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VPAT Manual Eng PDF
VPAT Manual Eng PDF
Introduction to
Modern Voltammetric
and Polarographic
Analisys Techniques
IV Edition, 2001
!
Qualitative and quantitative analysis in Voltammetry
Aox + ne Ared
In order that the discharge (and than the flowing of the current through the
electrode) can occur, is necessary that Aox can reach the electrode starting from the
bulk solution and also that Aox can accept the electrons from the electrode. The
process than proceeds under the influence of two kinetic factors:
- the speed (vd) of the chemical compound that reach the electrode from the
bulk solution
- the speed (ve) of the electronic exchange between the electrode and the
solution.
The migration is the moving due to the attraction force of the electric field
generated by the electrode toward every ion having opposite charge and also due to
the contemporary repulsion force of every ion having the same charge of the
electrode.
Fig. 3 – Migration in a quiet solution.
The negative electrode attracts positive
charged particles and repels the negative
charged ones with a force that diminishing
exponentially while the distance is increased.
For simplicity only one positive particle (and
one negative) for each layer has been pointed
out
d = distance from the electrode (d3>d2>d1)
v = particle speed (v1>v2>v3)
During the discharging process the solution closer to the electrode becomes
ever more poor in Aox in respect to the bulk solution. The growing concentration
gradient recalls other electro-active compound, Aox, from bulk solution toward the
electrode.
The diffusion speed is directly proportional to the concentration gradient and
than to the concentration of the electro-active compound in the solution.
Among the three described phenomena only diffusion can be related to the
concentration of the electro-active compound, called also depolarizer. This is way in
a voltammetric analysis is necessary to take adequate steps in order to secure that an
electro-active compound can move itself prevalently by diffusion during a discharge
process.
1. The exchange of electrons between the working electrode and the solution
is faster than the potential variation and hence than the velocity of the
diffusion (vs > vd). In this way the potential of the working electrode
corresponds, in every moment, to the one expected on the basis of Nernst
law. The electron exchange is than due to a rapid (or reversible) redox
couple, or, anyway the overpotential is absent and the discharging process
is due only to the diffusion.
2. The velocity of the electron transfer is lower than the diffusion velocity (vs
< vd). The redox system, in this case, is called slow or irreversible, or is
characterised by high overpotential phenomenon: its potential is, in fact, “in
late” respect on the one expected on the basis of Nernst law.
3. Both the velocity are similar. The redox couple has intermediate
characteristics and the discharging process is ruled by both the diffusion
and the velocity of the electron transfer
Fig. 7 – Discharging process during the
potential scanning.
The phenomenon is ruled by two factors:
- the velocity of electron transfer (vs) from
electrode and redox system
- the diffusion velocity (vd) of the motion of
electro active compound toward the electrode
surface.
2.1 – The discharge of Pb2+ at the electrode during a linear scanning of potential
For simplicity let’s consider to make a rapid and linear potential scanning with
a rapid (meaning reversible and without overpotential) redox system, that is ruled by
the Nernst law. Let’s also consider that during the discharge no adsorption process
on the electrode or chemical collateral reactions take place and finally that the
thickness of diffusion layer remains constant.
A real case is described in fig. 8 which represent a graph obtained when the
variation of the electric current flowing though a stationary dropping mercury
electrode is plotted while a rapid and reducing potential scanning is applied to a
aqueous solution of Pb2+ and 0.1 M KCl as supporting electrolyte.
Pb2+ + 2e Pb(Hg)
E = E0 +
0.1984 ! T
log
[Pb 2+]
2 [Pb( Hg )]
Where potential are expressed in mV, E0 is the standard potential of the couple
Pb2+/Pb, that is –365 mV (referred to SSC), T is the temperature in K; [Pb2+] is the
concentration of ionic lead in the solution and [Pb(Hg)] is the concentration of
metallic lead in mercury amalgam.
Starting background current (part A in fig 8). The potential is not sufficient
to cause the discharge of Pb2+, the measured background current is due to several
causes, like the resistance of the cell, the discharge of residual oxygen, the capacitive
current and the electronic noise of the electric circuit.
