Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147 – 166

www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Seismic strain rates and distributed continental deformation in the

northern Andes and three-dimensional seismotectonics of
northwestern South America
Freddy Corredor
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University, 20 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
Received 23 July 2002; accepted 30 June 2003

Abstract

The seismic strain rates and configuration in the northern Andes are estimated by summing the components of the Centroid
Moment Tensor (CMT) solutions for earthquakes with Mw>5.0 and are compared with those predicted by various models of
relative plate motions and GPS data. Moment tensor components are summed linearly in four different regions with similar
seismotectonics to infer changes in the regional strain patterns along the northern Andes and to retrieve strain rates and relative
plate velocities between this region and the stable South American plate. The Andean seismic strain rates are the result of east –
southeast-directed contraction due to the collision of the Nazca and Caribbean plates with the South American plate and the
collision of the Panama block against central Colombia, with a component of northeast-directed motion due to the obliquity of
the eastern boundary of the northern Andes with respect to the boundary of the Nazca and Caribbean plates, with the South
American plate along the Colombia trench and the Southern Caribbean Deformation zone, respectively, where the convergence
is normal. The present motion of the Central Andes towards the northeast does not require the plate boundary between the
Caribbean and South American plates to be along the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the Boconó Fault in Venezuela. The
seismic moment rates for the northern Andes are small compared to the total expected seismic strain rates calculated from plate
motion models and GPS data, suggesting that most of the strain is released aseismically and that is accommodated by folding,
fault creeping, rigid block translation or other undetermined processes. Finally, a three-dimensional model of the CMT solutions
and other seismicity in northwestern South America is presented, where major subducting slabs, including the Peru flat-slab and
the Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of the Nazca and Caribbean plates, become more evident and easier to interpret.
The Caribbean plate is interpreted to culminate at the location of the Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’ offering an explanation to this swarm
of seismicity in the northern Andes.
D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Seismic strain; Moment tensor; Tectonics; South America; Andes

1. Introduction publications (e.g., Case et al., 1971; Dewey, 1972;

The seismotectonics of northwestern South Amer-
ica (Fig. 1) has been the subject of multiple studies and
E-mail address: corredor@fas.harvard.edu (F. Corredor).
Jordan, 1975; Pennington, 1981; Kellogg and Bonini,
1982; Toto and Kellogg, 1992; Freymueller et al.,
1993; Van der Hilst and Mann, 1994; Kellogg and
Vega, 1995; Ego et al., 1996; Taboada et al., 2000,
Trenkamp et al., 2002). Northern South America is

0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00276-2
148 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166

Fig. 1. Regional tectonic map of northwestern South America showing a gray scaled shaded relief, the Nazca, South American and Caribbean
plates, and the main tectonic features in the northern Andes.

deformed by the interactions of the South American,
Nazca and Caribbean plates (Fig. 1). According to
GPS data, with respect to the fixed South American
plate, the Caribbean plate motion is towards the east –
southeast, while the Nazca plate motion is roughly
towards the east, and the northern Andes motion is
towards the northeast (Fig. 2). This complex pattern of
plate and block motions produces a broad zone of
continental deformation into the Colombian and Ven-
ezuelan Andes that is characterized by an also complex
pattern of northeast- and southeast-trending thrust and
strike – slip fault earthquakes, where the shallow seis-
micity occurs on many separate faults that are distrib-
uted over several hundreds of kilometers away from
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 149

Fig. 2. Plate velocity vectors according to GPS data and global kinematic models. Velocity values are in millimeters per year, and relative to a stable
South American plate, except for those from Kaniuth et al. (1998), which represent absolute horizontal velocity components of the GPS stations.

the accepted plate boundaries between the South
American plate and the Nazca and Caribbean plates.
The ratio of seismic to tectonic strain in the region is
still a subject of controversy, as well as the role of the
different plates in the resulting patterns of seismic
strain on the overriding South American plate.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the seismic strain
in the northern Andes by summing the moment tensors
for earthquakes with Mw>5.0 provided by the Harvard
Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) catalogue. By using
this method, it is possible to determine whether the
seismic deformation in this region reflects simply the
accommodation, within a broad zone, of the relative
motion of the plates bounding the northern Andes, or
whether a significant amount of the deformation in-
volves velocity gradients parallel to the strike. Results
150 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
are compared to GPS data, now available in the region
(Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Kaniuth et al., 1998, Pérez et
al., 2001, Trenkamp et al., 2002), and plate tectonic
models (DeMets et al., 1990), making possible for
strain rates determined from actual plate motions to
be compared to seismic strain rates. The difference
between satellite-measured and seismic strain rates
indicates how much of the observed tectonic deforma-
tion in the northern Andes is aseismic. These results
also provide new insights into the role of the Nazca,
South American and Caribbean plates in the kinematics
of this region and specifically on the seismic strain
along the Andean margin. A three-dimensional model
for CMT solutions of earthquakes in northern South
America is also presented, and it is used as a constraint
for the thickness of the continental seismogenic layer
required for the calculation of the seismic strain and the
interpretation of the tectonic elements that form this
region. The delineation of subducted slabs and their
tectonic interpretation is possible, thanks to the location
of the CMT solutions around well-defined seismic
zones. This 3D model provides a helpful way to
visualize and analyze the spatial relationships between
the different tectonic elements that form northwestern
South America, and it helps to determine their role in
the seismotectonics of the region.
2. Methodology
Centroid Moment Tensor data for earthquakes with
moment magnitude Mw>5.0, from the Harvard CMT
catalog (http://www.seismology.harvard.edu) are used
to infer the strain rates and plate velocities in a regional
scale and compare with those obtain from GPS obser-
vations and plate tectonic models. Kostrov (1974)
showed that if all of the deformation in a volume is
seismic, there is a relationship between the average
strain tensor eij of the region and the sum of the moment
tensor of the earthquakes within the volume by,
1 X N
eij ¼ Mij ; ð1Þ
2lV n¼1
where Mij are the components of the seismic moment
tensor for all the earthquakes, l is the shear modulus of
rigidity of the rock, taken to be 3.3  1010 N m  2
(Stacey, 1992), n is the number of earthquakes, and V is
the volume of the deforming region. The matrix repre-
sentation of the seismic moment tensor (Dziewonski et
al., 1981) allows the components of the moment tensor
to be summed linearly. The volume V of rock can be
simply given by V = xyz, where xy is the surface area of
the zone and z is the mean earthquake depth in the
region. The relationship in Eq. (1) can be extended
further in order to calculate the average strain rate
tensor as
dėij 1 X N
¼ Mij ; ð2Þ
dt 2lV s n¼1
where s is the period of the earthquake record (26 years
for the Harvard CMT catalog). In order to constrain the
compressional and tensional ( P and T) axis from the
moment tensors, it is necessary to reduce the moment
tensor to a diagonal matrix D. Because the plate
motions measured are approximately horizontal (over
short ranges), then in order for these data to be
compared to the seismic strain rate tensors, it is
necessary to consider the strain in the horizontal
(North, East) plane. The diagonal elements of D are
the eigenvalues of Mij, and the associated directions are
the eigenvectors that represent the directions of the
main strain axis. In the case of a non-double couple
source, for example, the diagonal elements of Mij in the
principal axis system have three non-zero eigenvalues,
whose minimum absolute eigenvector gives the direc-
tion at the source of the tensional T-axis, the maximum
absolute eigenvector gives the compressional P-axis,
and the eigenvector associated with the intermediate
eigenvalue gives the direction of the axis of interme-
diate strain I. Finally, Eq. (2) becomes
dėij 1
¼ Dij : ð3Þ
dt 2lV s
Now, the relationship between average strain in a
volume and the relative velocity between two plates
can be considered. Jackson and McKenzie (1988) and
Ekström and England (1989) discussed this relation-
ship by considering the deformation of a volume V
(Fig. 2). The volume has rectangular faces and its two
ends in the x –z plane are within the rigid plates on
either side of the deforming zone. The y-axis is normal
to the average trend of the zone. In general, there is a
difference in the average velocity vector of the material
between plates A and B as illustrated in Fig. 2. If the
mean velocity differences between these two plates in
the x, y and z directions are vx, vy and vz with compo-
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 151

