6

Drillstring

q Drillpipe
q Tool joints
q Heavyweight
q Drill collar
q Stabilizer

A typical drillstring consists of drillpipes, heavyweights, drill collars and stabilizers.

6.1 Drillpipe
The main function of drillpipe is to impart rotary motion to the drill bit and to provide
a drilling fluid conduit to the bit. The drillpipe is subjected to several types of loading
including axial loading due to weight carried and its own weight, radial forces due to
wellbore pressure, torque due to rotation and cyclic stress reversals when the drillpipe
is bent, as in dog-legged hole. The drillpipe must therefore be capable of withstanding
all types of imposed loading and must have a reasonably long service life. Standard
rotary drillpipe is designed for running in tension. Drillpipe run in tension is held
relatively straight, hence, minimizing bending and wear from rubbing against the
hole.

Drillpipe is manufactured according to API specifications on yield strength and

tensile strength. Minimum yield strength refers to the force needed to stretch or
compress the drillpipe until it is permanently distorted. Minimum tensile strength
refers to the force necessary to pull the pipe apart until it snaps. Another important
factor is the collapse strength, or the amount of force needed to crush the sides of the
pipe until it caves in on itself.

The torsional yield strength of drillpipe is the amount of twisting force a pipe can
withstand before twisting off. The torsional strength of the pipe itself is usually less
than that of the tool joints except when a high-strength drillstring and slim-hole
assemblies are used.

Burst strength of drillpipe is the internal pressure that can cause a new pipe to burst
and spring a leak. The bursting pressure in a well is the sum of the pump pressure
applied at the top of the string and the hydrostatic pressure developed by the liquid
inside the pipe at depth. If the drillpipe is open at the bottom, hydrostatic pressures
inside and outside the pipe are balanced at any depth.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 122

Drillpipe is manufactured seamless with an external or internal upset. Drillpipe is

specified by its outer diameter (OD), weight per ft. of pipe, steel grade and length.

The grade of drillpipe describes the minimum yield strength of the pipe. This value is
important because it is used in burst, collapse and tension calculations. Common
grades are designated as D, E, G and S-135.

Drillpipe for the oil drilling industry is usually manufactured in 3 ranges: Range 1
(18-22 ft), Range 2 (27-30 ft) and Range 3 (38-45 ft). Range 2 drillpipe is commonly
used because the length of each joint is unique, which makes it easy to determine the
total depth of well drilled.

Drillpipes are joined together to form a drillstring by means of tool joints. The female
portion of the tool joint is called box and the male portion is called pin (Figs. 6.1 and
6.2). Box and pin portions of the drillpipe have thicker walls than the rest. Thicker
portion of the pipe is called upset. Upsets are made to compensate metal removed in
cutting threads and to provide extra strength to the joint. If the extra thickness is
achieved by reducing inside diameter of the pipe, the pipe is said to have internal
upset. If the extra thickness is achieved by increasing outer diameter of the pipe, pipe
is said to have external upset. Round threads are commonly used. The surface of the
box is hardfaced with tungsten carbide to reduce the abrasive wear of the tool joints.
Some dimensions and strengths of drillpipes are given in Table 6.1.

Drillpipe is usually used in a worn condition, unlike casing and tubing which are
normally new when installed in the well. Hence, drillpipe is classified according to its
wear. Drillpipe classification is an important factor in drillstring design and use, since
the amount and type of wear affect the pipe properties and strengths. API drillpipe
classification can be summarized as follows:

• New - no wear and has never been used.

• Premium - uniform wear and a minimum wall thickness of 80%.
• Class 2 - allows drillpipe with a minimum wall thickness of 65% with all wear
on one side, so long as the cross-sectional area is the same as the premium
class.
• Class 3 - allows drillpipe with a minimum wall thickness of 55% with all wear
on one side.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 123

Fig. 6.1 – Tool joint nomenclature.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 124

Fig. 6.2 - Drillpipe and tool joints: (a) a drillpipe single; (b) welded drillpipe tool joint; (c)
shrink-fit threaded drillpipe tool joint.

FAILURE
Fatigue is the most common cause of drillpipe failure, often taking place in surface
notches such as slip cuts, metal tears caused by pipe turning in the slips, or deep
corrosion pits on the pipe internal diameter (ID).

Two results of failure are the washout and the twistoff. A washout is a place where a
small opening has occurred in the pipe, usually the result of a fatigue crack
penetrating the pipe wall, and drilling fluid has been forced through it. Fluid abrasion
erodes the metal and enlarges and rounds off the edges of the hole. Sometimes a
fatigue break appears on a pipe and is misleadingly called a washout. A twistoff is
usually caused by a fatigue crack extending around the pipe and causing the pipe to
break. Square or spiral breaks are sometimes erroneously called twistoffs. A true
twistoff comes from rotational force wrenching damaged pipe apart. Modern drillpipe
has very high torsional strength and will merely wrap up, or twist, rather than break
off if the bit gets stuck and rotation continues.

The three most common types of fatigues found in the drillpipe are pure, notch, and
corrosion fatigue. Most of these can be avoided by careful handling of the pipe.