Ascending part of the peak (part B in fig 8). Close to the discharge potential,
the curve rear up: the Pb2+ ions discharge themselves to the electrode at velocity
every time faster; the diffusion layer become every time poorer and a spontaneous
flow of other Pb2+ ions is established from bulk solution. The velocity of the motion
of Pb2+ ions toward the diffusion layer is proportional to the concentration in the
bulk. Contemporaneously the discharge of Pb2+ ions causes the appearance and the
progressive enhancement of metallic Pb on the surface of the mercury (with which it
form an amalgam).
Descending part of the peak (part C in fig 8). The concentration of Pb2+ into
the layer of solution close to the electrode is practically equal to zero because the
diffusion layer become dramatically impoverished of Pb2+. The current decrease
because the potential scanning velocity is so high that the electro active compound is
not able to reach early the electrode. At these values of potential, all Pb2+ ions
arriving to the electrode are reduced immediately and their concentration in the
diffusion layer is very low. Current trends than to diminish (part D of the curve).
c d
Fig. 10 –Cyclic voltammetry
a- Potential scanning starting from an anodic sense; b- Typical parameters of a cyclic scanning;
c- Cyclic voltammogram of a reversible redox system: 5 " 10-3 M K3Fe(CN)6 solution in 1M KNO3. Pt
electrode.
In the cathodic (bottom) range takes place the reaction: Fe(CN)63- + e Fe(CN)64-
4- 3-
In the anodic (top) range takes place the reaction: Fe(CN)6 Fe(CN)6 + e
d- Cyclic voltammogram of 10-3 M L-ascorbic acid solution in 0.1 M NaClO4. Dropping mercury
electrode. The system is strongly irreversible the cathodic peak (bottom) is completely absent.
The cyclic scanning has to be ruled on the basis of few simply basic rules:
- a scanning starts in the cathodic sense has to be stopped at a potential
lower than 100 mV (at least) respect on the peak potential;
- a scanning starts in the anodic sense has to be stopped at a potential
higher than 100 mV (at least) respect on the peak potential;
- alternatively, a pause of 1 minute can be set between the go and back
scanning.
Seeing fig. 12 b and c, the currents measured during each pulse i1 and i2,, before
the peak are practically equal to zero and their difference is equal to zero too (a part
from the residual current…). But when the potential, step by step, get closer to the
discharge potential, the currents raise up (i2 more than i1) and their difference increases
reaching a maximum. After, the currents fall down and the difference becomes near
zero again.
The technique is very sensitive and detection limits range near 10 – 100 µg/l.
- the electrode is stationary and the solution is stirred. This technique has
low reproducibility and is practically not used.
- the solid electrode rotates around the own axis, the solution is than stirred.
The electrode is a disk or a disk coupled with a ring.
- The solution flows into a tubular electrode at constant velocity. This
system is used as voltammetric detector in HPLC.
Exemple:
2Hg + 2Cl- Hg2Cl2 + 2e pre-concentration
Hg2Cl2 + 2e 2Hg + 2Cl- reducing (cathodic) scanning
a b
Fig. 17 - Rapid DC polarography.
a- Rapid DC polarogram of Cd2+ e Pb2+ (50 mg/l each) in 0.1 M KCl solution.
b- Polarogram of the same solution plotted as first derivative.
The polarographic cell is a glass or teflon vessel in which are inserted a tube
for the bubbling of nitrogen and three electrodes:
The working electrode – A capillary connected with a mercury container or a
solid electrode
The reference electrode – A simply Ag/AgCl, saturated KCl electrode.
The auxiliary electrode – A platinum wire inserted on a teflon rod.
The stirring of the sample solution is allowed by a magnetic stirrer and a
magnetic rod.
- kind of solvent
- chemical structure of the electrode
- surface characteristics of the electrode
- supporting solution
- sensitivity of the instrument
In water solution this range restricted in the cathodic side by the hydrogen
discharge:
2H+ + 2 e H2
O2 + 4H+ + 4 e 2H2O
Hg2+ + 2e Hg
The potentials of the two discharging processes above described, can shift
considerably depending on the overpotential phenomena due to chemical structure of
the electrode.
Let’s now consider the most important materials for electrodes.
Hg2+ + 2 e Hg
Practically, it is impossible use the mercury electrode above 0.3 V (Vs. SSC).
Another advantage on the use of mercury as electrode is due to the
opportunity of eliminate a drop of this element at the end of the scanning. In this
way the surface of the electrode can be renewed before each analysis.