nents (vxx, vxy, vxz), (vyx, vyy, vyz) and (vzx , vzy , vzz), respectively, vzz, etc., from the components of the seismic moment
then the relationship between strain rate tensor and the tensor Mij. Crustal shortening, for instance, is calcu-
velocity components is lated by multiplying the horizontal component of the
maximum compressive strain rate times the width of
2 3 the deformation zone in the direction of the maximum
2vxx vxy vyx vxz vzx
6 ; þ ; þ 7 compressive strain. In the case of the northern Andes,
6 l l a l t 7
the x – z faces between plates A and B that bound the
dė 1 6
6v
x
vy 2vyy vyz vzy 7
7
¼ 6 yþ x; ; þ 7; ð4Þ zone of distributed deformation are not parallel, as
dt 26 l a a a t 7
6 7 shown in Fig. 1, where the eastern edge of deformation
4 vx vz vyz vzy 2vz 5
z
z that corresponds to the Eastern Cordillera thrust front is
þ x; þ ;
l t a t t at an angle with respect to the accepted plate bound-
aries between the South American plate and the Nazca
where l, a and t are the dimensions of the volume V and Caribbean plates along the Colombia – Ecuador
(Fig. 3A). Thus, it is possible to obtain values for vxx, vyy, trench and the Southern Caribbean Deformation zone.
This creates a condition where some relative motion is
accommodated by expulsion of material along the
strike of the deforming zone (Fig. 3C). This case can
be treated as the case for the cube in Fig. 3B, where the
faces in the x –z plane are parallel, with a velocity
vector oblique to the boundary between plates A and B.
This arrangement simplifies the calculation of crustal
shortening by choosing the length of the deformation
zone in the direction of the maximum compressive
strain to be the length of the blocks along the trend of
the northern Andes.
After showing that the summation method of Kos-
trov (1974) can be used to infer the tectonic deforma-
tion from localized events, it is now possible to estimate
strain rates and plate velocities from the summed
moment tensor data. Assuming that the relative plate
motion is totally accommodated seismically, the
expected moment rate is estimated by using the scalar
moment (M0) and the relative velocity between plates.
dM0
¼ lAv; ð5Þ
dt
where l is the shear modulus, A is the fault area or in
this case the length of the deforming zone times the
thickness of the seismogenic crust, and v is the relative
velocity between plates. The seismic and tectonic
Fig. 3. Sketch of a deforming zone separating two plates A and B.
moment release rates are ways to describe the total
Modified from Jackson and McKenzie et al. (1988) and Ekström
and England (1989): (A) Relative plate motion normal to the energy release in a rock volume. Bowers and Hudson
boundary between two rigid plates is accommodated by homoge- (1999) show that the seismic moment rate tensor, for a
nous deformation. (B) Relative motion is oblique between the two region with negligible component of volume change
plates and is accommodated in part by homogenous deformation during deformation is
and expulsion of material along the strike of the deforming zone.
     

(C) Relative motion is normal to the boundary between the two rigid dM ij  dexx   deyy   dezz 
plates and the faces along the x – z plane are not parallel, and the ¼ 2lV  max    ;   ;   : ð6Þ
motion is accommodated like in B. dt dt   dt   dt 
152 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
Now, it is possible to compare the seismic moment
release rates with the expected tectonic release rates
that are calculated from plate tectonic models or GPS
data. The short-term scale of the Harvard CMT catalog,
as well as the contribution of small earthquakes not
included in the catalog could represent a problem when
trying to extrapolate long-term strain rates. However,
Jackson and McKenzie (1988) showed that a few
decades of data coverage were in good agreement with
long-term deformation rates. Here, I adopted an esti-
mate of 2 for the uncertainty in all the long-term
moment release rates according to the discussion in
Ekström and England (1989).
3. Results and discussion
Full moment tensors and hypocentral parameters
are listed in Appendices A.1 – A.4 for all the earth-
quakes included in this paper. Fig. 4 shows the
location of all the CMT solutions used in this study
with the best-fit nodal planes and P- and T-axis.
Moment rate tensors for the interval 1976 –2002 are
calculated using the full moment tensors listed in
Table 1. Fig. 5 shows the division of the study area
into four subregions based on the similar seismotec-
tonics and regional structural styles inside the regions
as discussed later. These regions are located east of a
major suture zone between oceanic and continental
basement rocks (The Romeral fault) where most of the
shallow distributed continental seismicity occurs and
are used to obtain the volume V needed for the
estimation of the seismic strain rates. Fig. 6 shows
the resulting summed moment tensors for the northern
Andes as a whole and the four studied subregions
(Ecuador, Southern Colombia, Central Colombia and
Maracaibo blocks), the best-fit nodal planes for the
CMT solutions and the P –T axis. The results from the
summed moment tensor elements for the northern
Andes and all the subregions are summarized in Table
1 and Appendix B.
The overall pattern of deformation obtained from
the summed moment tensors in the northern Andes can
be described as the result of east – southeast-directed
compression with a small northeast-directed compo-
nent of strike –slip motion (Fig. 6). It is also clear from
the summed moment tensors for the four subregions
that the seismic strain in the northern Andes is chang-
ing from regional east –southeast-directed compres-
sion in the Ecuador block, to east –northeast-directed
dextral transpression in the Southern Colombia block,
to east – southeast-directed compression in the Central
Colombia block, to east – northeast-directed transpres-
sion in the Maracaibo block. In general, the resulting
seismic strain rates are small compared to tectonic
strain rates for all the regions. The discrepancies
between the strain rates obtained from GPS data,
tectonic models and seismic moment tensors can be
explained by aseismic release of the strain by rigid
translation of the northern Andes towards the NE, or
under-sampling of large earthquakes in the CMT
catalog due to the relatively short time interval over
which observations are made. However, as pointed out
in Ekström and England (1989), the uncertainties in
the strain rates calculated from the summed CMT
solutions, given the short period of the seismic record
and the contributions from smaller earthquakes are
relatively small, suggesting that the small strain rates
obtained are due to aseismic release of the strain by
fault creeping, folding, tectonic escape or some other
undetermined processes.
3.1. Northern Andes
A northeast-trending fold and thrust belt of shallow
seismicity between 200 and 600 km wide covers most
of the western margin of northern South America (Fig.
4), and it is the region where most of the convergence
takes place between the Nazca, South American and
Caribbean plates since the Paleocene. The northern
Andes are characterized by a complex pattern of
deformation. The seismicity and active tectonics of
the northern Andes are attributed to compression and
under-thrusting due to the oblique convergence of the
Nazca and Caribbean plates with South America
(Pennington, 1981). The summed moment tensor
obtained in this study for the northern Andes as a
whole (Table 1; Fig. 6) represents regional east –
southeast-directed compression with a small compo-
nent of north –northeast-directed strike –slip motion.
The eigenvalue of 1.30  1020 (Table 1; Appendix B)
corresponds to the axis of maximum compressive
strain and a strain rate value of 1.3  10 9 year 1.
The resulting P-axis has an azimuth of 102j, which is
consistent with the azimuth of the vector of relative
convergence between the Caribbean plate and the
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 153