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 Table 6.1 - Dimensions and strength of API seamless internal upset drillpipe
Size of Wt. per ft ID ID at Collapse Pressure Internal Yield Pressure*
OD With Full Upset
Coupling D E G** S-135 D E G** S-135
(in.) (lbf) (in.) (in.) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)
2 3
8
4.85 1.995 1.437 6850** 11040 13250 16560 7110* 10500 14700 18900
2 38 6.65 1.815 1.125 11440 15600 18720 23400 11350 15470 21660 27850
2 78 6.85 2.441 1.875 - 10470 12560 15700 - 9910 13870 17830
2 78 10.40 2.151 1.187 12110 16510 19810 24760 12120 16530 23140 29750
3½ 9.50 2.992 2.250 - 10040 12110 15140 - 9520 13340 17140
3½ 13.30 2.764 1.875 10350 14110 16940 21170 10120 13800 19320 24840
3½ 15.50 2.602 1.750 12300 16770 20130 25160 12350 16840 23570 30310
4 11.85 3.476 2.937 - 8410 10310 12820 - 8600 12040 15470
4 14.00 3.340 2.375 8330 11350 14630 17030 7940 10830 15160 19500
4½ 13.75 3.958 3.156 - 7200 8920 10910 - 7900 110070 14230
4½ 16.60 3.826 2.812 7620 10390 12470 15590 7210 9830 13760 17690
4½ 20.00 3.640 2.812 9510 12960 15560 19450 9200 12540 17560 22580
5 16.25 4.408 3.750 - 6970 8640 10550 - 7770 10880 13980
5 19.50 4.276 3.687 7390 10000 12090 15110 6970 9500 13300 17100
5½ 21.90 4.778 3.812 6610 8440 10350 12870 6320 8610 12060 15500
5½ 24.70 4.670 3.500 7670 10460 12560 15700 7260 9900 1360 17820
5 9 16 19.00** 4.975 4.125 4580 5640 - - 5090 6950 -
5 9 16 22.20** 4.859 3.812 5480 6740 - - 6090 8300 -
25.25** 4.733 3.500 6730 8290 - - 7180 9790 -
6 58 22.20** 6.065 5.187 3260 4020 - - 4160 5530 -
6 58 25.20 5.965 5.000 4010 4810 6160 6430 4790 6540 9150 11770
6 5
8
31.90** 5.761 4.625 5020 6170 - - 6275 8540 -
* Collapse, internal yield, and tensile strengths are minimum values with no safety factors. D, E, G and S-135 are standard steel grades used in drillpipes.
** Not API standard; shown for information only.
Chapter 6 – Drillstring 126

q PURE FATIGUE
Pure fatigue is a metal break, with an absence of surface irregularities, that has no
visible cause.

At the present time, metal fatigue in drillpipe cannot actually be measured. The
fatigue strength of drillpipe steel is presumed to be approximately one -half its
tensile strength. Calculations can be made for a given set of downhole conditions
to indicate the fatigue percentage that may be expected. The best indicator of
fatigue, however, is the actual frequency of failures.

Drillpipe is subjected to cyclic stresses in tension, compression, torsion, and

bending. Tension and bending are the most critical of these. The major factor in
drillpipe fatigue is cyclic bending when pipe is rotated in a hole that has a change
in direction (a dogleg). Fatigue can occur in spite of the fact that drill stem weight
is maintained to keep the drillstring from being subjected to buckling and that no
permanent set (crooked pipe) exists in the drillstring. When pipe is rotated through
a dogleg in the hole, each side of the pipe goes through cycles of stress (from
tension to compression) with each rotation. Drillpipe rotated at 100 revolutions
per minute (rpm) makes 144,000 revolutions per day if it is run continuously. In 7
days there would be more than a million stress cycles on the pipe. If the bending
stress exceeds the endurance limit of the metal, the pipe eventually fails.

q NOTCH FATIGUE
Surface imperfections, either mechanical (such as a notch) or metallurgical (defect
in the steel itself) , greatly affect the fatigue limit. Aside from the initial distortion
of the steel grain structure, a notch concentrates the stresses and speeds the
breakdown of the metal structure (Fig. 6.3). Notches and pits are therefore called
stress risers, or stress concentrators. If a notch is on a portion of drillpipe not
subject to stress, it has little effect. But if a notch is within 20 inches of a tool
joint, where maximum bending takes place, it can form the nucleus of an early
fatigue break. A longitudinal notch is less harmful than a circumferential
(transverse) notch, which leads to failure. Various surface dents and scratches that
can cause drillpipe notch failure are:

1. slip marks, cuts, and scratches;

2. tong marks;
3. spinning chain marks and scratches;
4. stencil markings;
5. hammer marks;
6. grooves caused by rubber protectors;
7. electric arc burns; and
8. downhole notching by formation and junk cuts.

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Fig. 6.3 – Notch fatigue9.