C acqua HCIO 1 M
KCI 1M
H SO 1 M
acqua tampone pH 7
NaOH 1 M
acetonitrile TBABF 0,1 M
Pt benzonitrile TBABF 0,1 M
PC TEAP 0,1 M
tetraidrofurano TBAP 0,1 M
dimetilformammide TBAP 0,1 M
cloruro di metilene TBAP 0,1 M
Fig. 20 – Operating range of mercury, gold, platinum and glassy carbon electrodes in water solution
and in other solvents.
5. APPLICATIONS
Every oxidizable or reducible substance that can be dissolved in an
appropriate solvent can be analysed by Voltammetry, using appropriate conditions
(supporting electrolyte, kind of electrode, scanning technique and scanning
parameters) for its discharge. The main application field of the voltammetric
techniques is the trace analysis of heavy metal in several different matrix like water,
food, soil, air, industrial product, pharmaceutical, biology and so on.
In table 1 are reported the detectable elements with voltammetric techniques.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxigen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium IIIb IVb Vb VIb VIIb VIII Ib IIb Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Columbium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridio Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
Francium Radium Actinium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
Thorium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Naturally, also anion (see table 2) and organic compound (table 3) are
detectable with voltammetric techniques.
8. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
The peak (or wave) height is proportional to the concentration of the analyte,
as it is shown in table 4.
Quantitative analysis is than performed considering the peak (or wave) height
and using the (single or multiple) standard addition method. This is in fact the best
method for lowering the matrix interference. When the sample matrix is very simple
or reproducible the calibration curve methods could be used.
• During the titration, for example, the titrant has to react exclusively with the
analyte. If one or more substances that could react with the analyte are present in
the sample matrix, this interference has to be removed or, at least, neutralised.
• If an analyst prepare a calibration curve using standard solution in distilled water,
some difficulties could be encountered if the sample to be analysed has a complex
matrix (meaning a matrix rich of general chemical compounds). In fact, these
substances can vary significantly some physical characteristics of the solution,
(like viscosity, or refraction index and so on), or they can vary the not specific
background instrumental signal or the analyte signal, or, finally, they could
increase or decrease the analytical signal, reacting with the analyte or with the
specifying reagent added to the solution in order to give rise to the instrumental
signal. Also in this case, attempts have to be made to remove or neutralise the
effect of the interfering substances, or instead, to prepare standard solutions in a
matrix similar to the sample one.
Anyway, whatever the analytical method is used, the interference affects are
to be removed, avoiding analytical errors. The best method to avoid some matrix
interference is the multiple standard addition method or, simpler, the single standard
addition method. These methods, unfortunately, cannot allow to compensate the not
specific interference that raise the background signal. The only valid strategy to
compensate this kind of interference is to measure the signal as difference between
the analytical signal and a background of a blank solution, or, at least, to zero the
signal with an appropriate blank solution.
n2 ! F 2
SWV i p = k '! ! "E ! C
R !T
1/ 2
DPP
n 2 ! F 2 ! A (& D %
ip = ! # ! "E ! C
4 ! R ! T &' ) ! t g #
$
Hydrodynamic Voltammetry – stirred solution n! F ! A! D
il = !C
"
LSSV
i p = 2.72 ! 10 5 ! n 2 / 3 ! A ! D 1 / 2 ! v 1 / 2 ! t d ! C
DPSV
i p = k " ! n 2 ! r ! "E ! U 1 / 2 ! t d ! C
Where:
k’ e k” = constants
C = analyte concentration
n = electron number in the redox reaction
F = Faraday constant
R = thermodynamic gas constant
T = temperature (K)
A = area of the electrode surface
D = diffusion coefficient of the analyte
v = scanning speed
! = cinematic viscosity of the liquid (solvent)
" = angular speed of the disk
U = stirring speed of the solution
#E = pulse height of a square wave
td = deposition time
tg = dropping time
r = radius of the mercury drop
$ = thickness of the Nernst layer
Data handling
Calculate the added analyte concentration (Ca) after each addition:
Vst ! Cst
Ca = (1)
Vx
where • Vst e Cst are, respectively the volume (in mL) and the concentration of the
standard solution • Vx is the sample volume.
Multiply each peak height for the relative diluting factor, obtaining in this
way a corrected height.
At the end report on a graph the added concentration and the corrected
height. The negative intercept on the abscissa, of the graph will return the sample
concentration.