Fig. 4. Seismicity of northwestern South America showing the CMT solutions, best-fit nodal planes, P-axis (black dots) and T-axis (white dots)
for shallow earthquakes (< 40 km) with Mw>5.0. CMT data has been taken from the Harvard CMT catalogue. CMT solutions plotted as lower
hemisphere projections where black and white shaded regions correspond to compressional and dilational arrival quadrants.

South American plate obtained from GPS measure-
ments (Trenkamp et al., 2002). The estimated seismic
moment rate using the summed moment tensor for the
northern Andes as a whole is 4.37  1019 N m year 1,
and the calculated crustal shortening rate is 2.62 mm
year 1. GPS data suggests that the entire northern
Andes are moving towards the northeast with respect
to a stable South American plate, with velocities of up
to 6 F 2 mm year 1 (Trenkamp et al., 2002). The
components of the summed moment tensor result in a
seismic strain rate of 1.23  10 10 year 1 parallel to
the boundary between the Andes and a stable South
American plate, and a relative motion of 2.12 mm
year 1 in the same direction, which is equivalent to 1/
154 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166

Table 1
Summed moment tensor elements for the northern Andes, the Ecuador, Southern Colombia, Central Colombia and Maracaibo blocks
Northern Andes summed moment tensor
Eigenvalues  1.30  1020 0.123  1020 1.18  1020
Scalar moment 4.81  1020 N m
Plunge P-axis 14.01 Azimuth P-axis 102.01
Plunge T-axis 70.59 Azimuth T-axis 237.08
Plunge null axis 13.17 Azimuth null axis 8.67
Block area 1.398  1012 m2 L 2.150  106 m
T 4.0  104 m Volume 5.592  1016 m3
SMR 4.37  1019 N m year1 TMR 1.72  1020 N m year1

Ecuador block summed moment tensor

Eigenvalues  0.496  1020 0.097  1020 0.399  1020
Scalar moment 1.83  1020 N m
Plunge P-axis 10.73 Azimuth P-axis 121.08
Plunge T-axis 67.99 Azimuth T-axis 239.04
Plunge null axis 18.98 Azimuth null axis 27.35
Block area 8.49  1010 m2 L 3.6  105 m
T 4.0  104 m Volume 3,396  1015 m3
SMR 1.83  1018 N m year1 TMR 1.17  1020 N m year1

Southern Colombia block summed moment tensor

Eigenvalues  1.19  1020 0.065  1020 1.12  1020
Scalar moment 3.18  1020 N m
Plunge P-axis 70.32 Azimuth P-axis 250.01
Plunge T-axis 15.85 Azimuth T-axis 107.48
Plunge null axis 11.37 Azimuth null axis 14.21
Block area 1.356  1011 m2 L 9.2  105 m
T 4.0  104 m Volume 5.424  1015 m3
SMR 3.18  1018 N m year1 TMR 1.17  1020 N m year1

Central Colombia block summed moment tensor

Eigenvalues  0.922  1019 0.184  1019 0.738  1019
Scalar moment 3.41  1019 N m
Plunge P-axis 13.23 Azimuth P-axis 311.33
Plunge T-axis 76.76 Azimuth T-axis 129.92
Plunge null axis 0.31 Azimuth null axis 221.25
Block area 2.058  1011 m2 L 6.9  105 m
T 4.0  104 m Volume 8.232  1015 m3
SMR 3.41  1017 N m year1 TMR 2.01  1019 N m year1

Maracaibo block summed moment tensor

Eigenvalues  2.46  1018  0.3276  1017 2.79  1018
Scalar moment 1.041  1019 N m
Plunge P-axis 18.9 Azimuth P-axis 99.1
Plunge T-axis 55.4 Azimuth T-axis 218.9
Plunge null axis 27.8 Azimuth null axis 358.7
Block area 2.079  1011 m2 L 6.9  105 m
T 4.0  104 m Volume 8.316  1015 m3
SMR 1.04  1017 N m year1 TMR 1.49  1019 N m year1
SMR corresponds to calculated seismic moment rate from summed moment tensors, and TMR corresponds to expected seismic moment rates
from plate motions.
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 155

Fig. 5. Division of the study area into four main regions of similar seismotectonics and bounded by major active fault zones (see Fig. 1 for
names of major tectonics features): (I) Ecuador block, (II) Southern Colombia block, (III) Central Colombia block and (IV) Maracaibo block.

