See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/330089397

ICT for Rural Development: An Inclusive support for North East India

Chapter · June 2014

CITATIONS READS
0 175

1 author:

Chandan Kumar Panda

Bihar Agriculture University,Sabour,Bhagalpur
45 PUBLICATIONS   7 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Ex-ante Appraisal of Farmers’ Information Needs and Networks for Tailoring ICT Tools in the Dynamics of Agricultural Extension Approaches to Improve Decision Making
View project

Establishment of Biotech KISAN Hub at Bihar Agricultural University,Bhagalpur View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Chandan Kumar Panda on 02 January 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 2

ICT for Rural Development: An Inclusive support for North East India

The majority of India’s population lives in the villages. And that is the real challenge for
the scientific community to use the results of technology to enrich the lives of the 750 million
people who live there.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam(2012),
Turning Points- A Journey through Challenges
Information and communication have always mattered in rural development. In view of the
fact that rural people practice farming, livestock rearing, and caught fish, they need information.
They also need information on cost of inputs and market price of their produces in local and
distance markets. They also need education related information for their family members. Land
record, birth and death certificates, different rural development programmes, health service
 3

related information is wanted by rural people. Government is interested to support these

requirements. Though rural people are receiving these information, but their demand and
government supply is not matching. Even, the different government reports also support. It is
true that government is trying to reach the rural people. With so many available alternatives
Information and Communication Technology may work to reach the people staying in
countryside. The states of North East India are mostly agrarian in nature and agriculture is their
livelihood. Due to its treacherous terrain, connective in road and road rail is problematic. Here
ICTs may work in cyber form. The eight states located in India’s north-east cover an area of
2,62,179 sq. km. constituting 7.9 per cent of the country’s total geographical area, but have less
than one per cent contribution of population percentage of India except Assam(2.58)according to
2011 census. The region has over 160 scheduled tribes and over 400 other tribal and sub-tribal
communities and groups. It is predominantly rural with over 84 per cent of the population living
in the countryside. According to the 2001 Census, the total literacy rate of the population in the
region at 68.5 per cent, with a female literacy rate at 61.5 per cent. Majority of the population,
predominantly tribal, is dependent on agriculture and land-based activities. The agricultural
production system in the region is predominantly rainfed, mono-cropped at subsistence level.
Due to problem of connectivity, availability of resources person is also restricted. But ICT in its
cyber form may play facilitator role in agricultural development as success observed e-Arik
Initiative by Technology Information Facilitation Program (TIFP) of the Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in 2007 in the Adi tribal dialect of Arunachal Pradesh
in the agriculture sector. It was observed that 73 out of 300 e-Arik registered farmers, who were
growing Khasi mandarin had an average increase of 5,252 in their income and, an average of
1,611 increase was seen in the income of 258 paddy farmers of the region per acre.
Conceptualizing the Information and Communication Technology(ICT):
Information and communication Technologies (ICT) is a range of electronic technologies that
can include a wide range of media, such as telephone, fax, television and radio. New ICTs can
include the Internet, e-mail, computers, mobile phones, digital cameras, databases and
portals(IFAD, 2003).
ICTs generally refer to an expanding assembly of technologies that are used to handle
information and aid communication. These include hardware, software, media for collection,
storage, processing, transmission and presentation of information in any format (i.e., voice, data,
text and image), computers, the Internet, CD-ROMs, email, telephone, radio, television, video,
digital cameras etc. While radio, television and print media were primarily used to perform these
tasks earlier, with the advent of the new ICTs, these have now been considered as traditional
ICTs. However, many of these traditional ICTs are effective than web-based solution, as they
can resolve issues such as language, literacy or access to the Internet (UNDAW, 2002).
The term “ICT” describes the use of computer-based technology and the Internet to make
information and communication services available to a wide range of users. The term is used
broadly to address a range of technologies, including telephones. Central to these is the Internet,
which provides the mechanism for transporting data in a number of formats including text,
images, sound, and video. Additionally, ICT deals with the application layer, the systems that
enable information to be collected and distributed, analyzed, and processed (Asian Development
Bank,2003).
The framework developed by Sein and Harindranath (2004) presents three different
conceptualisations of ICT: its use, how it is viewed and how it impacts development (See figure
1). They argue that the manner in which ICT is viewed represents a hierarchy in that the tool and
 4

computational views, while essential for understanding the ICT artifact, do not have much
developmental impact. They argue that we need to move up from the tool and computational
view to the ensemble and ultimately the proxy view, where the proxy view is defined in terms of
knowledge creation. Secondly, they state that the manner in which ICT is used categorise how
different types of ICT-related development initiatives can be applied to affect development.
Thirdly, although the impact concept has a hierarchy by definition (i.e., the tertiary effect of a
new technology has a greater impact on society than the secondary effect), they emphasise that
the primary and secondary effects are necessary conditions for development, but not sufficient.
They argue that we need to look at the tertiary effects for an understanding of ICT influence on
national development which they conceptualise in terms of human development.

