Trans Chapter1 Part1 PDF

PIPENET VISION TRAINING MANUAL TRANSIENT: CHAPTER 1
PAGE 1 OF 133 REVISION 2.1, SEP 2010
PIPENET VISION TRANSIENT MODULE
CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the basic concepts of the Standard Option of PIPENET
VISION Transient Module.
Standard
Option
PIPENET VISION Transient Module is a powerful tool in the design of piping systems,
providing a speedy and cost-effective means of in-house rigorous transient analysis.
The Transient Module can be used for predicting pressure surges, calculating hydraulic
transient forces or even modelling control systems in flow networks.
The Transient Module can model networks with items such as pipes, operating valves,
variable-speed pumps, air-release valves, vacuum-breaker valves, accumulators, bursting
discs, various caisson models, regulators, pressure envelopes, pressure and flow
transmitters, PID controllers and transfer functions (to represent the dynamics of instruments
and valves).
Changes in a piping system, such as valve closure or pump start-up, can give rise to
dangerously high pressure surges in the system. It is important, therefore, that these surges
are investigated, and eliminated by careful design.
Standard Option
The Standard Option of the Transient Module, which is a versatile simulator for any liquid
systems, uses the Bernoulli equation for its pressure model. It is widely used for analysing the
fluid flow in, for example, cooling water systems, raw water systems, treatment plants, boiler
feed lines, high pressure lines, and fuel oil systems.
With the Standard Option, it is possible to analyse the effect of the steam hammer. Hydraulic
transient forces can be output to a separate file, which can then be used by pipe stress
analysis programs for further processing.
2. Modelling Equations
The elastic pipe is a very important feature of the PIPENET VISION Transient Module. The
equations that govern the flow in these pipes are the momentum-balance equation and the
continuity equation, both of which are solved numerically for pressures and flow rates.
Momentum Equation
When Newton’s Second Law of Motion is applied to a control volume of fluid, the resulting
equation (allowing for friction and gravity) is as follows.
1 ∂p ∂u 4f uu
+ + g sin α + =0
ρ ∂x ∂t d 2
Continuity Equation
The rate of increase of mass of a control volume of fluid is equal to the net mass flowrate into
the volume, resulting in the following equation.
1 ∂ρA 1 ∂ρA ∂u
u + + =0
ρA ∂x ρA ∂t ∂x
The variables used in the above equations are as follows.
p is the pressure in the pipe,

u is the fluid velocity along the pipe,
x is the distance along the pipe,
t is the time,
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe,
d is the diameter of the pipe,
ρ is the fluid density,
θ is the angle the pipe makes to the horizontal,
f is a friction factor.
The above modelling equations are of hyperbolic type, and are solved using the method of
characteristics.
A general network consists of pipes and other items. Items such as operating valves are
modelled using algebraic equations, and items such as accumulators and caissons are
modelled using ordinary differential equations. The set of equations for a general network,
therefore, consists of partial differential equations, ordinary differential equations and
algebraic equations. A numerical form of the governing equations is produced, and this set of
equations is solved simultaneously in PIPENET VISION Transient Module.
The models that are used in PIPENET VISION Transient Module are described in the
sections below.
2.1 Elastic Pipe
Pipes are assumed to be of uniform circular cross-section. The properties of the pipe and bulk
modulus of the fluid determine the fluid wave speed (i.e., the speed of propagation of
pressure transients) in the pipe.
2.1.1 Frictional Pressure Loss in the Standard Option

In the Standard Option, the pressure drop due to friction effects is given by the Darcy
equation. This equation was formulated by comparing experimental values of pressure in
pipes with theoretical values that were obtained using the Coulson and Richardson equation
(in which frictional effects are ignored).
The equation is
2 fL 2
Pf = ρu
D
in which
Pf is the pressure drop,

u is the fluid velocity,
f is the Fanning friction factor,
L is the pipe length,
D is the internal diameter of the pipe,
ρ is the fluid density.
The Fanning friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number and the relative pipe
roughness. The following empirical formulae for the friction factor are used in PIPENET
VISION.
Laminar flow (Re < 2000):
16
f =
Re
Turbulent flow (Re > 3000):
1  0.27 r 1.252 
= −1.768 ln + 
 
f  D Re f 
Transitional flow (2000 <= Re <= 3000)
In this case, f is determined by interpolating between the upper laminar value (at Re = 2000)
and the lower turbulent value (at Re = 3000).
2.1.2 Frictional Pressure Loss in the Spray Option

This Hazen-Williams equation is available only in the Spray Option. The Hazen-Williams
equation is an empirical formula for the frictional pressure loss:
6.05 × 10 5 LQ1.85
Pf =
C 1.85 D 4.87
Here, SI units are assumed, and,
Pf is the frictional pressure drop,

Q is the volumetric fluid flow rate,
L is the pipe length,
C is the C-factor (or Hazen-Williams constant) for the pipe.
2.2 Short Pipe

The short pipe is used to model incompressible flow through a rigid pipe. Since the pipe
length is used to determine the calculation time step, the use of a short pipe as a replacement
for an elastic pipe can result in large savings in computational time.
Pressure transients are assumed to travel across a short pipe instantaneously. Consequently,
the short pipe should be used to replace an elastic pipe only if the user wishes to ignore
transient behaviour in the pipe.
A “lumped inertia” model is used to model the fluid in a short pipe. Pressure transients then
travel across the pipe instantaneously, and the momentum equation for fluid flow in a short
pipe may be written as follows.
dQ
=
A
(P1 − P2 ) − 2 f Q Q − Ag sin α
dt ρL AD
where
Q is the flow rate through pipe,

P1 is the inlet pressure,
P2 is the outlet pressure,
A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe,
L is the length of the pipe,
D if the diameter of the pipe,
α is the angle of inclination (relative to the horizontal) of the pipe,
f is the friction factor,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
2.3 Compressible Flow Pipe
A compressible flow pipe is a pipe that initially contains air at the ambient temperature. It is
typically used to simulate the first path of a shock wave caused by a sudden increase in
pressure at the inlet of the pipe. Such a situation occurs when a pipe is attached to a pressure
relief valve, which can open very rapidly.
This situation can be simulated by setting the pressure at the inlet of the compressible flow
pipe to be equal to that at the outlet of the pressure relief valve.
It is often of interest to compute the forces on the pipe due to the shock wave. Note that a
compressible flow pipe can have bends. The flow is assumed to be frictionless, so the forces
on straight parts of the pipe are zero.
The compressible flow pipe differs from all other PIPENET VISION models in a number of
ways:
• The maximum number of compressible flow pipes in a network is one.

• There must be pressure specifications at both ends of the compressible flow pipe.
• The pressure specified at the inlet of the pipe must be greater than the pressure
specified at the outlet.
• It is assumed that there is a step change in the inlet pressure at time t = 0. The inlet
pressure is stepped from (a) the value specified at the outlet at t = 0 to (b) the value
specified the inlet at t = 0. After this step change, the pressure at both the inlet and
outlet are kept constant at those values, irrespective of changes in the pressure
specifications. Therefore, only constant-pressure values should be specified at the

ends of the pipe.
• An analytical solution of the first path of a shock wave is computed.
• The simulation automatically stops when the shock wave reaches the outlet of the
pipe.
As well as the pressure, the temperature must also be specified at the inlet of the pipe. This
specification is carried out using the Properties Page for the compressible flow pipe. Both (a)
the temperature at the outlet of the pipe and (b) the temperature in the pipe at the start of the
simulation are assumed to be the ambient temperature (which can be specified by the user).
2.4 Fittings and Equipment Items
Fittings on pipes (such as bends, tee-pieces, valves and filters) result in an additional
frictional pressure drop across the pipe. Because, in PIPENET VISION, fittings are associated
with individual pipes, it is easy to incorporate a large number of fittings into a network.
In the Standard Option, the frictional pressure drop across a fitting is given by
1
P= kρu 2
2
where
P is the pressure drop,

k is the K-factor for the fitting,
ρ is the density of the fluid,
u is the fluid velocity through the fitting.
2.5 Simple Pump
A simple pump provides an increase in pressure. This pressure increase depends on the
speed and performance curve of the pump. The pump performance curve is entered as a
library.
The pressure increase produced by the pump is given by
P = AQ 2 + BQ + C 2
where
s is the pump setting,

Q is the flowrate through the pump,
A, B and C are pump performance coefficients.
For a particular pump curve (in a pump library), the pump performance coefficients (A, B and
C) can be either entered directly or calculated by PIPENET VISION. The user must also
specify an operating range for flow rates through the pump. It is recommended that the zero
flowrate point be supplied when defining a pump curve.
The valve setting, s, must lie between 0 and 1 inclusive. A setting of s = 0 represents a pump
that is shout down, while a setting of s = 1 represents a pump operating at full speed.
2.6 Turbo Pump
A turbo pump provides an increase in pressure, and can also represent the “spin down” due
to pump failure.
2.6.1 Suter Characteristic Curves

A pair of Suter Characteristic Curves is used to determine the operation of a turbo pump. The
pressure head and torque are expressed as functions of the flow rate and pump speed over
all possible operating conditions. The Suter curves are derived by first non-dimensionalising
the pressure head, flowrate, speed and torque with respect to the rated quantities (i.e., the
values at which the pump is operating at full speed); namely,
H P
h= =
H R PR
Q
ν =
QR
N
α=
NR
T
β=
TR
where
H is the piezometric head across the turbo pump,

