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Long-Term Behavior of Cracked Steel Fiber-Reinforced PDF
Long-Term Behavior of Cracked Steel Fiber-Reinforced PDF
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ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER
Title no. 109-M22
In many cases, fibers are incorporated into concrete to improve not, however, take into account the long-term behavior under
the service life of structures by means of the three-dimensional cracked conditions and neither do ACI 360R-104 or the new
(3-D) crack control capacity of this type of reinforcement. In complete draft of fib Model Code 20105—only a recom-
this sense, the residual (postcracking) capacity and long-term mendation is included in the latter concerning the long-term
(creep) behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete is of paramount performance of concrete reinforced with fibers that could
importance. This paper presents an experimental study on the
behavior of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) beams, cracked
be affected by creep. In this sense, Granju et al.6 previously
and then subjected to long-term loading. Beams measuring mentioned that design rules ignoring the effects of sustained
150 x 150 x 600 mm (6 x 6 x 24 in.) were cast with a 45 MPa loading would be inadequate. In Granju et al.’s6 study, where
(6525 psi) compressive strength SFRC with self-consolidating beams were loaded at 60% of the residual load corresponding
characteristics, having 40 kg/m3 (67 lb/yd3), 0.5% in volume, to a deflection of span/300, the authors observed that creep
of hooked-end steel fibers of 50 mm (2 in.) length and 1 mm is stabilized after the sixth month of sustained loading and
(0.04 in.) diameter. First, a group of four beams was tested that creep might not affect the safety of structures because
in flexure according to EN 14651 to establish a performance no difference was found between the postcracking behavior
reference. Subsequently, another 18 nominally identical beams of samples subjected to creep loading and that of the control
were loaded up to crack openings between 0.2 and 3.5 mm specimens. In contrast, fatigue loading led other similar
(0.008 and 0.14 in.) using the same test configuration to generate beams to rupture. Both types of loading led to widening of
different damage levels. The cracked beams were then placed
existing cracks. Even when fatigue did not lead to rupture, it
in creep frames and subjected to different levels of load. The
crack opening under constant gravity load was electronically significantly increased the crack width.
measured over a period of approximately 21 months by means of When considering the possible combinations of steel bar
displacement transducers. The concept of the crack-opening rate reinforcement and fibers, studies including conventionally
under long-term loading is introduced, and the conditions for a reinforced beams7,8 have shown that the addition of steel
long-term stable response are discussed. fibers considerably reduces the time-dependent deflection and
crack widening of reinforced concrete—effects that become
Keywords: cracking; creep; fiber reinforcement; long-term behavior; more important with increased fiber content and time.
tensile properties.
Regarding the effect of fiber type, an analytical
model9 developed to study the influence of fibers on creep
INTRODUCTION of fiber-reinforced cementitious composites shows that,
The mechanical behavior of steel fiber-reinforced concrete given the same fiber content and fiber geometry, the higher
(SFRC) has been widely studied over the past three decades. the moduli ratio between the fiber and matrix, the smaller
Significant advances have been achieved regarding the the composite creep strain. High elastic modulus fibers are
toughness and residual strength characterization of SFRC. more effective than those with a low elastic modulus as far
In this regard, EN 146511 includes postcracking param- as composite creep deformation reduction is concerned. This
eters such as residual strengths at different crack openings. model, however, is valid only in the elastic range of fiber
Nevertheless, there is limited information on the long-term and matrix loading; the influence of matrix microcracking
behavior of cracked SFRC elements under load, with only a on creep was not taken into account.
few reports on the subject. The steel fiber filament does not show creep deformation
In many applications, fibers have been incorporated into when subjected to tensile stresses under normal ambient
concrete not only to control cracking processes by intro- temperature. Fibers in concrete primarily start to carry stress
ducing significant toughness or ductility but also to improve after microcracking of the matrix starts. In the postcracking
the service life of structures by means of the three-dimen- stage, fibers will bridge the cracks and control their propaga-
sional (3-D) reinforcement action. In this sense, creep char- tion by the chemical and physical bond or anchorage that
acterization of cracked fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) and develops during the fiber pullout or slip processes. These
the conditions required for a stable postcrack or residual mechanisms are not independent of the fiber type. For
response represent key points of interest because service- example, in the case of deformed steel fibers, the anchorage
ability of the material will depend on its capacity to transfer action associated with the fiber geometry is especially rele-
the sustained stresses through the fibers and the corre-
sponding stability of the cracks involved.