ICT Views ICT Impact ICT Use

• Tool: a means to achieve • First order: substitution • as a
something
• Second order: increase in commodity
• Computational: the the phenomenon • supporting
machine in ICT • Third order: emergence development
• Ensemble: part of a bigger of new structures activities
“package” • as driver of
• Proxy: what it represents economy
• directed at
specific
development
activities
Human Development
• Choice of healthy life
• Choice to be educated
• Choice to decent standard of living
• Political freedom and democracy
• Human rights
• Other implicit factors: wealth
distribution, social mobility.

Integrative framework of ICT in development (source: Sein and Harindranath, 2004)

Appraising ICT:
Author/s Observation/s
Share(1993) ICT can improve living standards in remote and rural areas by providing
important commercial, social and educational benefits.
Wilson (2000) ICT has development applications in education, governance, environmental
monitoring, health, human rights promotion, economic growth and other areas.
Malhotra(2001) Direct or indirect application of ICT, in rural development sector has also been
referred to as “Rural Informatics”. Rural economies can be benefited from ICT
 5

by focusing on social production, social consumption and social services in the

rural areas.
World Bank The role of ICT is catalytic in the complex task of poverty reduction by
(2001) leveraging the effects on earnings opportunities, on educational and health
services, on good governance and on promoting democracy.
IICD (2001) ICT can strengthen the role of each governance pillar in rural development and
poverty reduction. It can facilitate speedy, transparent, accountable, efficient and
effective interaction between the public, citizens, business and other agencies.
This not only promotes better administration and better business environment,
but also saves time and money in transactions costs of government operations.
Nandi (2002) Information and Communication technologies (ICTs) have a potential for
economic growth and social empowerment.
Cecchini and Scott ICT applications can enhance poor people's opportunities by improving their
(2003) access to markets, health, and education. Furthermore, ICT can empower the
poor by expanding the use of government services, and reduce risks by
widening access to micro finance.
Mitra and Gupta Application of ICT disseminate of public information grievance redressal
( 2003) mechanisms, utility payments and billing services.
Dutton et al. ICT is an integral part of development strategies of both developing and
(2004) developed countries. It has great potential to bring in the desired social
transformations by enhancing access to people, services, information and other
technologies.

Strategies for ICTs interventions in North East India:

ICT is a possible tool, not a solution. Development is not about technology, nor is it about
information – it is about economic, social and political empowerment. Process is more important
than access, and content is more important than machines. Access relates to machines,
communication tools and technologies, and information. Instead, process is about participation,
communication and people – their needs and languages – and content that is relevant. The
emphasis must be on communication, not technology. Communication implies participation,
knowledge-sharing and respect for diversity and culture. In this sense, it is key to social change
and is therefore fundamental to strengthening the capacities of rural poor people and their
organizations to overcome poverty. ICT should be seen as a means to enhance communication
for development activities, not as a distinct sector - nor as an end in itself. ICTs cannot be seen
outside the context of communication as a process to support sustainable development. ICTs to
contribute to the development of rural poor people, certain conditions have to be met. These
relate to ownership, local content, language, culture and appropriate technology. Access becomes
important only once these conditions have been met. To use of ICTs, must focus on the
project/programme level to facilitate community participation and strengthen communication
processes. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD, 2003) put four questions and
also came out with plausible exposition in relation to the policy matter on ICTs application in
rural situation
How can we ensure that ICTs are considered a tool and not a solution?
How can rural poor people set the ICTs agenda?
How can partners respond?
How do we balance investment in ICTs between technology and content development?
 6

Key issues to emerge in response to the four questions:

How can we ensure that ICTs is a tool and not considered a solution?
o Put people at the centre (ownership and appropriation of communication processes)
o Put decision-making in the hands of the people through participatory processes
o Recognize that process is more important than access
o Enhance the bargaining power of poor people
o Envision ICTs from the perspective of the users and through their active participation
o Combine traditional and modern technologies
o Develop local content
o Use local languages
o Meet local needs
o Ensure technologies are appropriate
o Provide on the ground services
o Be flexible, but ensure there is a structure
How can rural poor people set the ICT agenda?
o Empower rural poor people and communities to lead their own development
o Localize the www: each local initiative/community develops its own demand-driven
content
o Abandon vertical development paradigms
o Respond to real needs of communities, not institutional needs
o Ensure content is determined by the needs of rural poor people
o Acknowledge that content in local languages is crucial
o Acknowledge cultural pertinence
o Ensure local ownership and appropriation of the communication process
o Take into account convergence and networking
o Use appropriate technology
o Build capacity of rural poor people and their organizations
o Share knowledge horizontally
o See networking as more than information exchange - also as an opportunity to build
capacity based on new experiences
o Focus on convergence - building on existing communication processes - not just a
technology challenge. ICT projects must converge with local schools, local libraries,
local development projects and local social organizations
How can partners respond to the ICT agenda?
o Link ICT "push" to existing development projects and existing communities
o Promote a more participatory, consultative approach in order to bridge the disconnect
between local realities and the global/policy agenda
o Develop culturally sensitive networking that can build partnerships and promote capacity
building and skills development
o Use knowledge networks to strengthen, not replace traditional methods of
communication
o Encourage foundations and donors to invest in developing ICTs' multimedia capabilities
to support the needs of communities with strong oral traditions
o Support internationalization of the Internet (multi-lingual)
o Encourage donors to work with partners - including civil society - to create an enabling
 7

environment for participation by civil society in policy processes - and to strengthen the
capacity of civil society to work for itself
o Work with public and private sectors to develop better indicators to monitor the benefits
of ICTs.
o Introduce stronger monitoring and evaluation at both national and international levels to
ensure communication is linked to other processes, especially policy processes
o Engage with civil society and the private sector for provision of infrastructure
o Promote coherence, collaboration and new partnerships
o Focus on networking at the grassroots and ensure that women are included
o Focus support on the ".org" community, as opposed to the ".com"
o Ensure that technology is appropriate
o Acknowledge that technology is important, but it must be sustainable
o Acknowledge the importance of radio
o Promote open access to low cost technologies
How do we balance investment in ICT technology with investment in content development?
o Recognize that development is not about technology and not about information
o Recognize that technology is important, but must be appropriate - and sustainable for
poor people
o Focus more on content and less on machines
Information seeking by rural people and support from ICTs:
Information is needed to establish realistic objectives to evolve short and long term targets, to
formulate policies, to execute plans, to measure performance and to take corrective actions.
These information systems are intended to facilitate better planning and also aid monitoring and
evaluation of programmes. Computerized Information systems have widened the scope of
decision- making based on analysis of data. As Information and Communication Technology
Infrastructure is installed in the village level, then it will be part of global village. Connecting the
rural India through internet service to this global village facilitates the process of rural
development. As computer connected over a network can make the information exchange easier
and faster, keep information reliable and up-to-date, allow efficient management of resources,
speed up data sharing, and allow workgroups to communicate more efficiently. The information
moves directly from computer to computer rather than through a human intermediary. The role
of ICT to enhance food security and support rural livelihoods is increasingly recognized and was
officially endorsed at the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) 2003-2005. This
includes the use of computers, internet, geographical information systems, mobile phones, as
well as traditional media such as radio or TV. Rural people want information to satisfy their
short term needs and long term needs. Their requirement of information is heterogeneous in
nature starting from crop husbandry to health related. Broadly we can categories there
information need into following areas-
Agricultural Information: It includes following areas-
✓ Soil Analysis and crops nutrients requirement and judicious use of fertilizers
✓ Methods of fertilizer application
✓ Recognition of good seeds, seed treatment
✓ Time of sowing, seed rate, spacing
✓ Identification of pests and timely application of pesticides
✓ Identification of weeds and management
✓ Causes soil erosion and its control
 8