This procedure allow to compensate the dilution of the sample solution after
each addition of a volume of standard solution, multiplying the peak height for the
diluting factor and can be used only in the linear range of the relationship between
concentration and peak height.
h = K !C (3)
After each addition the peak height increase in consequence of the increasing
in total analyte concentration, C. The latter varies as follows:
Vx ! Cx Vst ! Cst
C= +
Vtot Vtot
:
where !Vtot is the total volume after each addition, equal to: Vx + Vst + Vr ! Cx is the
unknown concentration.
h ! d = K ! Cx + K ! Ca
0 = Cx + C ' a
or:
Cx = !C ' a
where – C’a is the negative abscissa intercept and correspond to the unknown
concentration, Cx.
µL mg/l µ%
4.00
0 0 1.18 1.200 1.42
50 5 1.74 1.205 2.10 3.00
h.d
and than, making the appropriate substitutions, the preceding equation becomes:
Cx ! Vx Cx ! Vx + Cst ! Va
=
hx ! (Vx + Vr ) (Vx + Va + Vr )! ha
Sample treatment
For a voltammetric analysis the sample has to be a solution. If the sample is
solid, it has to be dissolved in a proper way. Liquids with complex matrix and low
soluble solids are to be digested or extracted. Rarely, it is not necessary to digest
complex matrices, i.e. the analysis of ascorbic acid in fruit juice can be performed
without any treatment.
At the end of any treatment the obtained solution has to have the following
characteristics:
- No suspended solids. If present they have to be eliminated by filtering or
centrifuging. The separate solid can be analysed separately.
- No colloids. Colloids compete with electrochemical processes, sometime
stopping them or keeping them not reproducible. Often a simple oxidising
treatment with UV lamp is sufficient to overcome this interference.
- No surfactants, because they also can stop the electrochemical processes
or decreasing the sensitivity of the method. Also in this case a simple
oxidising treatment with UV lamp is sufficient to overcome this
interference.
- pH between 1 and 10 (also 12 in NaOH is not present) and atmosphere
neither too much oxidising nor too much reducing, otherwise the mercury
electrode can react or give raise to a very noisy signal. This latter
phenomena effect also solids electrode. Digested solutions have to be
accurately neutralised or buffered. It is necessary also to boil the digested
solution until the nitrous or hydrogen peroxide not react or other vapours
are removed from solution.
- If the analysis is performed in a solvent different from water, when
possible, an electrolyte has to be added increasing the electrical
conductivity of the solution
Pause (delay)
Solution has to be leave quiescent stopping after the bubbling.
Electrode cleaning
- Mercury electrode: some drops are discharged
- Solid electrode: an inverse scanning has to be performed
11.5 - Cells
Clean glass and Teflon cells using distilled water or acid solution.
Dip the cells in 5 – 10% HNO3 for 2 –3 days before the trace analyse of
metals.
1 M NaF solution
Dissolve 42 g of NaF in 1 l of distilled water, in a volumetric flask. Heat if
necessary.
Reagents
- 10 mg/l Cadmium standard solution. Prepare a fresh solution before each analysis,
starting from a 1000 mg/l standard solution.
- 0.1 M KCl checking solution. Dissolve 15 g of KCl in 2 litres of 1% HNO3 (20 ml
of 65% HNO3 in 2 l of distilled water), in a volumetric flask, add 100 µl of Cd
standard solution (1 g/l). Store this solution in a polythene bottle. Use the same solid
KCl, stored in a polythene bottle, if prolonged check are needed.
Procedure
Every time an analytical series start (it means each day, or week…) pour 10 ml of
checking solution in the cell. Bubble nitrogen for 5 minutes. Analyse Cadmium using
single (quicker) or multiple (longer) standard addition (100 µl of 10 mg/1 Cd each
addition).
Prepare a control chart after 10 – 15 analysis,.
Results control
- The peak position has to be constant, into a specific confidential range. Use
statistics and control chart for this purpose.
If the peak position significantly varies check the conditions of the reference
electrode
- During the time, the results of the analysis have to agree to each other, into a
confidential range. Use statistics and control chart for this purpose.
If the results do not agree to each other verify the following:
- quality of the solutions (KCl and Cd standard solutions)
- the conditions of the capillary
- the cleaning procedure for the glassware, the instrument and the operator
Warning ! Strong smokers have the finger dirty of high level of Cadmium. If
necessary, change the analyte of the checking procedure (avoid anyway lead,
iron and zinc because they are environmental pollutant anyway !)