P is the pressure increase across the turbo pump,
Q is the flowrate through the turbo pump,
N is the speed of the turbo pump,
T is the applied torque.
The subscript R denotes the rated quantity of the variables; i.e., the values of H, P, Q, N and
T at the point of best efficiency. The head-flowrate and torque-flowrate curves for the turbo
pump are then transformed into Suter characteristic curves of the following forms.
Head curve:
h
W H (x ) =
α 2 +ν 2
Torque curve:
β
WB (x ) =
α 2 +ν 2
in which
ν
x = π + tan −1
α
A typical plot of the Suter curves is shown below.
The figure illustrates typical Suter curves for a radial pump. The regions referred to in the
figure are termed as zones and quadrants. Each quadrant is of length π/2, and the zones are
split at zero head-flowrate and torque-flowrate values. There are eight possible zones: four
occur during normal operation, and four are abnormal zones. During a transient event, a
pump may enter most, if not all, regions, depending on the circumstances.
Similar turbo pumps are characterized by the specific speed, which is defined as
N R QR
NS =
H R3 4
2.6.2 Built-in Turbo Pumps
Three built-in turbo pumps are available, having specific speeds of 25 (Radial), 147 (Mixed)
and 261 (Axial) in SI units. Here, NR is in units of revolutions per minute, QR is in m3/s, and
HR is in metres.
If the pump-specific speed of a user’s pump is different to that of one of the three built-in turbo
pump types, the user should derive the Suter curve data from the head and torque curves.
The Suter curve data (namely, (x, W H(x)) and (x, W B(x))) can be entered in the turbo pump
libraries. Each point on the head-flowrate and torque-flowrate curves is transformed to a point
on the W H(x)-x and WB(x)-x curve respectively, using the previous formulae. A reasonable
number of points (over 30) should be entered, and data should be taken from curves from
many different pump speeds to give an accurate representation of the pump behaviour.
Pressure Head
From the Suter relations, the pressure increase across the turbo pump is given by
P = PR h = PR (α 2 + ν 2 )W H ( x )
Moment of Inertia
The total moment of inertia of the turbo pump and entrained fluid is also required. If this is not
available from the manufacturer, the following equations may be used to provide an estimate
for the moment of inertia.
The pump impeller inertia is given by
0.9556
 P 
7
I P = 1.5 × 10 ×  3 
N 
and the pump motor inertia is
1.48
P
IM = 118 ×  
N
Here, the power coefficient (P/N) is the ratio of the shaft power P (in kilowatts) supplied to the
pump at rated conditions to the rotation speed N (in revolutions per minute). The total moment
of inertia (kilograms per square metre) of the pump is then
I = IP + IM
2.6.3 Pump Failures
The user can specify a trip time at which the turbo pump loses all power, and spins down
through the remainder of the simulation. The specification at the turbo pump information node
is overridden for all times greater than the trip time.
As the turbo pump spins down, a torque is applied to the drive shaft. The equations for turbo
pump spin down are as follows.
dw
T = −I
dt
I = MR 2
w = 2πN
where
I is the moment of inertia of the turbo pump,

M is the total mass of the rotating parts and entrained fluid,
R is the radius of gyration of the rotating mass,
N is the speed of the turbo pump,
w is the angular velocity,
2.7 Valves
Valves are components that have a variable resistance to flow, causing a pressure drop
across the component. A wide range of valves is available in PIPENET VISION, including the
following.
• Operating Valves
• Non-return Valves
• Check Valves
• Fluid Damped Check Valves
• Liquid Surge Relief Valves
• Regulator Valves
• Inertial Check Valves

As fluid flows through a valve, the pressure drop across the valve depends on a number of
factors, including the flowrate through the valve, the valve characteristic, the valve setting and
the physical properties of the valve.
In PIPENET VISION, the valve setting is represented by a number s, which varies between
zero (for a fully closed valve) and one (for a fully open valve). For example,
s = 0: the valve is fully closed,

s = 0.25: the valve is quarter open,
s = 0.667: the valve is two-thirds open,
s = 1: the valve is fully open.
Depending on the type of valve, the setting may be specified by the user, set by a control
system or internally calculated (based on the flow conditions and the physical properties of
the valve).
2.7.1 Valve Characteristics

Valve characteristics can be defined in terms of either the K-factor or flow coefficient.
K-Factor Valve
The pressure drop across an open valve is given by
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
where
P1 is the pressure at the inlet of the valve,

P2 is the pressure at the outlet of the valve,
Q is the flow rate,
k (s) is the k-factor,
s is the valve setting,
A is the valve port area,
The value k(s) is the K-factor of the valve, and represents the resistance to flow. The valve
characteristic is the curve of k against s, and can be either user-defined or chosen from one
of the built-in types.
Flow Coefficient Valve
The pressure drop across an open valve is given by

ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
in which
Cv(s) is the Cv value for the valve,

ρ0 is the density of water at standard conditions (i.e., 1000 kg/m3).
The value function Cv represents the flow coefficient of the valve, and indicates the valve’s
capacity for flow. The valve characteristic is the curve of Cv against s, and can be either user-
defined or chosen from one of the built-in types.
Typical forms of the two curves are shown below.
2.7.2 Defining a Library Valve Characteristics

The user can define a valve characteristic curve by entering a series of data points (all of
which lie on the curve) in a valve library. The characteristic curve can be defined for valves of
type K-factor or Cv. Valve characteristics can be entered and saved in a library file. The valve
characteristic can then be selected in the valve dialog box.
2.7.3 Built-in Valve Characteristics

Three built-in valve characteristics are available to the user, and these can be chosen from
the valve dialog box as either K-factor or Cv valve.
Linear Opening Valve

The flow through the valve is proportional to the valve setting. For example, at a valve setting
of 0.8, the flow rate through the valve is 80% of the maximum flow.
Equal Percentage Opening Valve

With this type of valve, equal increments of valve plug travel produce equal percentage
increases in the existing flow. Changes in flowrate are small at smaller values of s, but
gradually increase as the valve opens.
Quick Opening Valve

Maximum changes in the flow rate occur at smaller values of s. As the valve setting
increases, the changes in flowrate drastically reduce.
2.8 Operating Valve
Operating valves are general-purpose valves whose setting is specified by the user at an
information node.
Valve Equation
If the valve is open (i.e., s ≥ 0), the governing equation of a K-factor valve in SI units is
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
If the valve is open, the equation of the flow coefficient (Cv) valve is
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
If the valve is fully closed (i.e., s = 0), the valve equation is
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is
Q1 = Q2
The following variables are used in the above equations.

Q1 is the inlet flow rate,
Q2 is the outlet flow rate,
s is the specified valve setting,
A is the cross-sectional area of the fully-open valve,
ρ0 is the density of water at standard conditions.
2.9 Non-return Valve
Non-return valves allow unrestricted flow of fluid in a positive direction, and prevent all flow in
the reverse direction. Positive flow is flow that is directed from the input node of the valve to
the output node. In this case, there is no pressure drop across the component.
When positioning a non-return valve, the user should be careful to ensure that no portion of
the network becomes isolated. If a portion were to be isolated, the error message “network
cannot be solved" would be displayed.
Note that this message can be displayed even when the valve is open: Occasionally, a non-
zero leakage flow may be registered through a closed valve. This situation can arise when
rounding errors in the calculation are smaller than the requested convergence accuracy.
Valve Equation
If the valve is open (i.e., s >= 0), the governing equation is
P1 = P2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

Q2 is the outlet flow rate.
2.10 Check valve
A check valve is a swing-gate type of non-return valve. The valve does not close
instantaneously; the time taken for it to close depends on (a) the flow and pressure near the
valve and (b) the physical characteristics of the valve.
Modelling Equations
The physical characteristics of the check valve are determined by (a) the pressure and
flowrate triggers, (b) the reference setting of the valve and (c) the close/open time of the
valve. The pressure trigger, Pt, is the pressure difference that is required to keep the valve at
its reference setting. Similarly, the flow-rate trigger, Qt, is the flow rate required to keep the
valve at its reference setting. The close/open time is a typical response time for the valve
clapper to move from closed to fully open. Note that the calculation may fail if the close/open
time is very small. This problem can usually be overcome by reducing the calculation time
step, or by using a variable time step (via Options | Module options).
Valve Equation
If the valve is open (i.e., s >= 0), the governing equation of a K-factor valve in SI units is
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

Valve Setting
The actual setting of the check valve is given by
ds
τ +s=s
dt
where
P1 − P
s = sr
Pr
in which
s is the setting of the ideal check valve,

sr is the reference setting,
Pr is the reference trigger pressure,
τ is the close/open time,
t is the time,
s is the actual setting.
2.11 Fluid Damped Check Valve
A fluid damped check valve is a type of check valve, and contains of a translating disk and a
plug. The valve setting is determined by hydrodynamic forces acting on the valve plug and
damping disk, as well as the elastic damping of the spring that is situated behind the damping
disk.
Valve Equation
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

The forces due to the weight of the plug, the spring and the hydrodynamic forces govern the
motion of the check valve plug. The force due to friction is considered negligible.
Motion of the Check Valve

Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion to the check valve results in
d 2x
M 2 = Mg sin θ − sk x + FH
dt
in which the three terms on the right-hand side represent gravity, spring factor and
hydrodynamic force, and
M is the total mass of the valve plug and disk,

Sk is the spring constant,
x is the displacement,
FH is the total hydrodynamic force on the valve plug and damping disk,
θ is the inclination of the valve from the horizontal.
2.12 Liquid Surge Relief Valve
Liquid surge relief valves are used to relieve pressure surges. The relief valve consists of a
valve plug that is situated in front of a spring or equivalent device. When the pressure on the
plug exceeds a specified set pressure, the valve begins to open. The valve becomes fully
open when the pressure on the plug is equal to a specified wide-open pressure.
Valve Equation
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