✓ Sustainable agriculture and integrated pest management

✓ Preparation techniques of organic manure
✓ Weather Condition and early Warning on Crop protection
✓ Crop rotation and selection of micro area specific crops.
✓ Farm mechanization and availability of agricultural implements
Indian experiences with ICT projects are(Meera et al.,2004):
• Gyandoot project (Madhya Pradesh);
• Warana Wired Village project (Maharashtra);
• Information Village project of the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF)
(Pondicherry);
• iKisan project of the Nagarjuna group of companies (Andhra Pradesh);
• Automated Milk Collection Centres of Amul dairy cooperatives (Gujarat);
• Land Record Computerisation (Bhoomi) (Karnataka);
• Computer-Aided Online Registration Department (Andhra Pradesh);
• Online Marketing and CAD in Northern Karnataka (Karnataka);
• Knowledge Network for Grass Root Innovations –Society for Research and Initiatives
(SRISTI) (Gujarat);
• Application of Satellite Communication for Training Field Extension Workers in Rural Areas
(Indian Space Research Organisation);
In adddition to the above, a few non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have initiated ICT
projects such as:
• Tarahaat.com by Development Alternatives (Uttar Pradesh and Punjab);
• Mahitiz-samuha (Karnataka);
• VOICES – Madhyam Communications (Karnataka);
• Centre for Alternative Agriculture Media (CAAM);
Some exclusive agricultural portals are also available, such as:
• Haritgyan.com
• Krishiworld.net
• TOEHOLDINDIA.com
• Agriwatch.com
• ITC’s Soyachoupal.com
• Acquachoupal.com
• Plantersnet.com, etc.
Educational Information
Teachers of primary, secondary and senior secondary seeks information related to their subject
areas and also upgrading their knowledge. Teachers of science wants different CD-ROM base
interactive learning with the students. Teachers of language especially English subject seeks CD-
ROM or on line support for their improvement in communicative English and also for their
students. Parents wants good private tours and study material. Apart from formal education
system, farmers wants informal education for crop cultivation, animal husbandry, poultry bird
rearing, fisheries. Educated unemployed youth wants job related information. Mediocre students
want information on vocational courses. In this field ICT has vast potentiality as -
✓ Interactive CD-ROM and distance education
✓ Online 24 hours interactive learning
✓ Interactive CD-ROM and functional literacy
✓ Interactive CD-ROM and crop cultivation knowledge
 9

✓ Training
▪ Teaching Community
▪ Paramedical Staff
▪ Extension Workers
▪ Farmers
✓ Online Examination

Economic Information: ICTS has following spectrum of coverage in the broad field of
economic information and e-commerce -
✓ Agricultural input and output related information
✓ Mandi Information i.e. market price of different produces of farmers
✓ Demand and supply of produces in local and urban market
✓ Contact with agro-industries and their demand on agricultural produce
✓ Bank loan facilities
✓ Crop insurance
✓ Cottage industry and marketing of their produce
✓ International Quality and Practices
✓ Farm Chain Creation
✓ Grading and packing
✓ Cost of cultivation and profit margin
Health Information
This one of the major alarming areas in which rural people seek full support. Even after
providing required infrastructural support, due unavailability of specialist doctor essential service
are not reached to the target group. This is the important areas where Telemedicine can play
positive role. Even for the successful running of Tripura has been honoured with an international
award at Health World Expo-2011 in New Delhi for implementation of THTM (Tele-Homeopathy
Treatment Method). ICT can work on -
✓ Knowledge about primary health
✓ Special care for children, women and aged people
✓ Online consultancy by experts or Telemedicine
✓ Electronic Communication to provide clinic call
✓ Still images, radiographs etc.
✓ Video Conferencing
✓ Expert Databases
✓ Patient Database
✓ Disease infestation history of the area
✓ Epidemics etc.
ICT for e-governance: In the perspective of Government to Citizen(G2C)service this ICTs is
cost effective and quick to reach clients as
✓ Land Records and land reform
✓ Court case hearings and judicial assistance for poor people
✓ Application Forms for rural educated youth to get job in Govt. and private sectors.
✓ Application Forms for various Govt. schemes
✓ Information about Govt. Schemes and Programmes
✓ Online Payments of telephone bills, electric bill etc.
✓ Railway Reservation
 10

✓ Inform higher authority about any discrepancy in lower level

✓ Video conferencing and interaction with administrative personnel
ICT for Panchayat Raj Institutions: ICT has potential role over the day to day work of PRIs as
follows-
✓ Total population
✓ Male and female ratio
✓ Population age distribution
✓ Literacy distribution based on age, caste, gender
✓ Disease infestation
✓ Distribution of minority, SC,ST,OBC population
✓ Crop grown
✓ Land use pattern
✓ Labour migration