3 of Trenkamp et al.’s estimate. Suarez et al. (1983), in
southern Colombia, Peru and Ecuador, estimated a
principal value of compressive strain rate of 6  10 9
year 1, oriented at about 95j west of north, and
crustal shortening rates of the order of 1.4 – 2.1 mm
year 1. This means, from their calculations, that just
1% of the strain is seismic compared to the total strain
rates calculated from plate motions, which is similar to
the value obtained in this study. It is clear from these
calculations that most of the strain in the northern
Andes is release aseismically, and most of the defor-
mation is accommodated as rigid translation of this
region with respect to a stable South American plate.
The calculated P-axis from the summed moment
tensor for the northern Andes is parallel to the vector
of relative motion between the Caribbean and Nazca
156 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
Fig. 6. Summed seismic moment tensors for the (*) northern Andes
as a whole, the (I) Ecuador, (II) Southern Colombia, (III) Central
Colombia and (IV) Maracaibo blocks. Moment tensor solutions
plotted as lower hemisphere projections where black and white
shaded regions correspond to compressional and dilational arrival
quadrants, respectively. Black dot and white diamond represent P-
and T-axis, respectively. Numbers next to the CMT solutions
correspond to the moment magnitude multiplied by (1020 N m).
plates with respect to the South American plate,
suggesting that most of the seismic strain is the result
of the accommodation of the strain across a broad zone
of continental deformation produced by the normal
convergence between these three plates along the
Colombia trench and the South Caribbean deformation
front. The strike –slip faulting events and the actual
small component of northeast-directed motion in the
northern Andes with respect to the rest of a stable
South American can be explained using a kinematic
model similar to the one shown in Fig. 3C, where the
broad zone of deformation is bounded by non-parallel
faces forcing the volume of rocks between the plates to
escape outward in a direction oblique to the plates
margins, while the plate motion between the plates is
close to normal to the plate boundary.
3.2. Ecuador block
This region is located in the southernmost portion
of the study area and is bounded to the north and west
by the right-lateral Pallatanga Fault, and to the east by
the eastern thrust front of the eastern Andes. This
block is characterized by northeast-trending thrust
fault earthquakes with P-axis directed to the east –
southeast (Fig. 3). The strain in this region has been
interpreted as the result of SE-directed compression
due to the convergence of the Nazca plate with respect
to the South American plate and the onset of the
Carnegie Ridge (Ego et al., 1996; Gutscher et al.,
1999). The summed moment tensor obtained for the
Ecuador block represents regional east –southeast-di-
rected compression, with a small component of
strike – slip motion. The eigenvalue of 0.469  1020
(Table 1; Appendix B) corresponds to the axis of
maximum compressive strain, a strain rate value of
8.2  10 9 year 1 and a crustal shortening rate of
0.2 –0.4 mm year 1. The resulting P-axis, from the
summed moment tensor, has an azimuth of 121.1j
(Fig. 6), which is consistent with the direction of the
relative motion between the northern Andes and a
stable South American plate obtained from GPS
measurements (Trenkamp et al. 2002) at the location
of the Ecuador block. The expected tectonic strain rate
for this block is 3.2  10 7 year 1, given a conver-
gence rate of 11.6 mm year 1 between the northern
Andes and the South American plate (Trenkamp et al.,
2002). It is clear from these estimates that most of the
strain in the Ecuador block is release aseismically. The
calculated P-axis is at an angle of 21j with respect to
the estimated vector of relative motion between the
Nazca and South American plates obtained by Tren-
kamp et al. This difference has been explained as the
result of strain partition along the Dolores – Guayaquil
megashear zone, produced by the onset of the Carne-
gie Ridge along the Ecuador trench (Gutscher et al.,
1999).
3.3. Southern Colombia block
This region is characterized by northeast-trending
strike – slip fault earthquakes (Fig. 4), and it is bounded
to the south by the Pallatanga fault, to the north and
west by the Romeral suture zone and the Ibague
transfer zone and to the east by the eastern margin of
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
the eastern Andes of Colombia and Ecuador. The strain
in this region has been interpreted as the result of the
northeast-directed transfer of motion from the oblique
subduction of the Nazca plate further to the south along
the Ecuador trench (Pennington, 1981; Gutscher et al.,
1999; Trenkamp et al., 2002). The summed moment
tensor obtained in this study represents regional north-
east-directed transpression. The eigenvalue of
1.19  1020 (Table 1; Appendix B) corresponds to the
axis of maximum compressive strain, a strain rate value
of 8.91  10 9 year 1 and a crustal shortening rate of
0.25 –0.5 mm year 1. The resulting P-axis, from the
summed moment tensor, has an azimuth of 250j (Fig.
6), which is consistent with the direction of the northern
Andes –South America relative motion obtained by
Trenkamp et al. (2002). The expected tectonic strain
rate for the Southern Colombia block, given a conver-
gence rate of 4– 5 mm year 1 for the northern Andes
with respect to the South American plate at the location
of the Southern Colombia block (Trenkamp et al.,
2002) is 5.4  10 8 year 1. GPS data suggests that
the Southern Colombia block is moving northeastward
with respect to the stable South American plate at 6 F 2
mm year 1 (Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Trenkamp et al.,
2002). Again, it is clear from these estimates that most
of the strain is release aseismically in the Southern
Colombia block. The calculated P-axis is oblique with
respect to the Nazca –South America vector of relative
convergence. This seismic strain is interpreted as the
result of northeast escape of this block in a similar way
than the kinematic model shown in Fig. 3C where the
broad zone of deformation is bounded by non-parallel
faces, while the plate motion is normal to the main plate
boundary, in this case, the Colombia trench. This model
explains the distribution of the seismic strain without
any northeast-directed transfer of motion from the
oblique convergence between the Nazca and South
American plates along the Ecuador trench farther to
the south.
3.4. Central Colombia block
This region is characterized mainly by northeast-
trending thrust fault earthquakes and a few southeast-
trending strike –slip fault earthquakes (Fig. 4). This
block is bounded to the south by the Ibague transfer
zone, to the west by the Romeral suture zone, to the
east by the eastern margin of the Eastern Cordillera of
157
Colombia and to the north by the left-lateral Bucar-
amanga strike –slip fault. The shallow seismicity in
this block has been interpreted as the result of the
ESE-directed collision of the Panama block with the
northern Andes, which has been active since the
Miocene (Pennington, 1981; Kellogg and Vega,
1995; Trenkamp et al., 2002). The summed moment
tensor obtained in this study represents regional