Valve Operation
The valve remains closed until the inlet pressure is equal to the set pressure, PS. While the
valve is opening, and while the pressure in the valve lies between the set pressure, PS, and
the wide-open pressure, PW, the valve setting is given by
P1 − PS
s=
PW − PS
If the inlet pressure is greater than the wide-open pressure, the valve is fully open.
If hysterisis is enabled (via the properties page for the valve), the valve is fully open for
pressures above Pw and just below Pw. As the pressure falls, the downward branch of the
hysteresis loop is traced, until the pressure reaches Pc, below which the valve is closed. The
following figure depicts the setting of the valve as a function of the inlet pressure.
Note that if a .DAT file from PIPENET Version 4.10 or earlier is loaded, the fully closed
pressure, PC, is set to be equal to PS by default. Although this value of PC results in
consistency with earlier versions, it is not recommended, since it indicates that there is no
hysterisis, and possibly leads to high frequency state switching.
2.13 Regulator Valve
The regulator valve is used to regulate the pressure in a network. It behaves like a pressure
control valve that has an instantaneous response. The valve position is calculated so that a
specified pressure is maintained either upstream or downstream of the valve.
Valve Equation
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

The order of regulator dynamics
Zeroth order: The equation for instant response (i.e., a zeroth-order setting) is
s=s
in which s is the actual valve setting and
P − Ps 0
s=
Ps1 − Ps 0
where P is either P1 (for upstream) or P2 (for downstream), and
Ps 0 is the pressure when the valve is fully closed,

Ps1 is the pressure when the valve is fully open.
First order: The equation for a first-order setting is
ds
τ +s=s
dt
where
τ is the time constant,

t is the time variable.
Second order: The equation for a second-order setting is
d 2s
2 ds
τ + 2 r τ +s=s
dt 2 dt
where
τ is the time constant,

r is the damping ratio.
Note
If time constant is zero, the first-order and second-order equations reduce to the zeroth-order
equation, and so model instant response.
2.14 Inertial Check Valve
An inertial check valve is a swing-type check valve, in which the valve door is hinged at the
top. The setting for this valve is determined by the pressure and flow in the vicinity of the
valve.
Modelling Equation
The motion of the valve door is governed by the inertia of the valve door and the torque acting
on the valve door.
Valve Equation
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

Torque Equation
The torque equation for the valve is
n
 dθ 
2
2 d θ
mr + k   + TW + TS + Th = 0
dt 2  dt 
where
θ is the angle of the valve door,

m is the mass of the valve door,
r is the radius of the valve door,
k is the damping coefficient (for which the unit is (Unit of Torque/(rad/s)n); i.e., the unit
given in the component properties is correct for the default case of n = 1, but has to
be adjusted for other values of n),
n is the exponent of the angular velocity term,
Tw is the torque due to the weight of the door,
Ts is the torque due to the spring,
Th is the torque due to the hydrodynamic forces.
2.15 Bursting disc
The bursting disc (or rupture disc) is used to protect a system from damage due to high
pressures. During a simulation, if the rupture pressure of the bursting disc is reached, the disc
opens in the rupture time specified by the user. The disc will not close again during the
simulation. The flow coefficient, Cv, or K-factor is representative of the size of the rupture disc
and the frictional losses within it.
Valve Equation
1
kρQ Q = s 2 A2 (P1 − P2 )
2
ρQ Q
P1 − P2 =
ρ 0CV2
Q1 = 0
Continuity Equation
Q1 = Q2

Modelling Equations
During the simulation, the time, t0, at which the condition
P1 − P2 ≥ Prup
is first satisfied is recorded. This is the time at which the rupture process commences. Before
the simulation time reaches t0 (i.e., t < t0), the conditions that apply are
s = 0, Q = 0
At this stage, the disc is still fully closed, implying that
P1 − P2 < Prup
For times t > t0, the disc is either partially or totally ruptured. After a time of t0, it is assumed
that the rupture process is linear until a time of t0 + trup, where trup is the time taken for the disc
to rupture. In this case, the valve setting is given by
s = (t − t0 ) / t rup
For times above t0 + trup, the disc is completely ruptured, and the setting is given by
s =1
Note that a rupture time (trup) of zero corresponds to instant bursting.
The rupturing process can be summarised as follows.

(1) If t ≤ t0 , s = 0, Q = 0.
(2) If t < t < t0 + t rup , s = (t − t0 ) / t rup → Partially burst , use [ A] below.
(3) If t ≥ t0 + t rup , s = 1 → Fully burst , use [ B] below.
The pressure-drop models for [A] and [B] are defined as follows.
In the above equations,
P1 is the inlet pressure;

P2 is the outlet pressure, which is specified by the user. If this is the case (normally, it
is set to zero Bar G, which is equivalent to atmospheric pressure) then the outflow
rate Q2 is calculated accordingly;
Prup is the rupture pressure, which is a pressure difference;
Q1 is the inlet flowrate;
Q2 is the outlet flowrate. If this value is specified (by the user), the outlet pressure P2 is
calculated accordingly;
s is the disc nominal setting;
t is the real time;
t0 is the time at which the rupture begins; i.e., the first time at which (P1 - P2) >= Prup;
trup is the rupture time, ranging between 0.1 ms and 10 ms. A zero rupture time may
also be used, corresponding to an instant bursting;
A is the disc open area;
ρ is the density of the fluid;
ρ0 is the density of the water at standard conditions.
Note that flow-rate specifications must be used with care, as inappropriate specifications may
lead to infeasible problems or unrealistic solutions.
2.16 Accumulator
An accumulator is used to prevent pressure surges in a system. It consists of a sealed

cylindrical vessel, and is connected to the network at one point. The trapped air in the
accumulator provides a cushioning effect, thereby reducing pressure surges. Accumulators
are generally cheap, reliable, and easy to maintain.
The sizing of an accumulator is crucial, as incorrectly sized accumulators can actually lead to
increased pressure surges in other parts of a network.
Modelling Equations
The equation that governs the air volume in an accumulator is
1.4
PcVc =η
where η is a constant. The pressure head is given by
P = Pc + ρgz
The rate of change of air volume is
dVc
= −Q
dt
The air volume is
Vc = A( h − z )
Pc is the air pressure,

Vc is the air volume,
Q is the volumetric flowrate into the accumulator,
P is the accumulator inlet pressure,

z is the fluid height,
A is the cross-sectional area of the accumulator,
h is the total height of the accumulator,
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
If an accumulator drains completely during a simulation, the simulation is automatically halted.
2.17 Surge Tank
A surge tank can be used to reduce severe pressure surges. It contains of an open-ended
tank, in which the fluid level can rise or fall as pressure surges occur near the inlet of the tank.
Modelling Equations
The momentum equation is
zρ dQ1 2 fρzQ1 Q1
P1 − P0 = ρgz + + 2
As dt Ds As
The rate of change of fluid height is given by
dz
As = Q1 + Q2
dt
where

P0 is the ambient air pressure,
Q1 is the inlet flowrate,
z is the height of the fluid surface,
AS is the cross-sectional area,
DS is the diameter,
t is the time.
If a surge tank drains or overflows during a simulation, the simulation is automatically

stopped.
2.18 Receiving Vessel
A receiving vessel is used to receive and store fluid from a network. It is an atmospheric tank,
and is similar to a surge tank. The only difference between a surge tank and a receiving
vessel is that overflow is allowed in a receiving vessel.
Modelling Equations

zρ dQ1 2 fρzQ1 Q1
P1 − P0 = ρgz + + 2
As dt Ds As
The height of fluid in the receiving vessel is given by the following equations.
Case 1: z < H
dz
As = Q1
dt
Case 2: z ≥ H
z=H
The overflow rate is given by
Case 1: z < H
Q2 = 0
Case 2: z ≥ H
Q1 = Q2
Here,
P0 is the ambient air pressure,
Q1 is the inlet flowrate,
Q2 is the overflow rate,
DS is the diameter,

t is the time.
2.19 Simple Tank
A simple tank can be used to reduce severe pressure surges. It is similar to a surge tank, but
flow is permitted into the top of a simple tank, either by means of a flow-rate specification or
using a connection to the pipe network.
Modelling Equations
zρ d (Q1 + Q2 ) 2 fρz (Q1 + Q2 ) Q1 + Q2

P1 − P0 = ρgz + + 2
As dt Ds As
The rate of change of fluid height is given by
dz
As = Q1 + Q2
dt
Here,

P0 is the tank air pressure,
DS is the diameter,
If a simple tank drains or overflows during a simulation, the simulation is automatically

stopped.
2.20 Vacuum Breaker
Vacuum breakers are particularly effective in alleviating pressure surges due to cavitation
(sometimes called column separation). If the pressure in a system falls below the fluid vapour
pressure (as can occur in higher areas of pipework, owing to static head differences), the fluid
becomes a gas and a cavity of air forms in the system. If such a cavity collapses very large
pressure surges occur when fluid on either side of the cavity meet.
Vacuum breakers help to eliminate cavitation by sucking air at atmospheric pressure into the
network when pressures become too low. The air is expelled to the atmosphere when the
system pressure starts to rise again.
Modelling Equations
The vacuum breaker sucks air into the system if the fluid pressure is less than the ambient air
pressure. If the fluid pressure rises above the ambient air pressure, and there is air in the
system, then this air is expelled to the atmosphere.
It is convenient to write
P
s=
P0
where
P is the absolute fluid pressure,

P0 is the absolute ambient air pressure.
If s < 0.528,
dm 0.686
= Ai Ci P0
dt RTa
If 0.528 ≤ s < 1,
dm 7
= Ai Ci P0 s1.4286 − s1.714
dt RT0
If 1 ≤ s < 1.894,
dm
dt
= − AoCo P0
7
RT0
(
s s −1.4286 − s −1.714 )
If s ≥ 1.894,
dm 0.686
= − AoCo P0
dt RT0
where
m is the mass of air in the system,