Tong marks are probably the worst looking defects produced on drillpipe in the
field. They are long, deep, and frequently sharp notches. Tongs should be applied
to the tool joint, never to the body of the drillpipe. Applying tongs to the drillpipe
body may crush the pipe as well as notch it. The tool joint should be kept as close
to the rotary slips as possible during makeup and breakout.

Both tongs should be used when making up or breaking out drillpipe. If only one
set of tongs is used, the pipe may turn in the slips and become scarred. Such
scarring is usually circumferential but may be spiral if the pipe drops while it is
slipping.

Rotary slips have fine serrations that ordinarily do not leave injurious marks on
drillpipe. However, if the slips are mistreated, worn, or carelessly handled, they
can score the pipe, usually in the transverse direction. Slips with worn,
mismatched, or incorrectly installed gripping elements may allow one or two teeth
to catch the full load, causing a deep notch and potential failure. The practice of
rotating drillpipe with the slips can produce a dangerous transverse notch if the
pipe turns in the slips.

Deep drilling involves heavy drillstring loads. Slip marks on the pipe may occur
even though great care is taken in setting the slips. For this reason, some operators
have eliminated the use of slips on deep wells and use two sets of elevators
instead.

Slip area damage, particularly crushing of drillpipe, is caused by using damaged

or worn rotary table, master bushing, slip bowl, or slips. Damage is especially
likely when using a combination of new and old components - for example,
resharpened slip dies in combination with new or worn slip dies ( Fig. 6.4). If any
of the elements of the slips are worn, the entire set should be replaced with new
ones. Gripping elements should be in a condition of equal wear.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 128

Fig. 6.4 – Never use resharpened gripping elements9.

Stopping downward motion of drillpipe with the slips can cause necking down
(narrowing) of the pipe in the slip area as well as excessive loads on the rotary. If
pipe slides through the slips until the tool joint contacts the slips, the sudden stop
may result in a bouncing of the string that kicks the slips out of the master
bushing, with the pipe disappearing down the hole. Letting slips ride the pipe as it
is coming out of the hole is also dangerous; it can cause serious longitudinal
notches.

q CORROSION FATIGUE
Corrosion fatigue, or metal failure due to a corrosive environment, is a common
cause of drill stem failures. Corrosion can take many forms and may combine with
other destructive processes - erosion, abrasive wear, and notch failu res - to cause
severe damage. With water-based drilling fluid, the chief corrosive agents are
dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide), dissolved salts, and
acids.

The effect of corrosion with stress is greater than the effect of either one alone.
The effect takes place regardless of whether or not any evidence of corrosion is
visible. Alternating stresses tend to rupture or otherwise destroy the chemical
films that form protective coatings on the pipe. Corrosion is allowed to proceed at
an accelerated rate, creating minute pits that act as stress risers. Stress risers lower
the fatigue strength of the metal and also promote corrosion fatigue cracks, which
are characterised by rapid opening through the pipe wall.

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INSPECTION
Metal fatigue is the cause of most drillpipe failures, but the extent of fatigue damage
cannot be determined by any accepted means of inspection because so many factors
enter into the progress of damage and there is so little evidence of damage until it has
become extensive.

Inspection of drillpipe is limited to locating surface marks such as cracks or pits,

measuring wall thickness and outside diameter, and calculating cross -sectional area
remaining. It must be remembered that pipe found free of cracks may soon afterward
develop them.

6.2 Tool Joints

DESIGN
To increase strength in needed areas , the ends of the pipe where the tool joints are
attached are upset, or thickened. With internal upset, the in side of the drillpipe is
thickened: with external upset, the outside of the pipe is thickened; and with
internal -external upset, both the inside and the outside of the pipe are thickened ( Fig.
6.5). Most 2 3 8 "-2 7 8 " and 3½" drillpipe has internal upset. Modern 4½", like 5",
drillpipe has both in ternal and external upset . Hardfacing is optional on tool joints ;
however, when correctly applied, it may double the life of a tool joint.

Tool joint boxes have either an 18-degree taper or a square shape. The 18-degree
taper, fitting 18 -degree (bottleneck) elevators, is the most common. Pins usually have
35-degree tapered shoulders to aid in stabbing the pipe thickened ( Fig. 6.6).

9
Fig. 6.5 – Upset .

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 130

Fig. 6.6 – API tool joint nomenclature.

CARE AND HANDLING

It is important to know how to take care of tool joints, since they are greatly abused
parts of the drillstring. They receive much of the wear and tear and have to hold up to
extreme pressures, rotation, stress, and other downhole forces.

q PROTECTORS
Thread protectors help prevent damage to the tool joint. They are available in
pressed steel, cast steel, plastic or rubber. A thread protector is a device that is
screwed into the box or onto the pin of a tool joint to keep the threads and
shoulders from being damaged while the pipe is moved or stored. A stabbing
protector is a piece of equipment, usually constructed of rubber, that fits on the
OD of the box of the pipe that is in the hole. The stabbing protector has a funnel-
shaped top and serves as a cushion and guide for stabbing pipe.