In terms of structural design, recommendations for SFRC ACI Materials Journal, V. 109, No. 2, March-April 2012.
were proposed by RILEM TC 162-TDF,2 adding the fiber MS No. M-2010-406.R2 received May 23, 2011, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright © 2012, American Concrete Institute. All rights
contribution to the formulas of Eurocode 2.3 As an important reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the
step forward, the method considers the possibility of struc- copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will be
published in the January-February 2013 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is
tural cracking in service in a very practical fashion. It does received by October 1, 2012.
Eq. (1), considering the position of the LVDT and clip gauge TEST RESULTS
extensometer with respect to the top of the beam, where Flexural tests and initial cracking process
dLVDT = 140 mm (5.51 in.) and dCMOD = 151 mm (5.94 in.), A typical load-CMOD curve is presented in Fig. 2(a);
respectively. records from the clip gauge and the LVDT corrected in
accordance with Eq. (1) were plotted, showing the coher-
CMOD = COD × dCMOD/dLVDT (1) ence of both measurements. Note that just after a slight drop
following the first peak, the SFRC under evaluation shows a
hardening-type post-peak behavior with significant residual
With the aim of verifying the suitability of the adopted
strengths. The fM/fL ratio is close to 1.6, and the maximum
methodology, only one beam was initially placed in each
residual stress corresponds to a CMOD of 1.5 mm (0.06 in.)
frame. After 1 month of loading and considering the stability
(fR2). Hence, a significant postcracking load-bearing capacity
of the responses, the specimens were unloaded and three is observed for this SFRC.
beams were placed in each frame to increase the number of Figure 2(b) and (c) presents typical load-CMOD curves
beams tested under long-term loading within the available obtained during the cracking process carried out prior to the
frames (refer to Fig. 1). Note that a load cell was positioned long-term testing (Beams I and M cracked up to a CMOD of
on the top of each set of specimens. 0.5 and 1.0 mm [0.02 and 0.04 in.], respectively).
The test setup is similar to the one used by Bast et al.14 and Table 2 shows the mean values of the strength parameters
basically identical to that used by Arango Campo.13 As can (fL, fR1, fR2, fR3, and fR4) obtained from the bending tests on
be observed from Fig. 1, a constant gravity load was applied notched beams performed in accordance with EN 14651.1 In
through a lever arm (LA) that pivots on axis (A) and transfers addition to the results obtained from the reference beams,
the load to the beams through two threaded steel bars (SBs). Table 2 includes the same parameters calculated from the
The load was registered by a load cell (LC). The beams rest rest of the beams tested: six beams up to a CMOD of 0.2 mm
on two steel roll supports, which were fixed in the bottom (0.008 in.), three beams up to a CMOD of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.),
beam and free in the case of the middle and upper elements. one beam up to a CMOD of 0.8 mm (0.03 in.), three beams
The tracking of the COD is similar to that implemented by up to a CMOD of 1.0 mm (0.40 in.), three beams up to a
Granju et al.6 CMOD of 1.5 mm (0.06 in.), and two beams up to a CMOD
Long-term creep tests were performed on the aforemen- of 3.5 mm (0.14 in.). As expected, the mean value of fL and
tioned beams over a period of 21 months and the COD was the residual strengths are similar to those obtained in the
continuously recorded. Different stress levels were applied complete EN 146511 bending tests. It must be noted that the
using a four-point loading configuration with a 450 mm variability of the residual parameters was higher for a CMOD
of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) (fR1). In a few cases (refer to Beams K
(17.7 in.) span. At the beginning of the creep tests, the
and P), no increases in post-peak capacity were observed.
nominal stresses varied from 37 to 105% of those reached at
This level of post-peak variability is typical in SFRC; the
the end of the initial three-point bending test. Some beams
effect on the different long-term loading responses will be
failed during long-term loading, but most beams presented discussed in the following.