Ai is the area of the inlet valve,
Ci is the coefficient of discharge of the inlet valve,
Ao is the area of the outlet valve,
Co is the coefficient of discharge of the outlet valve,
Ta is the absolute ambient air temperature,
T is the absolute fluid temperature,
R is the gas constant.
Linear extrapolation is used for values of s that lie outside of this range.
2.21 Caisson
This is model is essential for the surge analysis of offshore firewater systems. In PIPENET
VISION terminology, a caisson is a pipe that is partly or completely empty and which has an
air-release valve. This component can be used for modelling items such as riser pipes in
offshore platforms, borehole pump priming, etc. In the first example of this part of the training
manual, a two-node caisson is used to model the priming of riser pipes in offshore firewater
systems.
The two-node caisson has two flow nodes, and so allows flow out of the system. Also, it has
a built-in non-return valve at the top. For this reason, once the caisson is fully primed, it
remains full of water until the end of the simulation.
The single node caisson is a simpler model, which only allows water to enter the system from
the input node. When the caisson is fully primed, the simulation will stop.
2.22 One-node Caisson
A caisson is a pipe that is sealed at one end, and has an air inlet/outlet valve. The caisson is
used to model dry pipes that can fill or drain during a simulation.
.
At the beginning of a simulation, there is an initial depth of fluid in the caisson, and this depth
is measured along the length of the caisson from its inlet.
If, during a simulation, the fluid depth rises to the critical fluid depth then the simulation is
automatically halted. The simulation can be continued, but with the caisson replaced by a
pipe.
Modelling Equations
The fluid is the caisson is governed by the following equation.
dQ A(P1 − P2 ) 2 fQ Q
= − − Ag sin α
dt ρz AD
The equation for the air is the caisson is
Mc
P2 = RT
Vc
The rate of change of air volume is given by
dVc
= −Q
dt
The volume of air in the caisson is given by
Vc = A(h − z )
Here,

P2 is the air pressure,
Q is the flowrate into the caisson,
Vc is the air volume,
Mc is the mass of air,

T is the air temperature,
R is the gas constant,
h is the height of the caisson,
A is the cross-sectional area of the caisson,
D is the diameter of the caisson,
α is the angle of inclination of the caisson from the horizontal,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
The operation of the air inlet/outlet valve must be set via a specification on the information
node for the caisson. The inflow or outflow of air (through the inlet/outlet valve of a caisson) is
modelled in the same way as for a vacuum breaker.
2.23 Two-node Caisson - Type 1
The two-node caisson differs from the one-node caisson in that the output node in the former
may be connected to other flow nodes in a network. The two-node caisson also has the
following features.
(1) When it is full, the two-node caisson functions as a short pipe.

(2) There is a built-in non-return valve at the outlet of the caisson.
The two-node type-1 caisson is similar to the two-node type-2 caisson, which is described in
the next section. The main difference between the two types is that the type-1 caisson is
modelled as a short pipe when it becomes full.
2.24 Two-node Caisson - Type 2
A two-node caisson type 2 is a pipe with a built-in air inlet/outlet valve. It is different from the
earlier two-node caisson model in that:
(1) The operation of the valve of the type-2 caisson is determined automatically, and is not
specified by the user. This valve is opened or closed according to the pressure
difference between the air pressure, P0, inside the caisson and the ambient pressure, Pa,
outside the caisson, as well as the level of fluid inside the caisson.
(2) When the type-2 caisson is completely filled, it is modelled as being a rigorous pipe,
instead of a short pipe (as is the case with a type-1 caisson). This model provides a great
deal of flexibility, as it can be used to model dry pipes that can fill or drain during a
simulation.
User input parameters
• Length: the length/height of the caisson.

• Diameter: the diameter of the caisson.

• Elevation: the elevation of the caisson.
• Roughness or C-factor: the caisson roughness in the standard.
• Initial Fluid Depth: the initial depth of fluid in the caisson, measured along the length of
the caisson.
• Valve diameter: the diameter of the air inlet/outlet valve of the caisson.
• Valve coefficient of discharge: the coefficient of discharge of the air inlet/outlet valve of
the caisson.
• Beta factor: a factor for the air inlet/outlet valve, representing the sensitivity of the valve
position to the pressure of air inside the caisson. The default value of this parameter is
one.
Modelling equations
(A) When z < h or when z = h (P0 < Pa)
1. Fluid in caisson:
dQ1 A(P1 − P0 ) 2 fQ1 Q1

= − − Ag sin α
dt ρz AD
2. Air in the caisson:
M0
P0 = RT
V0
3. Rate of change of air volume:
dV0
= −Q1
dt
4. Volume of air:
V0 = A(h − z )
5. Caisson air inlet/outlet opening equation:
 B(P0 − Pa )2 
s = 1 − exp − 2 
 P a 
6. Rate of change of the air mass:
dM 0
= SY (P0 , Pa )
dt
7. Flow rate:
Q1 = 0
(B) When z = h (P0 ≥ Pa)
1. Momentum equation:
dQ A ∂P 2 fQ Q
= − − Ag sin α
dt ρ ∂x AD
2. Continuity equation:
u ∂ρA 1 ∂ρA ∂u
+ + =0
ρA ∂x ρA ∂t ∂x
3. Pressure of the air:
P0 = P2
4. Mass of the air:
M0 = 0
5. Volume of the air:
V0 = 0
6. The height of the fluid surface:
z=h
7. Position of the air inlet/outlet valve:
s=0
The variables that are used in the above equations are as follows.
P is the pressure at a distance x along the caisson (as measured from the inlet) at a
time t,
P0 is the pressure of the air inside the caisson,
Pa is the ambient pressure of the air inlet/outlet valve,
Q is the flowrate at a distance x from the caisson inlet,
u is the fluid velocity at a distance x from the caisson inlet,
Y(P0, Pa) is a well-defined function for the air flow through the valve (please refer to a
vacuum breaker),
s is the position of air inlet/outlet valve (s=0 for fully closed, and s=1 for fully open),
B is a factor in the governing function for the position s of the air inlet/outlet valve, with
a default value of 1 (A value of 0 renders the valve fully closed throughout the
simulation, and a very much larger value renders it fully open. The larger the value
of B, the more sensitive the valve is to the air pressure inside the caisson),
M0 is the mass of the air inside the caisson,
V0 is the volume of the air inside the caisson,
R is the universal gas constant,
T is the air temperature,
h is the height/length of the caisson,
A is the cross-sectional area of the caisson,
D is the diameter of the caisson,
α is the angle of inclination of the caisson from the horizontal,
g is the acceleration due to the gravity,
Implementation notes
1. If, during the simulation, both the height, z, of the fluid and the inlet flow rate, Q1,
drop to or below their respective negative tolerance values, the simulation will stop.
2. If, during the simulation, the height, z, of the fluid reaches the height, h, of the
caisson and the inner air pressure, P0, is greater than or equal to the ambient
pressure, Pa, the caisson will be modelled as a regular (rigorous) pipe.
3. The model for calculating the air inflow or outflow (discharge) at the air inlet/outlet
valve of the caisson is the same model that is used in the vacuum beaker.
4. When a user-defined time step renders the caisson to be a short pipe, the short pipe
model is used instead.
2.25 Control Systems
Control systems can be used in a network to allow components such as valves or pumps to
react to changes in the pressure at a node or the flow rate between two nodes. For example,
an operating valve can be converted into a pressure-control valve that opens wider as its inlet
pressure rises.
A typical control system is illustrated below.
The sensor components in the Transient Module provide instantaneous readings for pressure
or flowrate. However, in reality physical sensors have their own dynamics, and it can take
time for their output signal to react to changes in the input signal.
The transfer-function component allows these dynamic effects to be modelled by the

Transient Module. The transfer function can also be used to model the dynamics of a
controlled device (such as, for example, a valve or pump).
A PID controller is used to convert an input signal from a sensor into a control signal for a
device that is to be controlled.
A switch can be used to examine the flowrate or pressure at a designated point in the
network.
2.26 Sensors
Sensors are used for taking a pressure, pressure-difference or flow-rate reading for a control
system. Pressure is measured at a particular node, whereas pressure difference and flow rate
are measured between two specified nodes. Sensors are connected to PID controllers, either
directly or via transfer functions.
Modelling Equations
In a pressure-difference sensor, the output signal (i.e., pressure difference), ∆P, is given by
∆P = P1 − P2
where

P2 is the outlet pressure.
2.27 Transfer Function
This component is used for modelling the dynamics of instruments and other operating items,
where a detailed model may be unnecessary or too complicated. A typical case is a pressure
transducer, which may be slow acting, in which case the output signal may have to be
adjusted using a first-order transfer function. Another case is a control valve, which does not
normally act instantaneously, and so the dynamics of how it responds to an input signal may
be represented by a transfer function. Transfer functions can be of zeroth, first or second
order.
Modelling Equations
Zeroth Order:
y = Gx
where
x(t) is the input signal,

y(t) is the output signal,
G is the gain, which represents the amplification of the signal.
First Order:
dy
τ + y = Gx
dt
where
τ is the time constant, which represents the time delay for the device to react to
changes in its input.
Second Order:
d2y
2 dy
τ + 2 r τ + y = Gx
dt 2 dt
where
r is the damping ratio, which represents the damping effect of the transfer function on
the input signal.
2.28 PID Controller
The PID Controller takes an input signal, y, from a sensor, and converts it into a control
signal, u, for the device that is to be controlled. The three types of controller are as follows.
• P – proportional,
• I – integral,
• D – differential.
The three types can be used either in isolation or in combination, giving a wide range of
controller behaviour in the PIPENET VISION Transient Module.
The controller uses a set point, (ys, us), to determine its steady-state behaviour. When the
controller is supplied with a constant input signal, ys, it produces a constant output signal, us.
If the input signal is changed, the output signal of the controller is also modified, based on the
error, e, where
e = y − ys
Note that the output signal, u, lies in the range [0, 1], except in the case of controllers that
contain an integral (I) term, but without the anti-windup option. Generally, control systems
eventually settle down and the error, e, approaches a final value, called the offset. Controllers
are usually judged on how quickly they settle down, and on the size of the offset.
P-Controllers are usually the cheapest, but tend to produce a non-zero offset.
I-Controllers tend to eliminate the offset, but can introduce oscillations before the signal
settles down. Anti-windup I-controllers stop integrating when the controller output reaches its
limits. This action reduces the oscillations, particularly during start-up, or in situations where
large changes occur.
D-Controllers damp the oscillations, causing the signal to settle down more quickly. However,
too large a D-term should be avoided, as it makes the controller very sensitive to
measurement noise, and may result in excessively high-frequency controller action.
Modelling Equations
P : u (t ) = u s + Ke(t )
t
K
I : u (t ) = u s + ∫ e(φ )dφ
TI 0
de
D : u (t ) = us + KTD
dt
 1
t