q CLEANING
Pin and box threads and shoulders of tool joints should be thoroughly cleaned
before the tool joints are added to the drillstring. Cleaning pays off in three ways.
First, it removes foreign materials, permitting proper makeup. Second, it permits
closer and better inspection of the threads. And third, it increases the life of the
connections by eliminating abrasive materials. The threads on new boxes should
be cleaned with a suitable solvent and a soft bristle brush because a wire brush
might remove antigalling compound that is put on connections by the
manufacturer. However, after the joints have been in service awhile, a wire brush
may be used; it will clean off scale better than a soft brush. Protectors should also
be cleaned before being put on. Also, the pin and box should be lubricated with
drillpipe thread compound before the protectors are put back on.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 131

q LUBRICATING
Threads on tool joints must be lubricated to combat the effects of high torsional
loads to which they are subjected during makeup and drilling. Regular grease or
oil is broken down or squeezed out of the connections under high torsional loads.
Lubricating compounds containing metallic fillers do not squeeze out so easily
and will resist additional makeup stresses downhole. Compounds containing from
40 to 60 percent by weight of finely powdered metallic zinc are recommended by
IADC and API for rotary-shouldered connections. Thread compounds such as
API-modified are made especially for tubing and casing, and should not be used
on tool joints. These lubricants are slick and will allow the joint to be
overtightened with a low torque application. Tool joints have in several instances
been severely damaged by excessive makeup because such lubricants were used.
The damage was mostly in the form of stretched or broken pins or swelled boxes.
Application of the proper kind of thread compound should be generous over all
threads and shoulders to ensure proper coverage. It may seem that the lubricant
will spread itself when the connection is made up, but it may not spread evenly
and may leave spots uncovered.

q TORQUE
API has recommended proper makeup torque for both toll joints and drill collars.
Tables for these values are available in API Recommended Practice for Drill Stem
Design and Operating Limits (API RP 7G). To assure proper torquing on makeup,
torque indicators must be used and understood.

FAILURE
It is important to handle tool joints correctly to avoid downhole problems. If a tool
joint is damaged, it is equally important to be able to recognise what caused the
damage and to avoid its happening again.

q WOBBLE
A tool joint is said to wobble if there is any movement between surfaces of the
mating box and pin. Wobble can be caused by improperly mated shoulders, low
makeup torque, or other conditions. If the joint is al lowed to wobble for even a
short time, the threads and shoulders of both box and pin are damaged from
lapping. If the wobble is allowed to continue, failure, and a subsequent fishing
job, may result. Wobble can occur under most drilling conditions if correct
practices are not followed (makeup tonging in particular), but is especially likely
in deep drilling, where the tensile load on tool joint connections is high. It is also
likely in crooked or directional holes, where downhole torque and bending loads
on the tool joints are high. Such conditions may permit the connection to tighten
during drilling, resulting in hard-to-break joints, stretched pins, or swelled boxes.

Ordinarily, the earliest indication a dry or muddy appearance of pins. This

indicates that tool joints are not pressure -tight and have allowed a slight leakage
of the thread compound, which is displaced by drilling fluid. Often close
examination of such connections is re quired to reveal any damage.

Several conditions may contribute to wobble, but by far the most dangerous is the
presence of tool joints that have already wobbled. The shoulders of such damaged
pins or boxes are almost invariably crowned and incapable of furnishing sufficient

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 132

support to prevent further wobble and damage. Wobble spreads throughout the
string. Each damaged pin may wobble in several boxes, and each damaged box
may wobble on several pins.

q STABBING
Bad stabbing practices can lead to drill stem failure. When a joint has been
cleaned, checked, and lubricated, it is ready to be made up to the rest of the string,
and must be handled carefully. It must not strike against the rig or any other
equipment. Pins have tapered shoulders to aid in stabbing the box, and these may
be scratched or flattened by clumsy handling.

q MATCHING SHOULDERS AND THREADS

Using boxes and pins with different -sized shoulders can produce fins, which are
thin, sharp ridges around the box or pin shoulders. To ensure that the shoulders
and threads of drill collars and tool joints match for a connection, a gauge called a
joint identifier, can be used. It measures the number of threads per inch and the
diameter of the connection (Fig. 6.7)

9
Fig. 6.7 – Joint identifier .

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 133

q MAKE UP
Correct makeup requires the amount of torque. Too little torque on the joint can
cause wobbles, washouts, and leaky connections and allow additional downhole
makeup torque. Too much torque can cause the threads on the tool joint to neck
down (narrow) by stretching the pin. This condition can reach the point where the
pin will break away, resulting in a lost string and an expensive fishing job.
Excessive makeup torque often occurs downhole on connections improperly made
up in the rotary or in the mousehole. New joints should be made up slowly to
prevent galling. After a few careful trips, the new joint gets work -hardened, and
normal operations can take place.

INSPECTION
Information regarding tool joint inspection can be obtained from API RP 7G, Ninth
Edition, March 1980, section 10.

6.3 Heavyweight
To eliminate drillpipe failures in the transition zone (i.e., the section of pipe
immediately above the drill collars), heavyweight pipe is installed between regular
drillpipe and the drill collars

Heavyweight pipe usually has the same nominal outside diameter as the conventional
drillpipe for ease of handling, but thicker wall giving it a body weight 2-3 times
greater than regular drillpipe.