stable responses. After approximately 18 months, the load Table 3 summarizes additional information obtained from
was significantly increased on the beams that remained the initial cracking process of Beams A to R: the maximum
loaded in the frames, achieving stresses up to 195% of those stress (fM, calculated from the maximum load obtained
reached at the end of the initial three-point bending test. throughout the entire test); the stress and crack opening
Additionally, an LVDT was placed on an unloaded refer- at the end of the initial cracking process (ffinal and CMOD-
ence beam to account for shrinkage deformations. A data final, respectively); and the residual CMOD after unloading
acquisition system was used to record the signals from all (CMODresidual). Note that, as a consequence of the post-peak
LVDTs, load cells, and sensors tracking environmental hardening behavior of this SFRC, in many cases, fmax = ffinal.
conditions (temperature and relative humidity). Table 3 also includes the value of the fL/ffinal ratio and the
characteristic of the post-peak behavior at the end of the an LVDT placed on a cracked and unloaded beam indicated
cracking test (hardening or softening type). that the variations in ambient conditions did not significantly
affect the CMOD of the cracked beams (±4 mm [±0.02 ×
Long-term behavior of cracked beams 10–3 in.]).
Figure 3 shows the variation in environmental conditions Different stress levels were applied during the creep tests.
over the first 75 days. During this study, the ambient temper- First, some beams were individually loaded in each frame
ature ranged between 16 and 23°C (60 and 73°F) and the and then were unloaded to rearrange the configuration in sets
relative humidity ranged between 64 and 22%. Records from of three beams per frame. This procedure was repeated when
addition, the initial COD of cracked Beams D, E, and F after At 18 months, the load level was increased in Beams A
loading in the frames was close to the theoretically estimated to F (smaller initial crack openings) up to f/fL values greater
COD considering the elastic recovery after the cracking tests than 1.20. Consequently, beams where f/ffinal was finally
(CMODfinal – CMODresidual) and the applied stresses, showing less than 1.3 continued to carry the applied load, whereas
the stability of these responses. The observed behavior can Beams C and F, where f/ffinal was greater than 1.4, broke
be explained considering that most of the beams (with the suddenly. The performance of Beam C can be explained
exception of Beam C) showed a hardening-type behavior at because it showed the lowest post-peak residual capacity of
the end of the cracking test. Thus, these specimens have a the group (refer to ffinal in Table 3). This beam failed when
significant residual capacity to support the long-term load 5.1 MPa (740 psi) was applied, which is lower than the
without the fibers slipping from the matrix. average fR1 of this concrete. Hence, the intrinsic variability
of the post-peak response of SFRC must be considered for three-stage creep response: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
practical applications. The response of Beam K presented in Fig. 4 and 5 clearly
Considering specimens with intermediate crack openings, shows the rate increase indicated in Table 4. This beam
a stable response can still be observed for a CMODfinal of entered the third creep stage after 40 to 50 days with
0.5 mm (0.02 in.), although for f/ffinal = 0.96, a relatively a 1.36 mm/h (535 in./h 10–4) crack-opening rate and a
high crack-opening rate appeared, indicating the possibility 0.52 mm/h MPa (141 in./h psi10–9) relative crack-opening
of failure initiation (Beam H). This does not occur for lower rate. For the same initial crack opening of 1.0 mm (0.04 in.),
f/ffinal ratios (Beams I and J). In the case of Beam G, also a relatively stable condition was achieved with this SFRC for
loaded at a high f/ffinal, where a relatively large crack-opening an f/ffinal close to 0.70 and f/fL near 0.90 (Beams L and M).
rate was measured (refer to Table 4), the failure took place A similar behavior was also observed for larger values of
during an unloading-loading event. In this group, when the CMODfinal, as in the case of Beams N and O (CMODfinal of
loads were increased at later ages, a quick failure occurred in 1.5 mm [0.06 in.]) or even Beams Q and R (CMODfinal of
Beams H and J; on the contrary, Beam I continued to carry 3.5 mm [0.14 in.]). For the latter specimens, f/ffinal = 0.50.
load even though f/ffinal = 0.81. Nevertheless, an almost instantaneous failure occurred when
When the creep test started on beams cracked up to a applying f/ffinal = 0.90 (Beam P). Similarly, Beams M, N,
CMODfinal of 1 mm (0.04 in.), which is close to the highest O, and R failed when reloaded with an f/ffinal greater than
residual strength fR2 of this SFRC, an f/ffinal of 0.78 led to a 0.80. Comparing Beam M with Beams O and R, it can be
creep failure at 83 days in the case of Beam K, showing a seen from Fig. 5 that whereas all these specimens showed