PI : u (t ) = u s + K  e(t ) + ∫ e(φ ) dφ 

 TI 0 
 de 
PD : u (t ) = u s + K  e(t ) + TD 
 dt 
1 t de 
ID : u (t ) = u s + K  ∫ e(φ )dφ + TD 
 TI 0 dt 
 1
t
de 
PID : u (t ) = u s + K  e(t ) + ∫ e(φ )dφ + TD 
 TI 0 dt 
where
K is the gain,
TI is the reset time,
TD is the rate time,
u is the output,
us is the output set-point,
y is the input,
ys is the input set-point (also called the reference signal),
e is the error, defined as y - ys.
The integral term can be treated as an anti-windup integral term by selecting the appropriate
option (which is the default behaviour) in the Transient Module. In this case, the integral term
is frozen as soon as the controller output, u, hits its limits. In mathematical terms, e(t) is
replaced by 0 whenever u is zero or one, and is switched back to e(t) as soon as u returns to
the interval (0,1). Note that the range of the controller output is [0, 1].
Notes
1. Usually, a negative gain must be chosen to obtain negative feedback (which is stable
feedback).
2. Setting TD to a value greater than TI/4 results in an oscillatory behaviour of the

controller.
3. The output signal, u, is limited to the range [0, 1], except in the case of controllers with
an integral (I) term, but without the anti-windup option.
4. The differential term is bandwidth limited, ω = 100/TD.
2.29 Switch
A switch is used to examine the flowrate or pressure at a designated point in a network, and
compare it with the desired parameter, to decide upon the operation (e.g., start-up or trip) of
certain equipment (valve, pump, etc.).
Sensor Pressure sensor or flowrate sensor.

Switch Setting pressure, pressure difference or flowrate,
operation direction (+/-), hysterisis parameter and
dead time.
Transfer function
Equipment Valve, pump etc.
Flow Switch Scenario
This scenario simulates the start-up of a group of three pumps. Pump A starts up first; pump
B starts up when the flow rate exceeds 3000 lit/min, then stops when the flow rate becomes
less than 2500 lit/min (so pump B has 500 lit/min hysterisis); pump C starts up when the
measured flow rate is above 6000 lit/min, and stops when the measured flow rate is less than
5500 lit/min.
Pressure Switch Scenario
This scenario simulates the action of an unloading valve. Valve 1 is opened when the system
pressure is higher than the setting value (of 12 bar g) to protect the network from over-
pressure. The hysterisis of the valve is 2 bar g.
Input and Output
The type of a switch is either pressure, pressure difference, flow rate or timer. The input for
the first three types is pressure, pressure difference and flow rate respectively (and they
connect only to transfer-function sensors).
The output value for a switch is either zero (for turning the switch off) or one (for turning it on).
Notes
1. When the flow direction is taken into account, the setting value can be either
positive, negative or zero. For example, if the switch settings are such that the
switch is on above -8000 lit/min and off below -10000 lit/min, the switch should be
on when the flow rate is -7000 lit/min and off when the flow rate is -12000 lit/min.
2. When the direction of flow is ignored, the setting values must be positive.
3. For a pressure switch, the setting values indicate the absolute pressure.
3. Wave Speed
The wave speed in a pipe is the speed at which pressure surges are propagated along the
pipe. The speed of the wave depends on a number of factors, including the material and
diameter of the pipe, and the bulk modulus of the fluid. The wave speed in a pipe can be
automatically calculated in the Transient Module, provided that the user supplies the pipe
schedule and the fluid bulk modulus. If this information is unavailable, a default wavespeed
can be specified.
The wave speed for each pipe in the network is listed in the output report file, along with the
rest of the pipe data.
The wave speed, a, is calculated using
K/ρ
a=
KDc1
1+
Eξ
where
K is the fluid bulk modulus,

E is the Young's Modulus value for the pipe material,
ξ is the pipe wall thickness,
c1 is the pipe distensibility (or restraint factor).
The pipe distensibility, which is calculated by assuming that the pipe is anchored at both ends
against longitudinal movement, is given by
c1 =
(
2t (1 + µ ) D 1 − µ 2
+
)
D D+t
where µ is the Poisson ratio for the pipe material.
4. Time Step
The time step is one of the most important parts of this chapter of the Training Manual.
The first thing to emphasise is that the equations in the Transient Module are very complex
and difficult to solve. The pipe-flow equations are partial differential equations of hyperbolic
type, in which any rapid changes are difficult to deal with. The reason being that any rapid
change automatically travels through the whole system at the wave speed in the pipes.
Sometimes, a piping system has both rapidly changing and slow changing phenomena
together, and such systems are particularly difficult to solve. The time step used for the
calculation is at the heart of the numerical technique of PIPENET VISION. For this reason,
the way that the time step is handled in PIPENET VISION is discussed in detail.
For a single pipe, the maximum time step is the time taken for the pressure wave to move
from one end of the pipe to the other. If, in a network, it is assumed that the wave speed is
the same for all pipes, then the maximum time step is the time taken for the pressure wave to
travel from one end to the other of the shortest pipe in the network. Although the wave speed
typically varies from pipe to pipe, this variation is normally relatively small. Therefore, it is
generally the shortest pipe in the system that governs the value of the time step. This time
step is called the time step for numerical stability, and is calculated by PIPENET VISION.
4.1 How the Time Step for Calculation is Determined
As mentioned in the above section, the time step in PIPENET VISION is calculated for
numerical-stability purposes.
In the Transient Module, there are also time steps that are specified by the user:
1. The time step for tabular output (which is mandatory).
2. The time step for graphical output (which is optional, depending on whether a
graphical results file is required).
3. The time step for forces output (which is optional, depending on whether a forces
results file is required).
The above time steps are input by the user in the dialog box shown below, which is displayed
via Calculation | Options… | Output. Graphical output and forces output can be requested
by ticking the appropriate boxes. The other items in the dialog box are discussed later in this
document.
The maximum value of the time step that is used in PIPENET VISION is taken to be the
minimum of (a) the time step for numerical stability and (b) the minimum of the above three
user-defined time steps.
The final calculation time step, ∆t, is chosen so that the time step for tabular output is an
integral multiple of ∆t, by making an adjustment to the maximum calculation time step.
4.2 Pipe Lengths and Time Steps
Consider the following two cases.

In the first case, there is one pipe, of length 10 km. If the wave speed is 1000 m/sec, it takes
10 seconds for the pressure wave to travel from one end of this pipe to the other. Therefore,
the maximum time step allowed is 10 seconds. For reasons of accuracy, one might wish to
take smaller steps, but 10 seconds is the upper limit.
In the second case, there are two pipes: a 10m pipe followed by a 10 km pipe. If the wave
speed for both pipes is 1000 m/sec, the maximum time step for numerical stability is 0.01
seconds. Furthermore, the longer pipe has to be divided into 1000 grid cells. The amount of
computation required in PIPENET VISION could, therefore, be around a million times more
(as the time step is 1000 times shorter and the number of grid cells is 1000 times greater).
Ironically, the presence of the shorter pipe makes little difference to the transient behaviour of
the system. There are some situations where short pipes can be omitted without making a
significant difference to the results; however, there are also situations where short pipes
cannot be omitted without making a significant difference to the results.
In order to deal with this problem in PIPENET VISION, there is the option of a simplified
model called a “short pipe”. The model for this pipe is less rigorous, and has no influence on
the time step. The dialog box for the short pipe is shown below.
For comparison, the dialog box for a rigorous pipe is as follows.

4.3 User Defined Time Step
In PIPENET VISION Transient module, the user is allowed to override the value of the
calculation time step that is determined by the method described above. The user may wish
to do this if he is not satisfied with the calculation time step determined by PIPENET VISION.
4.3.1 Reducing the Calculation Time Step
If the system consists of only long pipes, the time step for the calculation may be very large,
and so might lead to a greater inaccuracy in the results. It may, therefore, be necessary to
reduce the time step in order to achieve greater accuracy.
4.3.2 Increasing the Calculation Time Step
If the system consists of a mixture of long pipes and short pipes, and if all of the pipes have
been input as rigorous pipes, the time step determined by PIPENET VISION may be very
small. This value might result in an unnecessarily long time for the calculation. If the user
chooses to increase the time step, pipes will automatically de divided into short-pipe models
and rigorous-pipe models. In this case, any pipe for which the time step (i.e., the length of the
pipe divided by the wave speed) is less than the user-defined time step is modelled using the
short-pipe model.
The dialog box for defining the user-defined time step appears under Options | Transient
Options, and is shown below.
5. Flow Nodes and Information Nodes
Flow nodes and information nodes are used in the PIPENET VISION Transient Module.
Flow nodes represent nodes in the system through which there is physical flow. At such
nodes, there is equality of pressure and mass balance of flow. Typically, flow nodes are
defined under the following circumstances.
• A point at which there is a tee, where flow divides or combines.

