with each other.
To test the ability of SCT to predict days of physical activity, a
hierarchical multiple regression procedure was conducted. SCT
does not prescribe a linear ordering of the variables for testing.
Indeed the concept of reciprocal determinism used in SCT sug-
gests a web of interdependent variables without precise sequen-
tial ordering. The authors imposed a temporal ordering by com-
posing a behavioral sequence based on the following reasoning.
Consistent physical activity would be influenced first by inten-
tional efforts at self-regulation. Being able to participate in the
physical activities with adequate skill means that self-efficacy is
likely to be an immediate concern. Acute social awareness char-
acteristic of adolescence raises social situation and social out-
come expectations as concerns. Efforts of self-regulation for
physical activity will produce adherence successes or failures
which will give rise to beliefs regarding self-efficacy for over-
coming barriers. Outcome expectations regarding more distant
outcomes of physical activity such as health or appearance will
be influenced by observations over time. Based on this reasoning
variables were entered in the following order: self-regulation,
self-efficacy skill/ability, social situation, social outcome expec-
tations, self efficacy barriers, negative outcome expectations,
general health outcome expectations and physical appearance
outcome expectations.
The SCT variables accounted for 31% of the variance in physical
activity (Table 4). The final model contained four variables, each
accounting for a significant (p < 0.05) portion of the variance in
frequency of moderate and vigorous physical activity days. Self-
regulation accounted for 26.4 % of the variance, self-efficacy
(skill/ability) accounted for 2% additional variance, social out-
come expectations accounted for 2% additional variance, and
self-efficacy (barriers) accounted for the remaining 1% of var-

Petosa RL et al. Social Cognitive Theory and Physical Activity ¼ Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 158 ± 163
 Table 4 Multiple regression: social cognitive theory variables on days of physical activity
SCT Variables Sum of R2 R2 change
Self-regulation .26 .26
Self-efficacy (skill/ability) .28 .02
Social outcome expectations .30 .02
Self-efficacy (barriers) .31 .01
Overall regression model .31
Variables not retained in model: social situation, general health outcome expectations, physical appearance outcome expectations, and negative outcome expectations
Behavioral Sciences
iance in total physical activity. Four variables were not signifi-
cant predictors of physical activity in the context of the model
tested. These variables were: social situation, general health out-
come expectation, physical appearance outcome expectation,
and negative outcome expectation.
Discussion
The rates of physical activity reported in this study are low. The
largest percentage (57%), of the sample reported engaging in
zero days of moderate or vigorous physical activity over the
week. Only 5% reported meeting or exceeding 5 or more days of
moderate or vigorous physical activity a week. These low rates of
physical activity are consistent with a previous study using the
PDPAR. In a cross-section study of 1200 youths Petosa reported
60 % sedentary rate and 15% vigorously active [16]. However,
162 these estimates vary substantially for the Centers for Disease
Control Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance (YRBS) data. YRBS sur-
veys estimate 65 % of students nationwide reported participating
in levels of activity that could be defined as vigorous physical ac-
tivity 3 or more days a week for greater than 20 minutes [8]. The
YRBS data are gathered with a few multiple choice items using
the stem, ªOn how many of the past 7 days did you exerciseº.
The more detailed measurement methods of the PDPAR yield
considerably lower estimates. There is a need to reconcile these
widely varying estimates of physical activity with continued
study. Given the rates of reported frequency of moderate-vigor-
ous physical activity we conclude that the majority of students
in this sample are clearly at risk for becoming sedentary adults.
SCT was useful in studying the physical activity behavior of high
school students. The correlation matrix revealed that all of the
SCT variables were significantly correlated with physical activity.
The hierarchical regression model accounted for 31% of the total
variance in physical activity among high school students. Self-
regulation, self-efficacy (skill/ability), social outcome expecta-
tions, and self-efficacy (barriers) were retained in the final mod-
el. These findings support SCT as a viable theory for the study of
physical activity among youth. The cumulative results of such
studies should produce a useful empirical basis for the design of
interventions to promote physical activity. There were inter-cor-
relations among the SCT variables. This inter-correlation has
been observed in previous studies and is consistent with the
theory. Unfortunately, a considerable amount of shared variance
Petosa RL et al. Social Cognitive Theory and Physical Activity ¼ Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 158 ± 163
F change Prob. of F Beta Sum of Mean
change squares square
90.90 .001 .3629
8.28 .004 .1668
3.95 .048 ± .1163
3.67 .050 .1492
27.93 .001 448.15 112.04
among the predictor variables resulted in only four SCT variables
being retained in the final model.
Each of the SCT variables was chosen as potentially modifiable
via educational interventions. It is important to note that this
study did not examine change processes among the SCT varia-
bles. It would be useful to test the efficacy of interventions in
producing changes in these SCT variables. Then it would be crit-
ical to examine if positive changes in these SCT variables were
followed by increased rates of physical activity. Such studies
would provide additional perspective on the optimal combina-
tion of SCT variables. Cumulatively, these studies would produce
a foundation for evidence-based interventions to promote phys-
ical activity among youth.
The results need to be considered within the context of the limi-
tations of this study. A non-random convenience sample was
used, thus the results should not be generalized beyond the sam-
ple studied. While the results of the study support SCT, the de-
sign of the study does not allow for determining cause and effect
relationships. Intervention studies are needed to determine the
nature of interventions needed to produce changes in SCT deter-
minants and examine subsequent changes in physical activity
rates.
Implications for Practitioners
Physical activity rates are low among adolescents and decline
during the transition to adulthood. Clearly there is a need for
behavioral programs to supplement traditional physical educa-
tion and youth sport programs. Educators should design inter-
ventions to encourage lifelong, health-related physical activity.
Baranowski has called for establishing a theory-based descrip-
tion of the factors associated with youth physical activity as a
foundation for intervention design [4]. This study contributes to
the identification of specific SCT variables associated with phys-
ical activity among teens.
Self-regulation is an important set of skills that can help students
gain control over goal-oriented behavior. Skills include setting
useful behavioral goals and developing systematic strategies to
monitor, prompt and reinforce target behaviors. A complete de-
scription of self-regulation skills is provided by Petosa [13]. A
useful way to teach these skills is through the use of personal
behavior change projects in which students are required to ex-
periment with a range of self-regulation skills [14,15]. Practice
in real-life situations is an essential step to learning self-regula-
tion. Self-efficacy is the perceived ability to overcome barriers to
physical activity. Barriers to physical activity can arise from
many sources. Social barriers, unpleasant weather, lack of time
or facilities are some examples. Classroom exercises can focus
on the identification of barriers and discussions of strategies on
overcoming these barriers. These lessons could then feedback in-
to the behavior change projects and self-regulation skills would
be used to overcome the barriers. Success with this behavior
change project can increase physical activity rates during teen
years and help students learn skills to prepare them for main-
taining physical activity patterns when adapting to the demands
of adulthood.
Outcome expectations are beliefs that student hold about the
consequences of physical activity. Social outcome expectations
were found to predict physical activity in this study. Generally,
adolescents have concerns about the social benefits and costs of
physical activity. This finding is consistent with the literature on
teen smoking [9]. Lessons can be designed to help teens establish
realistic expectations about the social consequences of regular
physical activity. It may be important to identify and discuss per-
ceived social norms regarding regular physical activity.
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