The tool joints on some heavyweight pipe are larger than normal ( Fig. 6.8). Typically,
high-strength drill collar tool joints are used since the pipe compressional load
requires equivalent drill collar torque to minimize shoulder galling and connection
problems. Most heavyweight pipe has an integral centre upset acting as a centralizer
and a wear pad. It helps prevent excessive tube wear when run in compression.

Heavyweight pipe is available in Range 2 and Range 3. Dimensions of different types

of heavy weight are presented in Table 6.2.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 134

Fig. 6.8 – Heavyweight pipe.

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 Table 6.2 - Dimensions of standard heavyweight pipe.

TUBE TOOL JOINT

Nom. Nom. Tube Dia. Upset Section Mech. Properties Conn. O.D. I.D.
Size I.D. Wall Tube Section size (in.) (in.)
(in.) (in.) Thickness Area Center Ends Tension Torsion Tens
A B (in.) (in.) C D lbs ft/lbs E
3½ 1
2 16 0.718 6.28 4 3 5
8
352000 19178 3 ½ IF 4¾ 2 316
4 2 34 0.625 6.627 5 4 18 364485 25384 4 FH 5¼ 2 1116
4½ 2 34 0.875 9.965 5 4 58 548075 40430 4 ½ XH 6¼ 2 78
5 3 1.000 12.567 5½ 5 18 691185 55971 4 ½ IF 6½ 3 18 1300
5½ 3 116 1.093 15.141 6 5 58 832755 74640 5 ½ FH 7 3½ 1550
Chapter 6 – Drillstring 136

6.4 Drill Collar

The lower section of the drillstring is composed of drill collars. They provide the
following functions:

• Provide weight for the bit.

• Provide strength needed to run in compression.
• Minimise bit stability problems from vibration, wobbling and jumping.
• Minimise directional control problems by providing stiffness to the bottom-
hole assembly (BHA).

Drill collars are thick-walled heavy steel pipe, which reduces the tendency of
breaking. Due to the small clearance between the drilled hole and the collars it is
possible to maintain a straight hole.

Drill collars are normally manufactured in an average length of 31 ft and the total
length of the drill collar string may be 100 to 900 ft or more depending on the drilling
requirement. Drill collars are usually made without upset, therefore, uniform OD and
ID. A tool joint pin is cut on the lower end and a box at the upper end. The ID of drill
collars is usually 2 14 " or 2 78 " .

To reduce the surface contact area between the bore wall and the drill collars , the
surface of the collars is made spiral or other geometrical shape. The smaller contact
area reduces the probability of differential pressure sticking.

Typical dimensions and descriptions of drill collars are presented in Figs. 6.9 to 6.10.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 137

Number or size and Bore back diameter of box member Diameter of pin member at groove,
style of connection Toler. + 1 (0.4) - 0 BD inch (mm) Toler. + 0. - 1 (0.8) PD inch (mm)
64 32
NC 35 3 15
(82.2) 3 15 (82.2)
64 64
NC 38 (3 ½ IF) 3 15
(88.1) 3 33 (89.3)
64 64
NC 40 (4 FH) 3 21
(92.9) 3 25 (96.0)
32 32
NC 44 4 (101.6) 4 3
(106.4)
16
NC 46 (4 IF) 4 13 (106.8) 4 21
(109.9)
64 64
NC 50 (4 ½ IF) 4 5 8 (117.5) 4 ¾ (120.7)
NC 56 4 51 (121.8) 5 19 (134.5)
64 64
NC 61 5 15
(133.0) 5 55 (148.8)
64 64
NC 70 5 63
(152.0) 6 47
(171.0)
64 64
NC 77 6 35 (166.3) 7 27 (188.5)
64 64
4 ½ FH 3 61
(100.4) 4 13 (106.8)
64 64
5 ½ REG 4 ½ (114.3) 4 55 (123.4)
64
6 5 8 REG 9 27
5 (134.1) 5 (137.7)
32 64
7 5 8 REG 55 13
5 (148.8) 6 (162.7)
64 32
8 5 8 REG 6 25 (172.2) 7 19 (185.3)
32 64

Fig. 6.9 – Stress relief grooves design (top); Stress relief grooves dimensions (bottom).

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 138

Fig. 6.10 - Drill collars.

Stress Relief Grooves at Thread Connections

The thread connections of ITAG Drill Collars have stress
relief grooves according to API or other standards to
minimize bending strength of pin and box.

Cold-Rolled Thread Roots

Drill Collar connection life can be improved by pre-
stressing the thread roots of Drill Collar connections by
cold working.

In this process, a hydraulic ram forces the roller into the

thread root, and the roller into is then moved down the
thread spiral. The roller is of the same contour as the
thread root, and pressure between the two causes a cold
working of the metal in the thread root.

Cold-worked metal surfaces have greater resistance to

fatigue failure, because after thread rolling is completed,
the fibers in the thread roots remain in compression. As
a result, cold-rolled thread roots can withstand bending
stresses longer without cracking in fatigue.