• An input or output to the network.
• A point at which two different types of item meet; for example, a pipe and a valve.
• A run of pipe in which the diameter changes; for example, owing to the presence of a
reducer or an expander.
Information nodes, on the other hand, represent nodes at which information (usually of
dimensionless type) needs to be supplied. Typical examples are the valve position and pump
speed. The required information at such a node may be supplied by an information
specification by the user, or it may be connected to another information node (such as the
output of a controller or a transfer function).
6. Forces
A powerful feature of the Transient Module is its ability to calculate the hydraulic forces acting
on specific parts of the network. It is also possible to compute dynamic forces.
6.1 Control Volumes and Surfaces
When a force calculation is to be performed, information about the local geometry of the
network is required, and is supplied by defining a control volume that encloses the part of the
network where the force is to be calculated. A control volume can enclose any number of
network elements, and can have an external force, Fe, associated with it. The control surfaces
are the surfaces through which fluid flows, and are defined by the normal vector, n. An
example of a control volume about an elbow fitting is shown below.
The force, F, on the volume, V, containing incompressible fluid is given by
F = Fe − ρ ∫ uudA − ∫ PdA
where
u is the fluid velocity,

P is the pressure in the fluid,
Fe is the external force acting on the volume.
As the flow out of a control volume is restricted to a finite number of well-defined areas, A (the
control surfaces), having outward normals n and outward volumetric flow rates Q, this
equation can be rewritten as
d
F = Fe − ∑ ( ρuQ + PA) ⋅ n −
dt ∫
ρ udV
This formula is used in the Transient Module to determine the force acting on each control
volume in the system.
6.2 Specifying Control Surfaces
There are two different mechanisms in the Transient Module for defining a control surface.
6.2.1 Force Along a Pipe
This approach is used if the force is parallel to a length of pipe. The following information is
required to specify the control surfaces:
1. The pipe under consideration.

2. The distance along the pipe where the control volume starts.
3. The distance along the pipe where the control volume ends.
Note that there is only one component of the force for the simple straight pipe. Therefore,
1. A positive force is in the same direction as the orientation of the pipe.

2. A negative force is in the opposite direction to the orientation of the pipe.
6.2.2 Force on a Group of Components
In this case, the resulting force is a vector that has components in three directions. The
following information is required to specify the control surfaces for a control surface
intercepting a pipe:
1. The pipe under consideration.

2. The distance along the pipe from the inlet of the pipe.
4. The normal vector (pointing out of the control volume).
5. The direction of the normal relative to the pipe orientation - direction (flow) tag or
sense (+1, if the normal points from the pipe inlet to the pipe outlet; -1, otherwise).
The following information is required to specify the control surfaces for a control surface that
passes through a node:
1. The component (type and label) at the node that is contained in the control volume.
2. The node label.
3. The area.
4. The normal vector (pointing out of the control volume).
5. The direction of the normal relative to the component orientation - direction (flow)
tag or sense (+1, if the normal points from the pipe inlet to the pipe outlet, -1,
otherwise).
6.2.3 Force on a Bend (Elbow)
This case is a combination of the above two cases, in the sense that the algorithm for
calculating the force is exactly the same as the one for the simple pipe (regarded as a zero-
degree bend), while the force is defined as a complex force. Hence, the force is a vector
having components in two or three directions. In order to complete the definition of the control
surfaces, the following information is required:
1. The bend (elbow) under consideration.

2. The first distance along the pipe inlet where the bend or control surface starts.
3. The second distance along the pipe inlet where the bend or control surface ends.
4. The normal vector (pointing out of the control surface) for each control surface (at
the start and end).
5. The direction of each normal relative to the pipe orientation (+1, if the normal points
from the pipe inlet to the pipe outlet; -1, otherwise).
6.3 Sign Conventions
There are a number of sign conventions that must be understood before the force definition
commands can be used.
6.3.1 Flow Conventions

For components, flows are signed so that the flow out of a component flow node is positive.
For pipes, flows are signed so that flow from the inlet to the outlet is positive.
6.3.2 Control Surface Normals

Control-surface normals are always directed out of the control surface.
6.3.3 Flow or Directional Tags or Sense

These values relate the positive-flow sense to the direction of the control-surface normal.
1. A tag of +1 indicates that a positive flow is in the direction of the control-surface

normal.
2. A tag of -1 indicates that a positive flow is directed against the control-surface
normal.
6.4 Interpreting Force Results
Consider an elbow fitting. The force calculated by the Transient Module is the total resultant
force on the control volume due to the fluid flowing through it. This force is the sum of the
following two individual forces:
1. The force due to the fluid changing speed or direction through the pipe.
2. The force due to the pressure on the fluid at the control areas.
6.5 Dynamic forces
It is often useful to see how the force varies from a particular static value, particularly if results
from the force calculation are to be used by a pipe stress-analysis program. The Transient
Module can produce results for the dynamic force rather than the total force, and this option
can be specified via Options | Module options.
7. Vapour Cavitation
Vapour cavitation occurs in a system when the pressure at a point falls below the fluid vapour
pressure. In this case, the fluid vapourises, and forms a cavity in the system. Cavitation
generally occurs in the higher parts of the network, where the pressure due to static head is
less. When the pressure rises back above the fluid vapour pressure, the vapour condenses
and the cavity collapses. The collapse of a cavity can result in an extremely large pressure
surge. Such pressure surges must be avoided by careful design of the system. The Transient
Module is an invaluable aid in both predicting and eliminating problems due to cavitation.
In the Transient Module, the default option is for vapour cavitation to be disabled. However, if
vapour cavitation is enabled, the complexity of the calculation is greatly increased. For this
reason, it is recommended that a simulation should always be run with the vapour cavitation
option disabled initially. Then, if, in the output report file, there is a minimum pressure that lies
below the vapour pressure, the simulation should be run again but with vapour cavitation
switched on. If cavitation is present, the cavity volume at points along a pipe is included in the
output for a pipe. The cavity volume is the size of the cavity about a point, and increases
from a value of zero as a cavity forms in the neighbourhood of the point.
In the PIPENET VISION Transient Module, there is component called a vacuum breaker,
which can be used to eliminate vapour cavitation from a system.
8. Channel Cavitation
While vapour cavitation is intended to model the growth and collapse of cavities in a system, it
does not take into account the effect that these cavities have on the fluid that flows through
components. In particular, pipes, where the majority of cavities form, continue to behave in a
manner as though they were completely full. Consequently, the phenomenon known as "slack
line flow" or "open channel flow" is not experienced if the presence of cavities is modelled
using the vapour cavity model. The open channel cavitation model is intended to remedy this
deficiency. Channel cavitation, which is specifically designed to be applicable to pipes,
realistically models the flow through pipes when there is a section of vapour in the pipe.
In the Transient Module, there is a choice between no cavitation modelling, modelling using
the vapour cavitation, or modelling using the channel cavitation.
When channel cavitation is included in a simulation, the complexity of the calculation is

greatly increased. For this reason, it is recommended that a simulation should always be run
initially with channel cavitation switched off. However, if there is a region with a minimum
pressure below the vapour pressure, the simulation should be run again but with channel
cavitation enabled.
If cavitation occurs in a pipe, the output results for pipes will include results for the following
variables.
1. Length of the vapour cavity.

2. Length of the liquid column.

3. Volume of the vapour cavity.
4. Volume fraction of the vapour cavity.
5. Liquid hold-up for the pipe.
These results, which define the size and shape of the vapour cavity formed within the pipe,
are best described with the aid of a diagram:
In the diagram, the length of the vapour cavity is l, the length of the liquid column is L-l, the
volume of the vapour cavity is Vc, the volume fraction of vapour cavity is Vc/V (where V is the
volume of the pipe), and the liquid hold-up is defined as h/D, where D is the diameter of the
pipe and h is the depth of liquid in the partially-filled section.
There are a number of restrictions on the use of this cavitation model, which users should be
aware of. The restrictions are listed below, including a workaround wherever appropriate.
1. Open channel flow will not be modelled in pipes that do not point downwards (i.e.,
those that have a non-negative elevation). Although the direction of the pipe may
be reversed, it is important to take into account Point 6 below.
2. If a pressure falls below the vapour pressure at a point in a network, other than at
the inlet of a downward-pointing pipe, no cavitation will occur there, and the
pressure will not be restricted to be at or above the vapour pressure.
3. Flow through components other than downward-pointing pipes is assumed to be

fully filled flow. For example, in joining a downward-pointing pipe to a caisson, the
caisson will treat any inlet flow as fully filling the pipe, even if this is not how the flow
is modelled in the pipe.
4. Spurious results such as the liquid column extending above or below the pipe can
occur. This behaviour has been observed when large time steps are used. Better
results may be obtained by using a smaller time step.
5. A pipe that has long section will not exhibit any open channel behaviour, even if all
the sections have a downward elevation.
6. The flow in pipes that experience channel cavitation is expected to be in the same
direction as the pipe. If the direction of flow is in the opposite direction to the pipe,
any results obtained should not be trusted. In situations where it is possible that
there might be a negative flow rate at the inlet of a pipe using the channel cavitation
model, it is recommended that a non-return valve be inserted before the inlet, to
ensure that all flow at the inlet is non-negative.
7. For long networks, it is recommended that a relatively long run-in be performed. If

the run-in is not sufficiently long, the initial steady state of the network may not be
as the user expects.
8. The open-channel model is not used in short pipes. Therefore, if a time step is
chosen such that a pipe (in which the user wishes to model channel cavitation) is
treated as a short pipe, the results will not be as expected.
9. The channel-cavitation model cannot currently be used in conjunction with the