southeast-directed compression with nodal planes par-
allel to the strike of the deforming region in the central
Andes of Colombia. The eigenvalue of 0.922  1019
(Table 1; Appendix B) corresponds to the axis of
maximum compressive strain. The P-axis has an
azimuth of 311.3j (Fig. 5) that is consistent with the
direction of convergence between the Caribbean and
South American plates (Webber et al., 2001; Tren-
kamp et al., 2002). The expected tectonic strain rate
for the Central Colombia block, given a convergence
rate between the northern Andes and the South
American plate of 10 mm year 1 (Trenkamp et al.,
2002) is 1.92  10 7 year 1. The estimated seismic
strain rates using the summed moment tensor for the
Central Colombia block along the direction of the P-
axis is 6.28  10 10 year 1. The calculated crustal
shortening rate with respect to the South American
plate is 0.05 mm year 1, which is very small com-
pared to the relative motions obtained for this region
using GPS data, which are in the order of 6 –19 mm
year 1 (Trenkamp et al., 2002). Like the Ecuador and
Southern Colombia blocks, and given the amount of
shortening (90 – 180 km) that has occurred across this
region since the Miocene and the amount of topo-
graphic relief in the northern Andes, it is clear from
these estimates that most of the total strain is released
aseismically in the Central Colombia block. The
calculated azimuth of the P-axis for the summed
moment tensor suggests that the seismicity in this
block is the result of the convergence between the
Caribbean plate, including the Panama block and the
South American plate along the Southern Caribbean
Deformation zone. The calculated seismic strain can
be also explained using the kinematic model shown in
Fig. 3C, where the normal convergence between the
two plates and the non-parallel boundaries of the
volume where the strain is accommodated, produce
a broad zone of deformation that results in the
expulsion of material along the strike of the deforming
volume. This model is also consistent with the veloc-
158 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
ity vectors obtained from GPS data (Trenkamp et al.,
2002) that have a strong component of northeast-
directed motion with respect to the South American
plate, which decreases towards the east. The Ibague
transfer zone plays a strong roll in the way strain is
distributed across the Central and Southern Colombia
blocks, as this boundary marks a strong contrast in the
type of seismicity in these regions.
3.5. Maracaibo block
This region is characterized by a complex pattern
of southeast-trending thrust fault earthquakes and
northeast-trending strike – slip fault earthquakes (Fig.
4). This block is bounded to the west and south by the
Bucaramanga fault, to the east by the eastern margin
of the Mérida Andes and to the north by the right-
lateral Oca strike – slip fault. Large earthquakes in this
region are restricted to the northern end of the Eastern
Cordillera of Colombia, and the Mérida Andes. The
strain in this region has been interpreted as the result
of escape tectonics towards the northeast resulting
from the northeast-directed subduction of the Nazca
plate beneath South America along the Ecuador trench
(Trenkamp et al., 2002). This zone has also been
hypothesized to be the boundary between the South
American and Caribbean plates (Schuber, 1982). The
eigenvalue of 2.46  1018 (Table 1; Appendix B)
corresponds to the axis of maximum compressive
strain, and the eigenvalue of 2.79  1018 corresponds
to the axis of maximum tensional strain. The P-axis
has an azimuth of 218.9j (Fig. 6) that is consistent
with the relative motion of the northern Andes with
respect to the South American plate (Trenkamp et al.,
2002), while the T-axis has an azimuth of 99.1. The
strain rate for the Maracaibo block, given the south-
east-directed convergence with a stable South Amer-
ican convergence rate of 20 F 1.0 mm year  1
(Trenkamp et al., 2002), is 3.02  10 8 year 1. The
strain rate for the Maracaibo block, given the north-
east-directed motion of this region relative to the
South American plate at a rate of 11.5 F 0.5 mm
year 1 (Trenkamp et al., 2002), is 2.02  10 8
year 1. The estimated seismic strain rate, along the
direction of maximum compressive strain, using the
summed moment tensor for the Maracaibo block is
1.75  10 10 year 1, yielding a calculated crustal
convergence rate of 0.1 mm year 1. Again, the
seismic strain rates are much lower than the expected
tectonic strain rates, suggesting that most of the strain
is released aseismically. The resulting summed mo-
ment tensor for this block can be explained in differ-
ent ways: (1) the east – southeast-directed transfer of
motion from the Caribbean plate with a component of
northeast-directed motion produced by the non-paral-
lel boundaries of the deforming region as in Fig. 3C;
(2) the northeast-directed transfer of motion from the
Nazca plate convergence with the northern Andes
along the Colombia –Ecuador trench (Trenkamp et
al., 2002); and (3) the relatively high coupling be-
tween the Maracaibo block and the Caribbean plate
resulting in a northeastward directed drag of the
Maracaibo block. In the southern portion of this
region, the P-axis of earthquakes rotate from a
NW – SE direction in the western margin of the
Mérida Andes to a SW – NE direction in the eastern
margin. This rotation can be explained using the
kinematic model in Fig. 3C where the Boconó fault
represents the face that is oblique to plate boundary
between the Caribbean and South American plates,
which corresponds to the South Caribbean Deforma-
tion zone, where the convergence of the Caribbean
plate with respect to the northern Andes is normal.
4. Three-dimensional seismotectonics
In order to analyze the kinematics of the subduct-
ing slabs and the seismogenic crust of northwestern
South America, a three-dimensional model for the
regional seismicity and CMT solutions for earth-
quakes with M w >5.5 was developed using the
Gocadk software. Fig. 7 shows the three-dimensional
model and four cross-section views. CMT solutions
from the Harvard CMT catalog, as well as all the
earthquakes from the IRIS catalog (small dots) are
plotted. CMT solutions are plotted as spheres where
blue shaded regions correspond to compressional
arrival quadrants, while the yellow-shaded regions
correspond to dilational arrival quadrants.
Several features are clearly identified using this
three-dimensional model, including the northeast-dip-
ping Peru ‘‘flat-slab’’ beneath northern Peru and Ecua-
dor, the Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of
the Nazca plate, and the Caribbean plate. The seismic-
ity of the northeast-dipping Peru ‘‘flat-slab’’ is repre-
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
Fig. 7. Three-dimensional perspective view of CMT solutions in northwestern South America and cross-section views. Location of the sampling boxes for the cross-sections is indicated.
Section A – AV, cross-section across the Peru ‘‘flat-slab’’segment of the Nazca plate. Section B – BV, cross-section across the Ecuador Segment of the Nazca plate. Section C – CV, cross-section
across the Central Colombia segment of the Nazca plate, the overlapping Caribbean plate and the overlap fault zone with the Ecuador Segment of the Nazca plate. Section D – DV, cross-