Hardbanding
Hardbanding will be applied on request on both ends of
the Drill Collar and between slip and elevator recess.
The space for recutting of the thread will be extended to
the length of the hardbanding area.

The 4¾”OD is the smallest diameter that can be

hardbanded due to thin walls in smaller sizes.

Hardbanding material consists of granular tungsten

carbide that is fed automatically into the molten weld
puddle to obtain uniform distribution of the tungsten
carbide particles.

The resulting deposit of hardbanding is flush to 1 32 ”

above the OD of the collar.

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Chapter 6 – Drillstring 139

q WEIGHT ON BIT
The amount of weight required on the bit depends on the kind of formation being
drilled, the diameter of the hole, the kind of bit, the tendency of the hole to deviate
from vertical, and other variables. The weight of a drill collar depends on the OD
and the ID, or bore diameter. Outside diameter of the drill collar should be as
close to hole diameter as possible. Inside diameter of the collar should be large
enough to permit circulation with minimum pressure drop.

Drill collars weigh less in drilling mud than in air because of the buoyancy of the
mud. The heavier the mud, the greater is the buoyancy effect and the lighter the
apparent weight of the collars. Extra collars are usually employed to offset the
buoyancy effect. Field performance shows that drill collar weight must be chosen
so that the drillpipe is not subjected to buckling forces at any time. The usual
practice is to use drill collars having a buoyed weight of 10 to 30 percent more
than the amount that is needed to protect the drillpipe from buckling.

Drill collar weight to the bit may be as little as a few thousand pounds in the case
of a small-diameter hole being drilled with little weight, to 100,000 pounds or
more when a large bit is being used, entailing as few as six collars or as many as
forty-eight.

q HOLDING THE DRILLPIPE STRAIGHT

Drill collar weight must be calculated to include enough in reserve so that the
drillpipe is never subjected to buckling forces ( Fig. 6.11). When drillpipe is
subjected to buckling, it bends and becomes subject to increased metal fatigue
failure. Furthermore, the body of the drillpipe wears rapidly near the centre of the
joint, and tool joints wear quickly because of abrasion on the wall of the hole. The
neutral point (where buckling forces become zero) should be kept well down in
the drill collar assembly. If drill collar weight is adequate to supply the load on the
bit, with enough weight over that amount to keep the drillpipe from buckling, the
string of drillpipe remains relatively straight as it is rotated. Because the pipe does
not bend as it would under buckling forces, there are fewer fatigue failures, and
wear of the pipe and tool joints is slower. When critical weight or critical rotary
speed exists, there are sometimes problems in spite of adequate drill collar weight.
Improperly tapered drill collar strings sometimes give trouble in big-hole drilling

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Fig. 6.11 – Effects of drill collar weight9.

q PROVIDING PENDULUM EFFECT

Pendulum effect may be defined as the tendency of the drill stem - bit, drill
collars, drillpipe and kelly - to hang in a vertical position due to the force of
gravity. The heavier the pendulum, the stronger is its tendency to remain vertical
and the greater is the force needed to cause the drill stem to deviate from vertical.
If the drill stem is suspended in any position other than vertical, the force of
gravity tends to pull it toward vertical ( Fig. 6.12). If the hole deviates from
vertical, the bit and drill collars tend to lie on the low side of the hole and seek to
drill a path more nearly vertical.

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Fig. 6.12 – Pendulum effect9.

The length of the pendulum is that section of the drill collar string between the bit
and the lowest point tangent to the side of the hole. It is desirable that this point be
as high as practical so that the pendulum will be as long as possible. The, longer
the pendulum, the greater is its tendency to seek a vertical position. The weight of
the drill collar is important in achieving the pendulum effect, because a heavier
pendulum is more effective than a lighter one. Stiffness of the drill collar
assembly is also important because a stiff assembly has a higher point of tangency
than a limber one. To achieve both weight and stiffness, large, heavy drill collars
are recommended. Undersized and relatively limber drill collars, having large
clearance between the collar OD and the wall of the hole, make it harder to keep
the hole vertical. Excessive weight applied to a limber drill collar string tends to
bend or flex the collars near the bit, shortening the pendulum considerably.

q STABILISING THE BIT

Large, square drill collars or stabilisers immediately above the bit stabilise the
drill stem in the hole and cause the bit to drill a riffle-bore extension of the well in
spite of forces that tend to deviate the hole. Packed-hole assemblies using square
drill collars or stabilisers guide the bit to drill a true extension of the drilled hole.
The term packed hole refers to the fact that the square drill col lars or stabilisers in
the lower part of the assembly are only about 18 " smaller in diameter than the
hole.

Bit stabilisation ensures hole alignment and bit performance because the bit is
made to rotate on its axis. The bit is prevented from wobbling or walking on the
bottom of the hole, and the cutting structure of the bit is uniformly loaded. An
unrestrained bit may drill an oversized hole, produce unusual bit wear, and slow
the rate of penetration. Bits drill faster and last longer when well stabilised.