vapour-cavitation model.
9. Pressure Envelopes
For networks in which the piping system is linear, it is possible to obtain information on the
pressure extrema in the network. This option can be enabled by selecting Calculation |
Options…, choosing the Output Tab, and then ticking the “Output pressure envelope” box.
The pressure-envelope information will be output to the results file, and may then be viewed
in the graph viewer.
A number of graphs are available, including the maximum and minimum pressures along the
piping section of the network. For reference purposes, the numerical values are output to the
output file.
In order to present the pressure-envelope results in a meaningful way, PIPENET VISION can
select a path through the network from one specification to another, passing through all "pipe-
like" components. In addition, the direction of the network is taken to be that which has the
fewest reversed components. If it is found that a network appears to be backwards (as a
result of viewing the network height profile, for example), this problem can be resolved by
reversing the direction of those components that are not oriented in the required direction.
10. Specifications
Specifications are used to describe (a) the behaviour of components (such as valves and
pumps) in the network and (b) values of pressures and flow rates at boundaries. A
specification, of either the pressure or flow rate, is required at all input and output nodes. Note
that
1. The convention in PIPENET VISION is that flow rate is positive into, and negative
out of, the system.
2. There must be at least one pressure specification somewhere in the network.
3. Only one specification is allowed at each node.
4. No pressure or flowrate specification is allowed on an interior node.
An Information specification is used to control the operation of a component, such as a pump

or valve. The specification value should lie between 0 and 1 inclusive (with 0 for a fully closed
valve or shut-down pump, to 1 for a fully open valve or pump operating at full speed). The
information specification should be applied at an information node that has no other
connected components.
10.1 User Input Parameters
In PIPENET VISION, the terms operating conditions, boundary conditions, and specifications
are synonymous. Although a network may be fully defined, it would not be possible to
perform any calculations until the necessary specifications have been provided.
A pressure or flow rate must be specified at input and output nodes, and information must be
specified at information nodes.
The specifications in the Transient Module are functions of time, although such functions
might be constant in some cases. The mathematical functions that are provided for
specifications in PIPENET VISION are described below.
10.2 Time Functions
The user has a choice of nine types of specification. In each case, the specification value is
calculated at each time during the simulation.
Constant
With this type, the specification is constant throughout the simulation. Only the constant
value has to be supplied by the user.
Power Ramp
With a power ramp, there is a change in the specification value over a specified time period.
The specification value is taken to be constant before and after the ramp.
The function is defined as
 B, t <A,
 E
F =  F′ , A < t < C,
 D, t > C,

where
B 1 D 1
(C − t )  ( B )E + (t − A)  ( D )E
F′ =  B   D 
C−A
and
A is the start time of the power ramp,

B is the initial specification value,
C is the stop time of the power ramp,
D is the final specification value,
E is the exponent.
Sine Wave
This function provides an oscillating specification value.
F = D + A sin 2π ( Bt + C )
where
A is the amplitude,
B is the frequency,
C is the constant time lag,
D is the additive constant.
Exponential
This function provides an exponentially increasing or decreasing specification value.

F = Ae Bt + C
where
A is the amplitude,
B is the growth factor,
C is the additive constant.
Damped Sine Wave
This function gives a damped oscillating specification value throughout the simulation.
F = Ae Bt sin 2π (Ct + D) + E
where
A is the amplitude at time t=0,

B is the decay factor,
C is the frequency,
D is the constant time lag,
E is the additive constant.
Asymmetric Pulse
This function provides a sudden change in the specification value over a specified time
period.
 A, t < B,

F = C , B < t < D,
E, t > D,

where
A is the specification value before the pulse,

B is the start time of the pulse,
C is the specification value during the pulse,
D is the end time of the pulse,
E is the specification value after the pulse.
Profiles
Three types of profile are available in the Transient Module, and are described below. The
repeat option allows the specified profile points to be repeated over the remainder of the time
period. Note that there can be at most 30 profiles in any one network.
Linear Profile
The linear profile is a more general form of the power-ramp function.

Up to 40 data points can be used to define the curve. Linear interpolation is used between
the points.
Step Profile
This profile is a more general form of the asymmetric pulse function.
Up to 40 data points can be used to define the curve. The function is assumed to be constant
between the points.
Cubic Profile
This is a more general form of the power-ramp function.
Up to 40 data points can be used to define the curve. Cubic interpolation is used between
the points.
11. Initial Guess File
The initial state of a system will generally have a critical bearing on how the system reacts
during a simulation, and so it is important to start the simulation correctly. In the Transient
Module, there are three stages for determining the initial state of a system, and all three are
under the control of the user. The three stages are as follows.
Stage 1: A starting point from which to begin the simulation is obtained. For this stage, the
user can either (a) specify that the default initial state is to be determined by PIPENET
VISION, (b) indicate that a static state is to be calculated (i.e., a state in which all the fluid is
at rest), or (c) supply the name of an initial guess file, which contains data for a user-defined
state.
Stage 2: The state that is obtained from the first stage can be evolved, by performing a
number of transient steps with the clock turned off. During this stage, which is also referred to
as the run-in time, there are no changes in the settings for components (such as valves and
pumps).
Stage 3: The Transient Module will, if required, calculate the steady state of the system
(which is the state of the system under conditions of steady flow). This calculation is carried
out using an iterative method, starting from the state obtained at the completion of Stage 2.
Frequently, not all three stages are required; for example, if the user wishes to start the
system in a state defined by an initial guess file, he may decide that Stages 2 and 3 are not
necessary.
During a run-in time, the initial guess is moved towards the steady state of the system.
Therefore, a run-in time can be useful in cases for which the initial guess is a good
approximation to the true initial state, but contains small internal inconsistencies.
Not all networks have a steady-state solution; however, the use of a longer run-in time will
make it easier for the Transient Module to determine the steady state of the system. If the
run-in time is long enough then the system will usually settle into a steady state anyway,
eliminating the need for the initial-guess calculation.
Initial Guess File
If a system does not possess a unique steady-state solution, or if the system has a complex
history that makes the steady-state solution an inappropriate starting point, the user can
specify an initial guess file. The Transient Module automatically generates a template for this
file, based on the network under consideration. For the following reasons, the template file is
useful for inputting an initial guess.
1. The file is already in the correct format.
2. The file contains a complete list of all variables that have to be specified.
3. The file contains suggested values for each variable (generated automatically by
the Transient Module), and these values are suitable for use as defaults.
12. Modelling the Operation of Valves
After pipes, the most commonly modelled items in PIPENET VISION are valves. In the
Transient Module, “operating valves” are used to model valves whose position changes with
time. If the position of a valve is fixed, the valve can be modelled as either a fitting or an
operating valve for which the position is set at a fixed value (by the user).
In PIPENET VISION, there are two aspects to modelling an operating valve; namely, the
valve characteristic and the valve operation.
12.1 Valve Characteristic
The valve characteristic depends on the size and the design of the valve. Once a valve is
chosen, the user has no control over its characteristic. In PIPENET VISION, this aspect is
separate from the operation of the valve.
There are two ways in which the valve characteristic can be input by the user.
12.1.1 User-defined Valve Curve

If the curve of the Cv against the valve position is known, the user may input this curve and
store it into a library. (The user could instead define the K-factor against the valve position,
although this data is less commonly known.)
The relevant dialog box is reached through Libraries ¦ Valves.
The dialog box for inputting the Cv values for the valve positions is shown below. In PIPENET
VISION, a cubic spline is fitted to the data. In order to make the spline-fit accurate, the user is
expected to input values for dCv/ds, in addition to the Cv values themselves. If the user does
not input values for dCv/ds, he can simply input the Cv values and click on the Linear Button.
PIPENET VISION will then automatically estimate values of dCv/ds.
12.1.2 Using Built-in Valve Curves
Data for the variation of Cv with respect to s is often unavailable. Under such circumstances,
the user would at least have the value for the Cv when the valve is fully open. Furthermore, it
is possible to obtain a good approximation for the valve characteristic by modelling the valve
type as being either linear, equal percentage or quick opening. In this case, PIPENET
VISION automatically generates the required curve for Cv against s. This data is not entered
into the library, but is treated as input attributes of the valve in the following dialog box.
12.2 Valve Operation
Although the valve characteristic cannot be changed once a valve is chosen, the valve
operation is something that the user might wish to adjust. For example, the user may wish to
study the effect of the valve-closure time on the resultant pressure surge, in an attempt to
determine the optimum valve-closure time. In the Transient Module, there is a choice of
several boundary conditions that are applicable to the operation of valves. In the following
diagram, the boundary condition is applied to the information node (i.e., Node 7) of the valve.
The available boundary conditions are described later.
Dialog boxes for two examples of valve closure are now provided.
12.2.1 Linear Valve Closure

12.2.2 Step-wise Valve Closure
13. Vapour Cavity Formation and Vapour Pressure
At a given point in the system, a pressure surge is often followed by pressure depression. If
this process causes the pressure to fall below the vapour pressure, cavity separation may
occur. In PIPENET VISION, the user is given the option to model cavity separation.
The dialog box for selecting cavity formation is obtained through Options | Module options,
and is shown below.
The vapour pressure is input using the dialog box shown below, which is obtained via
Options | Fluid.
The following network is used to illustrate the modelling of cavity formation. Two cases are
considered: one in which cavity formation is modelled, and one in which it is not modelled. In
both cases, Valve 1 closes in 20 seconds.
Without Cavity Modelling
Please note that the graphs in this subsection are included merely as examples, and have not
been obtained using the most recent version of the graph viewer for the PIPENET VISION
Transient Module.
In this case, the pressure freely falls below the vapour pressure, and indeed reaches negative
absolute pressures (which, of course, is not physical possible). In reality, cavities form,
thereby preventing the pressure from reaching such low values. These cavities cause the
minimum pressure to remain at the vapour pressure.
With Cavity Modelling
The maximum pressure and the pressure curve are the same until the first time a cavity is
formed. From then on, the curves are quite different. In the second case, the pressure never
falls below the vapour pressure.
Our recommendation is to perform the first calculation without modelling cavity formation,
unless cavity formation is known to occur, or is suspected. The reason for this
recommendation is that modelling cavities is more time consuming. The values of the
maximum and minimum pressures are displayed in the tabular output file, and the minimum
pressure indicates whether cavity modelling is necessary (i.e., if it falls below the vapour
pressure).
Tabular Output
The relevant part of the tabular output files for the above cases (i.e., with and without cavity
modelling) are shown below.
Without Cavity Formation Modelling:
PRESSURE EXTREMA
Maximum pressure is 21.0974 bar G

on pipe 1 at the pipe outlet
at time 22.84 seconds
Minimum pressure is -11.1216 bar G