159
section across the Caribbean plate. CMT solutions plotted as 3D spheres where blue and yellow shaded regions correspond to compressional and dilational arrival quadrants, respectively.
160 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166

sented mostly by normal fault earthquake events (Fig.
7, Section A –AV). These normal faulting earthquakes
show that the subducting slab is under extension,
probably due to plate bending beneath Ecuador. The
Ecuador segment of the Nazca plate is relatively
aseismic probably due to its high dip angle and
possible decoupling from the overlying continental
crust of northwestern South America. However, a zone
of small-magnitude earthquakes defines the geometry
of this slab (Fig. 7, Section B – BV). The Central
Colombia segment of the Nazca plate dips at a shal-
lower angle compared to the Ecuador segment, and
several southeast-trending, high-angle reverse fault
earthquakes with a component of dextral strike –slip
motion define an overlap fault zone that separates the
two segments (Fig. 7, Section C –CV). The Ecuador and
Central Colombia slab segments correspond to Pen-
nington’s Cauca and Bucaramanga segments, respec-
tively. The Caribbean plate is being subducted beneath
northern Colombia at a shallower angle compared to
the Central Colombia segment of the Nazca plate (Fig.
7, Section D –DV), and it is interpreted to culminate at
the location of the Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’ of seismicity.
The culmination of the Caribbean plate slab at this
location offers a viable explanation to this swarm of
seismicity in northern Colombia. A three-dimensional
model showing all the tectonic elements described
above is shown in Fig. 8. The model is the result of
the interpretation of the subducting slabs using tomo-
graphic sections (van der Hilst and Mann, 1994;
Taboada et al., 2000) and the three-dimensional distri-
bution of the seismicity in the region.

Fig. 8. Three-dimensional model of oceanic subducting slabs beneath northwestern South America. The Peru ‘‘flat slab’’, Ecuador segment and
Central Colombia segments of the Nazca plate, and the Caribbean plate are shown. The Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’ of seismicity is located at the
southernmost end of the Caribbean plate.
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166
5. Discussion
Using seismic tomography, van der Hilst and Mann
(1994) showed that the Caribbean plate was subduct-
ing beneath northern Colombia at a shallower angle
than the Nazca plate and located the overlap between
these two plates north of the Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’ of
seismicity. Taboada et al. (2000), also using seismic
tomography, suggested that there is an overlap be-
tween the Nazca plate and a completely subducted
segment of the paleo-Caribbean plate attached to the
Panama block and located the overlap south of the
Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’, close the boundary between the
Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of the Nazca
plate of this study. Based on the location of deep high-
angle reverse fault earthquake events between the
Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of the Nazca
plate (Fig. 7, Section C –CV), I interpret Taboada et al.’s
slabs overlap as an overlap fault zone between two
segments of the Nazca plate beneath central Colombia
(Fig. 8). The location of the overlap zone between
these two segments correlates well with the northern
limit of volcanism in central Colombia. The shallow
angle of subduction of the Central Colombia segment
of the Nazca plate and the overlap of the shallower
dipping Caribbean plate above it could explain the lack
of volcanism along northern Colombia. Additionally, I
propose that the Caribbean plate extends farther to the
south beneath northern Colombia (Fig. 7, Section D –
DV) and culminates at the location of the seismic cluster
of the Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’.
6. Conclusions
The seismic strain rates for northwestern South
America, calculated from the sum of CMT elements,
are very small compared to those calculated from plate
tectonic models and GPS data. The pattern of seismic
strain in the northern Andes changes from ESE direct-
ed compression in the Ecuador block, to ENE-directed
transpression in the Southern Colombia block, to ESE-
directed compression in the Central Colombia block,
to ENE-directed transpression in the Maracaibo block.
This pattern is explained as the result of the accom-
modation of the strain, produced by the east – southeast
normal convergence of the Nazca and Caribbean plates
with the South American plate and the collision of the
161
Panama block against central Colombia, across a broad
zone of continental distributed deformation bounded
by non-parallel faces. The component of northeast-
directed motion on the northern Andes is the result of
the obliquity of the eastern boundary of the northern
Andes along the Eastern Cordillera thrust front with
respect to the plate boundary between the Nazca,
Caribbean and South American plates along the Ecua-
dor – Colombia trench and the Southern Caribbean
Deformation zone, where the convergence is close to
normal. The obliquity of the faces that bound the
northern Andes creates a condition where the strain
is also accommodated by relatively aseismic rigid
motion of the northern Andes towards the northeast
with respect to a stable South American plate. Thus,
the seismic strain rates, localized seismicity and ori-
entation of P and T-axis in the northern Andes do not
require the plate boundary between the Caribbean and
South American plates to be located along the Eastern
Cordillera and Mérida Andes. The large differences
between the expected tectonic rates and the calculated
seismic rates can be explained by the aseismic release
of the strain by fault creeping, folding, rigid translation
or some other undefined processes.
The three-dimensional modelling and visualization
of CMT solutions for northwestern South America
reveal well-defined seismic zones that correspond with
large-scale tectonic features. The Caribbean slab and
three segments of the Nazca subducting slab are clearly
identified. An overlap fault zone that separates the
Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of the Nazca
slab is interpreted and is consistent with seismic and
geologic features present in the upper crust. Finally,
The Caribbean slab is interpreted to extend farther to
the south beneath northern Colombia than originally
proposed and culminates at the location of the seismic
cluster of the Bucaramanga ‘‘nest’’ offering a kinematic
explanation for this cluster of seismicity.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the financial support for
this work from the Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Harvard University. The author also
acknowledges Dr. G. Ekstron, Dr. J. Kellog, and Dr.
A. Taboada for their comments and suggestions that
helped to improve the manuscript.
162 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166

Appendix A

A.1 . Ecuador block earthquakes

Date Longitude Latitude Depth Moment tensor elements Nodal planes Ms exp
(km)
Year Month Day M11 M22 M33 M12 M13 M23 /1 h1 k1 /2 h2 k2
1982 4 11  78.52  3.48 15 3.85  3.25  0.61  4.26  0.57  2.49 39 26 56 256 68 106 6.11 23
1988 12 9  78.31  2.36 15 0.11  0.07  0.05  1.14  0.64  0.42 2 11 29 243 85 100 1.36 24
1995 10 8  78.05  2.99 38  0.2 1.42  1.23 0.09 0.32  0.7 240 80  170 148 80  10 1.54 24
1995 10 4  78.02  2.77 33  1.75 4.75 3 2.07 5.38  8.6 262 65  163 164 75  26 11.1 23
1995 10 7  77.99  3.03 15 3.15 0.01  3.16 1.97 3.8 0.15 161 22 53 20 73 104 5.3 24
1995 10 5  77.88  2.95 42 3.63 3.05  6.68  0.09  3.54  6.02 69 59 167 166 79 32 8.54 23
1990 11 25  77.79  2.7 25 1.11 0.11  1.23  0.03  0.46  0.38 20 35 98 190 55 84 1.3 24
1995 10 3  77.77  2.88 15 2.48 2.06  4.54 0.17 2.93  3.05 243 45 157 349 74 47 5.38 25
1995 10 3  77.53  2.55 25 3.06  0.67  2.39 0 1.51  2.38 234 39 120 18 57 68 3.91 26
1995 10 29  77.11  2.41 42 0.3  0.02  0.28  0.26  3.05  3.5 89 48 178 181 88 42 4.64 23
1988 4 12  76.84  3.1 43 5.91 1.43  7.34  2.75  2.57  1.12 346 37 54 208 60 114 7.78 23
Summed moment tensor elements 3.3616  0.443  2.918 0.020 1.828  2.720 223.4 38.1 121.8 15.14 58.4 67.55 11.6 26

Ms corresponds to scalar moment in dynes centi- multiplied (10exp) to yield the value in newton meters.
meter; exp corresponds to the value by which scalar /, h and k correspond to strike, dip and rake,
moment and moment tensor elements should be respectively, for best-fit nodal planes.