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FAILURES
Drill collar connections are basically the same as the connections on drillpipe tool
joints. Drillpipe failures often take place in the body of the pipe rather than in the tool
joints, but drill collar failures usually take place in the threaded connections because
of cyclic bending stresses, causing fatigue failures. Fatigue failures occur at the point
where bending is concentrated. In drillpipe, the wall is much thinner than that in the
tool joint and therefore more easily bent. In drill collars, the walls are so thick and
heavy that most of the bending must take place in the threaded connection ( Fig. 6.13),
and it is there that most failures occur.

Fig. 6.13 – Bending point in drillpipe and drill collars.

Drill collars bend while rotating in the hole. A single 8 -inch drill collar on the rack
may appear to be so heavy and stiff that it cannot bend, but when three of the collars
are standing in the derrick, a definite bend is noticeable. In the hole, twenty of these
collars may be stacked into a long and limber column that will bend when
compressed.

In any bent member, the metal fibres on the outer side of the bend are under tension
and the fibres on the inner side of the bend are under compression. If the member is
rotated one-half turn, the fibres that were under te nsion are put under compression. In
every drillpipe and drill collar rotated in the hole, this continuous movement from
tension to compression and back to tension takes place with each rotation of the drill
stem (Fig. 6.14). If the surface of any drill stem component is cracked, the crack tends
to enlarge every time it comes to the tension side of the bend. Such cracks are called
fatigue cracks.

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Fig. 6.14– Tension and compression in drill collar9.

Fatigue cracks originate at the areas where bending stress is the highest. In a drill
collar, there are two main areas of stress concentration -one in the pin, and one in the
box. When the drill collar joint is properly made up and assembled, the shoulders
support the pin so that it is rigidly held by the box. Then the weakest section is the
narrow cross section in the bottom of the box, near the end of the pin. The other weak
area is in the first or second thread near the base of the pin. If the joints are not
properly made up, the shoulders do not adequately support the pin in bending. If the
shoulders are too narrow, they do not support the bending load imposed by the pin. In
either case, severe bending stresses concentrate in the first and second threads, near
the base of the pin. The result is a fatigue crack that starts between threads in this area
of stress concentration. Boxes may also crack.

If there has been proper makeup control on the drill collar joint, fatigue failures may
occur first in the bottom of the box. As the collar above the joint bends back and
forth, the pin bends back and forth. If there is too little compression in the drill collar
joint shoulder, it cannot remain tight. The shoulder on the tension side opens up. The
drill collar above the shoulder bends to one side; the shoulder opens up on the other.
The bending puts a severe tension load on the pin threads. Then as the drill collar
rotates one-half turn, the side that was in compression is now in tension. The side that
was in tension is now in compression. This rocking back and forth produces
symptoms that can be recognised as a loose joint. Characteristically, the pin is dry,
and the area around the shoulder is dull grey in colour. Such symptoms mean that
fluid has been lapping in and out between the shoulders. Every time the shoulder
opens up, fluid comes in; as the shoulder goes into compression, fluid is squirted out.
This lapping of the drilling fluid removes the thread compound at the shoulders and
allows the metal to turn the characteristic dull grey colour.

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In tubing and easing, the threads produce a continuous seal. That is, contact is
continuous at all points along the thread profile. The threads themselves form the
pressure seal. In tool joint and drill collar threaded connections, however, the shoulder
forms the only seal. Shoulders must be kept smooth and clean. They must seal so
tightly that even in bending they never separate and never permit fluid to pass. If mud
passes across the shoulder, three things happen: (1) the lubricant between the
shoulders washes out; (2) the surface of the shoulder begins to wash; and (3) if
enough mud moves through, lubricant is washed away from the threads as well as
from the shoulders.

In a loose joint that continues to work, failures normally occur in the first or second
thread near the base of the pin ( Fig. 6.15). Occasionally, the box falls - not at the
bottom, but 1½” to 2” from the shoulder at about the third or fourth thread. Such
failures occur when the joint is relatively large compared with the size of the drill
collar, or when severe OD wear exists. In such cases, the box shoulder is very thin or
narrow and so weak that it cannot support the bending stresses imposed upon it by the
pin. Also, its torsional strength is low. The shoulder flares open as the pin bends,
creating high bend ing stresses on the inside of the box near the mouth. This action
starts fatigue of the box threads close to the shoulder. Such fatigue failures are
frequent in areas where drillers use high rotary speeds and the drill collars have
relatively large pins and thin shoulders. These conditions can also result in swelled, or
belled, boxes - particularly in small -sized collars. Slick thread compounds aggravate
this problem. Box failures of this type are rare if the joint has a good balance of pin
size relative to the diameter of the box.

Fig. 6.15 – Point of pin failure on a loose drill collar connection9.