Based on these observations and other experiences,Rama Rao(2004) consider the following as
major factors responsible for successful implementation and sustenance of ICT projects for
social development:
• Degree of efficiency and transparency demonstrated in citizen services
• Extent of reduction in cost and improvement of convenience for citizens
• Extent of reengineering and improvement of back-end services
• Extent of Integration of backend processes with front-end and web site
• Degree of employee involvement and change management
• Amenability for Public Private Partnership (PPP) arrangement
• Strength of PPP arrangement in the application development
• Strength of PPP arrangement in the service delivery
• Enhancement of Revenue for the government and the service provider
• Technological robustness of the project
Strengthening Infrastructures for ICTs intervention in North East India:
Though some issues pertaining to infrastructure development is discussed while answering
four questions. But a specific issue more relevant to North East India to be taken into
contemplation and it is telecommunication. Telecommunication plays a vital role for ICTs
intervention in connecting people with the rest of the world and improving their economic well-
being as does physical communication. Since physical infrastructure in North East India is either
limited or is expensive, telecommunication becomes an even more important mode of
communication. The teledensity of the North East is low in comparison to the rest of India and
only Mizoram has a teledensity higher than the national average. Further, the rate of increase in
teledensity in the region is slower than the national average, which could be due to the limited
expansion of exchange capacity. Cellular mobile services were introduced in the region only in
2003 after a delay of eight years than the rest of the country on security considerations. There are
still some restrictions in border areas and no signals are allowed within 500 metres of the
international border. This restriction is particularly harsh to the North East states where a
 11

significant population lives in border areas and, therefore, should be removed as early as possible
(North East India Vision 2020). ICTs not only include internet connection but also radio,
television, local radio and these are known as traditional ICTs and infrastructural development
for these masses media also similarly important. North East India with their infrastructure
constraints to launch modern ICTs, in some parts of the region, existing traditional media may be
tried as there is explicit examples of coexistence of both traditional and modern ICTs.
Traditional media may act as starting point of ICTs. North East India with so many tribes and
sub tribes have their own traditional media. O’Farrel(2001) argued that before intervening with
technology and new information sources we should understand the existing information system
of poor. ICTs mean much more than computers and the Internet, and many technologies, both
traditional and modern, can play a role in appropriate situations (Arunachalam,2004).
The traditional media is a form in transmitting messages to a society or a group of societies
from one generation to another. These are indigenous modes and have served the society as tools
for long epoch. Therefore, traditional media offer important opportunities in the process of
rousing rural masses towards accommodating social changes, which also establish a constructive
means for the general development of the common people and can make a scientific disposition
among the rural mass. Traditional Medias entail the people’s participation and impulsiveness.
The north eastern part of India has been the traditional land of the Indo-Mongoloid population.
Nearly 84 per cent of the region’s total population lives in rural area. Traditional media in this
region can become an intimate and emotional tool of communication. Now the prospect has
come that we can deliberately incorporate science and technology to traditional media through
which we can communicate or disseminate scientific matters with the general rural mass.
Indigenous proverbs facilitate speech communication and help in cutting across traditional
resistance to new ideas. For example, the Assamese society has paid a lot of importance to build
a scientific temperament that can be traced back to the proverbs of Daka Purusha who flourished
in Assam during the 4th century AD. Daka’s proverbs cover almost all aspects of the day-to-day
rural life, including agriculture, health, hygiene, gynaecology, paediatrics, infant care and food
and nutrition. Being an ancient form, the folk media is very close to the heart of the people. Its
appeal is universal and its understanding is direct and at personal level. So the folk media can
effectively be used as mass communication among rural. It is true that folk media can
disseminate scientific information and it is the best medium to inculcate scientific temperament
among the general people. In the course of folk performance, folk media transmit information
and project ideas that may influence attitudes and behaviour as well as entertainment. Thus, it is
a great revelation nowadays that the folk arts are quite sufficient, as a medium to inform and
disseminate people to safeguard against superstition and other such beliefs. Each folk art form
itself is a medium of communication because it is directly linked to the psyche of its audience. It
is flexible and it can be modified in regard to its functional relevance to the society to which it
belongs. That is perhaps why it has survived. Incorporation of Traditional Knowledge Systems
(TKS) would also ensure involvement and ownership of the rural beneficiaries themselves. The
need to integrate inputs from indigenous systems is important not just because of their richness
but also because these systems have evolved over millennia preserving the social balance in that
area. In the Indian rural context, there are already several encouraging examples such as “Honey
Bee Network” which is a database of grass root innovations and technologies and serves as an
effective solution to problems of local development. International development circles too have
adequately stressed incorporation of indigenous knowledge in prevailing models of
 12