A.2 . Southern Colombia block earthquakes

See Appendix A.1 for definitions.

Date Longitude Latitude Depth Moment tensor elements Nodal planes Ms exp
(km)
Year Month Day M11 M22 M33 M12 M13 M23 /1 h1 k1 /2 h2 k2
1996 3 28  78.66  1.19 15 5.46 0.4  5.85  0.07  6.22  0.51 8 21 96 182 69 88 8.42 24
1987 9 22  78.24  0.89 15 2.2 1.62  3.82  1.51 1.81  0.41 218 42 147 334 68 53 4.07 25
1987 9 22  78.24  0.98 19 8.21 1.76  9.97  4.59 2.4 1.33 197 42 129 330 59 61 10.66 24
1990 8 11  78.15 0.01 15 6.96 3  9.96  1.67  2.08 3.06 323 45 53 190 55 122 9.45 23
2000 10 8  78.07 0 15 5.33  0.3  5.03 0.22  0.61 1.68 342 42 90 162 48 90 5.49 23
1996 8 25  77.99  1.12 15 1.39  0.28  1.1  0.74  0.28 1.06 172 48 130 300 55 54 1.83 24
1992 12 26  77.92  1.15 15 1.18 3.34  4.51  5.72 0.07 2.2 200 46 166 300 80 45 7 24
1987 3 6  77.84  0.06 15 5.03  0.12  4.91 0.26 3.85  0.97 195 27 98 7 64 86 6.37 26
1987 3 6  77.77 0.1 15 2.78 0.14  2.93  1.04 3.84  0.18 198 20 118 348 73 81 4.9 25
1987 3 6  77.73 0.31 15  2.75 8.8  6.05  6.61 5.68 0.98 226 40  166 125 81  51 11.73 24
1985 4 10  77.21 1.94 47  6.57 7.58  1.02 1.67 1.31 3.18 81 38  76 244 53  100 7.91 23
1983 5 19  76.63 0.11 23 6.11  1.05  5.07 1.95  2.18  5.05 60 49 129 189 54 54 8.1 23
1994 6 6  75.94 2.93 15  0.05 1.46  1.41  0.61  0.1 1 206 76 170 299 80 14 1.84 26
Summed moment tensor elements 5.624 1.665  7.29  0.780 4.328 0.024 189.5 28.7 104.8 352.6 62.3 82 11.6 26
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 163

A.3 . Central Colombia block earthquakes

See Appendix A.1 for definitions.

Date Longitude Latitude Depth Moment tensor elements Nodal planes Ms exp
(km)
Year Month Day M11 M22 M33 M12 M13 M23 /1 h1 k1 /2 h2 k2
1999 1 25  75.75 4.58 28  0.4  0.5 0.9  0.99  0.46  1.5 8 65  21 107 71  153 2.01 25
1999 1 25  75.74 4.31 34  0.48  0.94 1.41 1  0.37  1.27 17 67  23 116 69  155 2.07 24
2001 9 8  74.83 8.58 34 0.62 4.97  5.6  0.86  1.03 0.91 310 75 2 220 88 165 5.53 23
1979 5 21  74.07 7.27 24 1.46 0.37  1.83 0.95 0.06  0.84 170 48 45 47 59 128 2.1 24
1982 1 17  74.05 5.97 35 0.78 7.38  8.16  6.64 1.11  2.72 329 68 23 230 68 157 10.27 23
1991 6 25  72.9 5.76 15 0.64 7.34  7.98 0 0  0.4 227 90  180 317 90 0 7.67 23
1995 1 20  72.89 5.21 33 3.66 0.89  4.56 3.24 4.46  1.39 170 24 50 33 72 106 7.03 23
1995 1 22  72.88 5.01 15 2.56  0.88  1.68  0.54 2.34  1.73 243 36 136 10 66 62 3.7 24
1995 1 19  72.85 5.16 16 6.43  2.15  4.28  1.35  2.56  3.07 38 33 95 212 57 87 7.07 25
1995 4 23  72.27 5.1 33 6.44  1.97  4.47 2.2  2.31  6.72 68 52 133 191 55 48 9.28 23
Summed moment tensor elements 6.505  2.609  3.897  2.419  2.794  5.057 41.8 31.8 90.6 221.1 58.2 89.6 1.925 25

A.4 . Maracaibo block earthquakes

See Appendix A.1 for definitions.