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In addition to failures produced by fatigue, drill collar failures can be produced by

using too little or too much makeup torque. Too little torque causes the greater
number of failures, but too much torque, especially with smaller-sized collars, results
in a large number of failures also. The failures due to overtorquing all occur in the
same place - in the first or second thread near the base of the pin. Th e pin and box
members are in reality a simple screw jack, used to pull the two shoulders together
very tightly. But if pulling continues after the shoulders are tight, something will
break. The tongs break, the pulling line breaks, the pin pulls, or the box swells. The
pin actually screws through the box. Sufficient torque must be used, but too much
torque causes failure.

Too little makeup torque applied to drill collars causes failures such as welding,
galling, wobbles, and erosion. Sometimes an undertorqued connection is hard to break
out. The tension and compression during drilling causes the lubricating compound to
leak out and the shoulders to become dry. When the collars are unscrewed, the friction
between the dry shoulders generates enough heat to weld the collars together.
Applying enough torque to break them apart produces galls on the shoulders. Crowns
and cups on collar shoulders caused by wobbles can damage other joints in makeup.
Washed threads can also be caused by wobbles. The threads are eroded by drilling
fluid flushing down and coming out through the shoulders. If this situation goes
unchecked, it can result in a complete washing away of the threads and a beginning of
erosion of the body of the box itself. Eventually the collars can break apart and sonic,
of the drill stem will be lost in the hole.

API RP 7G lists recommended makeup torques for various sizes of drill collars and
types of connections. A common error in determining the makeup torque for a given
size and type of drill collar is to fail to take into account the wear of the drill collar
and the actual diameter resulting.

CARE AND HANDLING

Drill collars are heavy and awkward to pick up, make up, and handle on the rig. They
must be moved very carefully on the rack, with particular care taken to prevent
damage to the threaded ends and shoulders. They should be protected at both box and
pin ends by thread protectors when stored on the rack and when being moved across
the catwalk. Some thread protectors have bails that aid in picking up the collars, and
some drill collars have recesses to aid the elevators in picking up. When drill collars
are ready to be picked up from the V-door, lifting subs or nipples must be made up
tightly before the elevators are fastened. Threads and shoulders on the lifting subs or
nipples should be checked for proper fit to prevent collar damage. After a drill collar
is picked up by the elevators, the pin thread protector can be removed.

Both pin and box threads must be carefully cleaned, all rust preventive removed, and
a good coating of drill collar thread compound applied to the threads and shoulders.
The last swipe of the dope brush should be on the box shoulder.

Mating threads of the pin and box should be stabbed carefully to prevent any damage
to the threads or the box shoulder during lowering. Drill collar threads should be
made up using hand tongs, rather than the spinning chain. New threads should be
made up by hand at least twice before tightening to minimise thread galls on the

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initial makeup. Using both tongs, the threaded connection should be carefully
tightened to the specified torque for the drill collar size and thread type.

After a single drill collar is made up in the rotary, the assembly can be picked up with
the elevators and lowered into the hole. If the collars are smooth, a safety clamp
should be installed before releasing the elevators. If the collars have slip recesses, the
clamp is not needed. Grooved drill collars can save time while tripping, but OD wear
can create a hazardous condition if the elevator shoulders become even slightly worn.
Drill collar connections should never be made up or broken out with the rotary; tongs
should always be used. After the connections are broken with tongs, the rotary may be
used to back out.

Thread protectors must be installed on both pin and box ends of the drill collars
before a single collar is laid down on the ramp. Heavy protectors with a lifting ball
facilitate pickup and laydown operations

INSPECTION
Drill collars should be inspected on a regular basis, determined by the type of drilling
being done. When it is suspected that drill collars may have served long enough to
have fatigue cracks or other damage that may cause failure downhole, special
inspection should be made.

API RP 7G, section 10, gives recommenda tions for drill collar inspection. Drill collars
should first be visually inspected to determine obvious damage and overall condition.
Then the OD and ID of both ends should be measured, and box and pin threads should
be cleaned and inspected for cracks. A profile gauge should be used for checking,
thread form and stretching. The box counterbore diameter should be checked for
swelling, and the box and pin shoulders should be checked for flatness and for
damage. Very slight damage to shoulders may be repaired in the field by refacing and
bevelling, but more extensive damage must be repaired in a machine shop.

6.5 Stabilizer
It is a sub with an essentially spiral surface geometry and is used in the drill collar
string to assist in keeping the drill collar straight and centralized. Typical
configurations of stabilizers and their assemblies are presented in Figs. 6.16 and 6.17.

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Fig. 6.16 - Additional string stabilizers are added to the packed hole assembly as deviation
conditions increase from mild to medium and to severe. The short drill collar size, located
between zone 1 and zone 2, is determined by hole size. The hole size in inches should
approximate the short drill collar length in feet, plus or minus two feet.

Fig. 6.17 - Examples of wall contact tools used in the packed hole assembly.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define minimum yield strength, minimum tensile strength, collapse strength, torsional
yield strength and burst strength of drillpipe.

2. Define API drillpipe classification, in terms of wear condition.

3. What are the two common results of fatigue failure in drillpipe. Describe them.

4. Describe causes of pure, notch and corrosion fatigues.

5. Describe the most common causes of toll joint failure and how to prevent them.

6. Describe functions of drill collar.

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