governance(Malhotra et al.2008).They had proposed following model(See figure-2) for

inclusion of Traditional knowledge System in ICT application in rural development.

Proposed ‘TKS based G2C2G’ e-Governance framework for Rural Develop(Malhotra et al.2008)
Conclusion:
So, to be concluded, ICT is a possible tool, not a solution. Development is not about
technology, nor is it about information – it is about economic, social and political empowerment.
Process is more important than access, and content is more important than machines. Access
relates to machines, communication tools and technologies, and information. Instead, process is
about participation, communication and people – their needs and languages – and content that is
relevant.
References
Arunachalam, S.(2004).Information and communication technologies and poverty alleviation.
Current Science, 87(7), 960-966.
Asian Development Bank (2003). Information and Communication Technology for Development
in the Pacific. Retrieved from website:
http://www.paddle.usp.ac.fj/collect/paddle/index/assoc/adb005.../doc.pdf
Cecchini,S. and Scott,C.(2003). Can Information and Communications Technology Applications
Contribute to Poverty Reduction? Lessons from Rural India. Retrieved from website:
http://www.unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/.../apcity/unpan015132.pdf
Dutton, W. H., Gillett,S.E., McKnight, L.W. & Peltu,M. (2004). Bridging broadband Internet
divides: Reconfiguring access to enhance communicative power. Journal of Information
Technology ,19(1),28-38.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (2003). The role of Information and
Communications Technologies, IFAD Side Event, World Summit on the Information
Society, Geneva, December.
Malhotra, Charru (2001). Rural Informatics and Information Technology Policies for Rural
Development in India in emerging institutions. In Proceedings of NIRD Foundation Day
Seminar for Decentralised Rural Development, edited by S.P. Jain, 223-250, Hyderabad:
NIRD, Hyderabad, India, January 7-8, 2001.
 13

Malhotra,C., Chariar, V. M., Das, L.K. , & Ilavarasan, P. V.(2008). ICT for Rural Development:
An Inclusive Framework for e-Governance . Retrieved from website: http://www.csi-
sigegov.org/3/26_380_3.pdf
Meera,S.N.; Jhamtani, Anita and Rao, D.U.M.(2004). Information and Communication
Technology in Agricultural Development: A Comparative Analysis of Three Projects
from India. Agricultural Research & Extension Network, ODI. Network Paper
No.135,January 2004.
Mitra, R.K. and Gupta, M.P. (2003). Evolution of e-Governance in India: Learning from Select
Cases. Indian Management (August, 2003) A Journal of All India Management
Association, New Delhi, India.

Nandi, B. (2002).Role of Telecommunications in Developing Countries in the 21st century, 14th

Biennial Conference Seoul: International Telecommunications Society (ITS).
O’Farrel, C.(2001), Information flows in rural and urban communities - Access, Process and
People, IRDD, The University of Reading, UK.
Rama Rao,T.P.(2004), ICT and e-Governance for Rural Development. Retrieved from website:
www.iimahd.ernet.in/.../ict-and-egovernance-for-rural-development.pdf.
Sein, M.K. and Harindranath, G. (2004). Conceptualising the ICT artifact: Towards
understanding the role of ICT in national development. The Information Society 20: 15-
24.
Share, P. (1993).Telecommunication and rural remote development, Rural Society 3: 16.
The International Institute for Communication and Development (2001).Research Brief, No. 1.
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women(UNDAW). International
Telecommunication.
Wilson, M.(2000). Understanding the International ICT and Development Discourse:
Assumptions and Implications, Paper is based on research conducted for the author’s
M.Phil in Development Studies thesis at Oxford, U.K.
World Bank (2001), Information and Communication Technologies and Poverty (C.Kenny, J.
Navas-Sabater, C. Qiang. Web draft April 2001).

View publication stats