Date Longitude Latitude Depth Moment tensor elements Nodal planes Ms exp
(km)
Year Month Day M11 M22 M33 M12 M13 M23 /1 h1 k1 /2 h2 k2
1981 10 18  72.81 8.45 26 1.67 3.47  5.15  0.07 6.62  4.97 251 43 173 347 85 47 9.16 24
1978 1 21  72.75 6.54 15  0.32 0.73  0.41  0.27 1.42 0.64 94 35  12 194 83  124 1.59 24
1980 11 26  72.64 7.96 40  0.09 6.51  6.42 3.87  2.41  3.69 57 64 170 151 81 26 8.59 23
1980 5 2  72.34 7.71 15 6.11 1.43  7.54  4.42 9.38  3.2 226 28 147 345 75 66 12.85 23
1994 5 31  72.12 7.83 21 1.31 0.03  1.34 0.48 0.47 0.6 137 45 54 2 55 120 1.6 24
1994 5 31  72.03 7.62 15 8.4 0.22  8.63 0.36 7.44 5.16 133 32 54 354 65 110 12.37 24
2000 1 17  71.94 6.87 31 2.03  0.12  1.92 0.04 1.74 0.56 154 26 71 355 65 99 2.69 24
1994 11 9  71.73 7.53 21 1.29 0.13  1.42  0.36 0.18 0.53 178 42 113 329 52 71 1.5 24
1979 5 5  71.56 9.09 22 0.37 0.92  1.3 0.06 0.95 0.58 119 53 4 26 87 143 1.52 24
1988 7 12  71.52 9.28 15  2.52  0.14 2.66 1.69 6.78 2.64 59 16  47 194 78  101 7.83 23
2001 12 21  71.11 8.4 23 0.26 2  2.25  1.74 0.71  0.82 230 60 164 328 76 31 2.88 24
2001 6 28  70.41 11.4 32  0.72  1.88 2.61  9.57 3.45  4.02 14 24 6 109 88  114 11.18 23
1999 12 2  70.22 11.03 15  0.09  0.2 0.29  0.01 0.88  1.64 274 62  180 184 90  28 1.88 24
1999 3 30  70.21 10.83 15  0.52 0.03 0.49  0.61  0.92  4.69 92 78  172 0 82  12 4.84 24
1995 12 29  69.94 9.98 15 0 0.57  0.57  1.06  1.72  3.7 88 70  167 354 78  21 4.19 24
1995 12 31  69.91 9.86 15 0.01 0.63  0.63 0.03 0.43  1.2 257 74  175 166 86  16 1.42 24
1991 8 17  69.83 9.74 15 0.31 1.18  1.48  0.15  0.22  2.19 344 86 3 74 87  176 2.58 24
1984 6 14  69.78 10.05 18  1.19 5.75  4.57  3.57  2.87  7.47 340 65  11 75 80  155 10.21 23
1997 4 15  69.63 10.69 15 0.19  5.43 5.24 1.48  5.47  4.91 109 65 163 206 75 26 8.86 23
1977 12 11  69.61 10 18 2  0.38  1.62 0.15 0.45 0.12 170 38 83 359 52 95 1.87 24
1986 7 18  69.24 10.84 15 1.6  1.11  0.49  0.09  0.4  1.01 64 41 106 223 51 76 1.78 24
1989 5 4  68.42 10.96 15  0.36  1.42 1.79  0.93  0.9 0.54 145 51  174 51 85  39 2.13 24
1989 4 30  68.08 10.88 15  0.83  4.39 5.22  5.28 0.75 6.79 166 62  168 70 79  29 9.83 24
Summed moment tensor elements 1.7308 0.291  2.02  1.05 1.876  0.67 220.7 31.8 140.5 345.7 70.5 64.5 2.6241 25
164 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166

Appendix B . Summed moment tensors The diagonalized moment tensor is

B.1 . Summed moment tensor elements for the 2 3

earthquakes in the northern Andes 0:496 0 0
6 7
6 7
Dij ¼ 6
60 0:097 0 7  1020 N m:
7
2 3 4 5
0:981 0:111 0:606
6 7 0 0 0:399
6 7
Mij ¼ 6
6 0:111 0:099 0:327 7 20
7  10 N m:
4 5
From Eq. (3), the strain rate tensor is
0:606 0:327 1:08

2 3
The diagonalized moment tensor is 0:496 0 0
6 7
dėij 1 6 60
7
7
2 3 ¼ 0:097 0
0:130 0 0 dt 2lV s 6
4
7
5
6 7
6 7 0 0 0:399
Dij ¼ 6
60 0:0123 0 7  1021 N m:
7
4 5  1020 year1
0 0 0:118 2 3
8:196 0 0
6 7
From Eq. (3), the strain rate tensor is 6 7
¼6
60 1:603 0 7  109 year1 :
7
4 5
2 3
0:130 0 0 0 0 6:593
6 7
dėij 1 6 60
7
7
¼ 0:0123 0
dt 2lV s 6
4
7
5 B.3 . Summed moment tensor elements for the
0 0 0:118 earthquakes in the Southern Colombia block

 1021 year1
2 3 2 3
1:304 0 0 0:562 0:078 0:433
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
6
¼60 0:0123 0 7  109 year1 : Mij ¼ 6 0:002 7 20
4
7
5 6 0:078 0:167 7  10 N m:
4 5
0 0 0:184 0:433 0:002 0:729

B.2 . Summed moment tensor elements for the

earthquakes in the Ecuador block The diagonalized moment tensor is

2 3 2 3
0:336 0:002 0:183 0:861 0 0
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
Mij ¼ 6
6 0:002 0:044 0:272 7 20
7  10 N m: Dij ¼ 6
60 0:157 0 7  1020 N m:
7
4 5 4 5
0:183 0:272 0:292 0 0 0:704
 F. Corredor / Tectonophysics 372 (2003) 147–166 165

From Eq. (3), the strain rate tensor is B.5 . Summed moment tensor elements for the
2 3 earthquakes in the Maracaibo block
0:861 0 0
6 7 2 3
dėij 1 6 60
7
7
0:173 0:105 0:188
¼ 0:157 0 6 7
dt 2lV s 6
4
7
5 6 7
Mij ¼ 6
6 0:105 0:029 0:067 7 19
7  10 N m:
0 0 0:704 4 5
 1020 year1 0:188 0:067 0:202
2 3
8:908 0 0 The diagonalized moment tensor is
6 7
6 7 2 3
¼6
60 1:624 0 7  109 year1 :
7 0:282 0 0
4 5 6 7
6 7
0 0 7:284 Dij ¼ 6
60 0:024 0 7  1019 N m:
7
4 5
B.4 . Summed moment tensor elements for the 0 0 0:306
earthquakes in the Central Colombia block
From Eq. (3), the strain rate tensor is
2 3 2 3
0:651 0:242 0:280 0:282 0 0
6 7 6 7
6 7 dėij 1 6 60
7
7
Mij ¼ 6
6 0:242 0:261 0:506 7 19
7  10 N m: ¼ 0:024 0
4 5 dt 2lV s 6
4
7
5
0:280 0:506 0:390 0 0 0:306
 1019 year1
The diagonalized moment tensor is 2 3
1:903 0 0
2 3 6 7
0:922 0 0 6 7
6 7 ¼6
60 0:162 0 7  1010 year1 :
7
6 7 4 5
Dij ¼ 6
60 0:184 0 7  1019 N m:
7
4 5 0 0 2:065
0 0 0:738

From Eq. (3), the strain rate tensor is References

2 3
0:922 0 0 Bowers, D., Hudson, J.A., 1999. Defining the scalar moment of a
6 7 seismic source with a general moment tensor. Bull. Seismol.
dėij 1 6 60
7
7 Soc. Am. 89 (5), 1390 – 1394.
¼ 0:184 0
dt 2lV s 6
4
7
5
Case, J.E., Duran, S., Lopez, R.A., Moore, W.R., 1971. Tectonic
investigations in western Colombia and eastern Panama. Geol.
0 0 0:738 Soc. Am. Bull. 82, 2685 – 2712.
DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., Stein, S., 1990. Current
 1019 year1 plate motions. Geophys. J. Int. 101, 425 – 478.
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