With Cavity Formation Modelling:
PRESSURE EXTREMA
Maximum pressure is 21.0975 bar G

Minimum pressure is -0.977000 bar G

on pipe 2 at the pipe inlet
14. User-defined Wave Speed
In the Transient Module, the bulk modulus of the fluid, the Young’s Modulus of the pipe
material, the Poisson’s ratio and the wall thickness are used to calculate the wave speed.
However, there are circumstances in which the user might wish to specify the wave speed
directly.
The user can input arbitrary values for the Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s ratio and the fluid bulk
modulus, but omit the outer diameter of the pipes in the pipe schedule. The reason for doing
so might be because these values are not accurately known. The user might prefer to set a
known value for the wave speed.
The following dialog box appears in the Module Options window, which can be obtained via
Options | Transient options.
Another instance for which the user might wish to specify the wave speed is when most of the
pipes are of one schedule. There might be a single flexible connector in the system. Rather
than inputting all of the data for the flexible connector, the user might specify a known value
for the wave speed in that section alone. The wave speed for the rest of the system would
then be calculated. In this case, the user should not select “user defined wave speed” until all
of the pipes (for which wave speeds need to be calculated by PIPENET VISION) have been
input. Then, the user-defined wave speed would be input as shown above. The user-defined
wave speed can be input through either the above dialog box or the pipe dialog box as shown
below.
15. Pump Data
There are three pump models in the Transient Module.
15.1 Simple Pump
A pump performance curve is used in the model for a simple pump. The user inputs the
flowrate against head data for the pump at full speed. PIPENET VISION can then calculate
the performance curve for other speeds, using the homologous relationships for pumps. The
simple pump is normally intended only for use in the positive quadrant; i.e., when both the
flow and the head are positive.
Simple pumps are generally used in firewater systems. Pumps are usually input to a library,
as they are components that can occur several times in a network. The appropriate dialog
box is obtained from Libraries ¦ Pump – coeffs. unknown.
15.2 Turbo Pump
A turbo pump can be used to model the behaviour of a pump in all four quadrants. It requires
the user to specify much more information, including the Suter curves, the moment of inertia,
and the torque.
15.3 Inertial Pump
An inertial pump works like a simple pump at the steady state, but can simulate transient
behaviour during start-up and stopping. Also, Suter curves are not required for an inertial
pump.
16. Tanks
There are four types of tank model in PIPENET VISION, and they are briefly described below.
16.1 Accumulator
An accumulator is a closed air vessel, intended for absorbing pressure surges. The dialog
box for this tank is shown below. The reference conditions correspond to the time the
accumulator is charged.
16.2 Surge Tank
A surge tank is an open tank that is connected to a piping system. It is used for absorbing
pressure surges. The dialog box for this tank type is shown below.
16.3 Receiving Vessel
A receiving vessel is used to receive and store fluid from a network. It is an atmospheric tank,
and is similar to a surge tank. The only difference between a surge tank and a receiving
vessel is that an overflow is allowed in receiving vessel.
16.4 Simple tank
A simple tank is intended to model the variation in the level of the fluid in the tank, arising
from the net difference between the flow into the tank and the flow out of it.
17. Control Systems
PIPENET VISION can model control systems that are based on using PID controllers. There
are five types of model that can be are used for simulating control systems.
17.1 Sensor
A sensor can be either a pressure sensor, a flow sensor or a pressure-difference sensor. A

pressure sensor is connected to one flow node in the system, whereas a flow sensor and
pressure-difference sensor are connected to two flow nodes (usually in series with an item in
the network). In both cases, the output is a signal that is output through an information node.
17.2 Transfer Function
This component is used for modelling the dynamics of instruments and other operating items,
where a detailed model may be unnecessary or too complicated. Transfer functions can be of
zeroth, first or second order.
17.3 PID Controller
With the PID controller of PIPENET VISION, the user is allowed to specify the proportional,
integral and differential terms in any combination. The integral term contains an anti-wind-up
option.
A pressure control-valve system is modelled in the following network.
17.4 Switch
A switch is used to examine the flowrate or pressure at a designated point in the network, and
compare it with the desired parameter to decide upon the operation (start-up or trip) of certain
equipment (e.g., a valve or pump).
18. Force Calculation
When there is pressure surge, pipe systems often become damaged because of transient
hydraulic forces. It is important to recognise that a system that is well supported is likely to
withstand a greater surge than a system that is badly supported. In fact, a system that is
badly supported can sustain damage even if the surge pressure is less than the maximum
design pressure. Pressure surges can produce large unbalanced forces, which can be
particularly dangerous. The definitive method for determining whether a system can sustain
damage is by calculating the transient hydraulic pressures and performing pipe stress
analysis calculations (using a program such as Caesar II).
It is clear, therefore, that hydraulic transient forces are of fundamental importance. In

PIPENET VISION, both the change in the pressure and the momentum are used to calculate
hydraulic forces. A fitting (such as a bend) can experience a hydraulic force, even under
steady-state conditions. However, this is not considered to be a problem, as the unbalanced

force is quite small. The working pressure is usually the main concern. On the other hand,
when there is pressure surge, large unbalanced forces can occur.
In the Transient Module, there is a choice of calculating either total forces or dynamic forces.
The total force is the sum of the steady state and dynamic forces.
PIPENET VISION also provides a choice of simple and complex forces.
18.1 Simple Force
A simple force is the unbalanced force along a straight piece of pipe. Essentially, it is
assumed that there are 90° bends at the ends of the pipe. In this case, because a simple
force is always directed along the pipe, this force is a single number that varies with time.
18.2 Complex Force
A complex force is applicable at a fitting such as a valve, or at a fitting where there is a

change of direction. This force needs to be defined as a vector, and so consists of three
components that vary with time.
19. ON/OFF Control Pumps Group by Flowrate Signal
Consider the following network.

The specifications and settings that are used in this network are as follows.
The pressure at the pump inlet is -1.35 m fluid (gauge) and the flow rate at the network outlet
is based on four cases, which are described later in this section.
The set points for pumps are defined in the following table.
Set Point for Pump Start Set Point for Pump Stop
Number of Set Point (m3/hr) Number of Set Point (m3/hr)
Operating Pumps Operating Pumps
0=>1 0 1=>0 0
1=>2 45,000 2=>1 40,000
2=>3 90,000 3=>2 85,000
3=>4 135,000 4=>3 130,000
4=>5 165,000 5=>4 160,000
5=>6 200,000 6=>5 195,000
6=>7 240,000 7=>6 235,000
For example, the dialog box that corresponds to the setting of the switch for Pump 4 is as
follows.
A transfer function is used to simulate the actual start-up and stopping process of the pumps,
and is defined as follows.
The following four scenarios are considered. Please note that the graphs in the following
subsections have not been obtained using the most recent version of the PIPENET VISION
Graph Viewer.
19.1 Case 1
19.2 Case 2
19.3 Case 3
19.4 Case 4

Trans Chapter1 Part1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trans Chapter1 Part1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PIPENET VISION TRAINING MANUAL TRANSIENT: CHAPTER 1

PAGE 1 OF 133 REVISION 2.1, SEP 2010

PIPENET VISION TRANSIENT MODULE

p is the pressure in the pipe,

2.1 Elastic Pipe

2.1.1 Frictional Pressure Loss in the Standard Option

Pf is the pressure drop,

Laminar flow (Re < 2000):

2.1.2 Frictional Pressure Loss in the Spray Option

Pf is the frictional pressure drop,

2.2 Short Pipe

Q is the flow rate through pipe,

2.3 Compressible Flow Pipe

• The maximum number of compressible flow pipes in a network is one.

specifications. Therefore, only constant-pressure values should be specified at the

2.4 Fittings and Equipment Items

P is the pressure drop,

2.5 Simple Pump

The pressure increase produced by the pump is given by

s is the pump setting,

2.6 Turbo Pump

2.6.1 Suter Characteristic Curves

H is the piezometric head across the turbo pump,

2.6.2 Built-in Turbo Pumps

The pump impeller inertia is given by

2.6.3 Pump Failures

I is the moment of inertia of the turbo pump,

• Fluid Damped Check Valves

• Liquid Surge Relief Valves

• Inertial Check Valves

s = 0: the valve is fully closed,

2.7.1 Valve Characteristics

P1 is the pressure at the inlet of the valve,

Flow Coefficient Valve

The pressure drop across an open valve is given by

Cv(s) is the Cv value for the valve,

Typical forms of the two curves are shown below.

2.7.2 Defining a Library Valve Characteristics

2.7.3 Built-in Valve Characteristics

Linear Opening Valve

Equal Percentage Opening Valve

Quick Opening Valve

2.8 Operating Valve

If the valve is fully closed (i.e., s = 0), the valve equation is

P1 is the inlet pressure,

2.9 Non-return Valve

If the valve is open (i.e., s >= 0), the governing equation is

The continuity equation is

P1 is the inlet pressure,

2.10 Check valve

If the valve is fully closed (i.e., s = 0), the valve equation is

P1 is the inlet pressure,

The actual setting of the check valve is given by

s is the setting of the ideal check valve,

2.11 Fluid Damped Check Valve

P1 is the inlet pressure,

Motion of the Check Valve

M is the total mass of the valve plug and disk,

2.12 Liquid Surge Relief Valve

The following variables are used in the above equations.

P1 is the inlet pressure,

2.13 Regulator Valve

P1 is the inlet pressure,