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003 Earth Interior
003 Earth Interior
Interior
Noni Banunaek
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GEOLOGI FISIK TBG UNDANA 2009, 11/7/2011 1
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§ Internal Heat
Radioactive decay
ú Atmosphere
ú Hydrosphere
ú Biosphere
§ Geology
§ Biology
§ Oceanography
§ Atmospheric Science
§ Hydrology
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The Atmosphere
ú 78% nitrogen
ú Compositional layers
ú Physical layers
ú ~98% in oceans
§ Stony meteorites have a composition like that of the sun with volatile elements removed. (Ratios
of refractory elements is similar to the sun's).
§ Earth is believed to have a bulk composition similar to that of a stony chondrite meteorite with most of the
volatile elements boiled off.
§ The earth is a bunch of concentric shells, with inner shells denser than outer shells.
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Internal Structure of the Earth
Physical
Chemical
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Physical Layers
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Compositional Layers
§ Crust
q 2 types:
Ø Continental crust
Ø Oceanic crust
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Compositional Layers
§ Mantle
3
ØDensity ranges from 3.2 to 5 g/cm
§ Core
3
q Average density of 10.8 g/cm
q Metallic iron
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Physical Layers
§ Lithosphere
q Thick - up to 75 km
3
q Lower density - 2.7 g/cm
q Strongly deformed
q Thinner - about 8 km
3
q More dense - 3.0 g/cm
q Comparatively undeformed
q Crustal columns usually have the same total mass: they float like blocks of wood in the liquid-like mantle
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Internal Structure of the Earth: Mantle
q Part of it is gushy and flows (the asthenosphere) and the outer 100 km is rather rigid.
q has density ranging from 3.3 to 5.5 at the bottom due to compression and phase changes.
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Internal Structure of the Earth: Core
q The core is made largely of iron with nickel, sulfur, and possibly other elements.
Fig. 17.5
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How Do We Know The Earth Interior?
1. Geophysics
a. Seismology, mainly. b.
Gravity.
c. Magnetics Earth.
d. Moment of Inertia.
2. Meteorites Analysis
3. Heat flow.
4. Speculation and Extrapolation are the main tools in most discussions of
earth’s interior.
q By studying arrival times of seismic waves , we can determine the velocity structure of the earth. It is consistent with
a radial organization, except for the crust, which varies from place to place.
q Among the important ones here are P (Primary, compressional) and S (Secondary, shear) waves.
q This is how we know the mantle has a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
q The velocity of a seismic wave depends on the density and elastic properties of the medium through which it travels.
q Velocities can vary sharply (easy to detect, usually at a compositional interface) or gradually (hard to detect, often
due to phase changes or a gradual changes in composition).
Fig. 17.7
Secondary Wave
Primary Wave
q By using very sensitive measuring scales, geophysicists measure the strength of gravity, usually for exploration
or missile-lobbing.
q These measurements have shown that most areas have nearly the same mass below them (roots under
mountains and holes under basins).
q Magnetics Earth, for reasons that are very poorly understood, has a magnetic field.
q Measurements on orientation of magnetic field frozen into volcanic rocks indicates that the earth's magnetic field flips
from time to time, which we understand even less.
q The values found indicate that the core must be very dense.
2. Meteorites Analysis of meteorites and various rock samples suggests that the earth has a bulk composition similar to
carbonaceous chondrites, one of the more commonly found types of meteorites, except that most of the light
elements (carbon, hydrogen) have boiled off. Carbonaceous
chondrites also have composition similar to the sun (based on ratios of heavy
elements)
3. Heat flow can be measured, and indicates that the continents have rather high heat flow, trenches and ocean floor have
very low heat flow, and mid-ocean ridges have high heat flow rates that are rather spotty.
4. Speculation and Extrapolation are the main tools in most discussions of earth’s interior.
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Geophysics: a Quick Introduction
§ Geophysics is the use of physical measurements to deduce the distribution and identity of earth features.
§ Geophysics is divided into specialties, largely along the lines of the physical phenomena used.
§ In most geophysical techniques, there is a model of how the property varies, and deviations from this are called anomalies.
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Geophysics: a Quick Introduction
§ For example, in gravity, the earth can be treated as a rotating ellipsoid, so the modeled gravity at a point can be calculated based
on
ú distance from the center of the earth and speed of rotation which both depend on latitude
ú elevation above sea level moving the point away from center of mass (free air)
ú a correction for the mass between the observer and sea level, treated as an infinite slab (Bouguer correction)
ú a correction to the last correction accounting for hills above and valleys below, both reducing gravity (terrain correction)
ú correction for tides and instrumental drift (usually done by measuring at a fixed location)
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Geophysics: a Quick Introduction
§ In addition to the effects from the sources of interest, there are effects due to larger features, which we call regional
variations, and smaller features and instrumental errors, which we call noise (e.g., if I am looking for stream valleys that cut
into bedrock and are covered by later sediments, variations due to crustal thickness associated with ancient mountain-
building are the regional [and I'll correct for them]
and variations due to individual boulders are noise, and I'll ignore them)
§ In conducting a gravity survey, you would measure gravity (with a fixed mass on a very accurate scale) recording (for the
corrections) at each station the latitude, elevation, time, and maybe local topography and any other information deemed
relevant. For each station, you calculate modeled/expected gravity (involving whatever level of detail), and observed gravity.
§ The difference is the anomaly. From the anomaly, you might look for structures like folds and faults, figure out whether a
mountain chain is has a root, etc. …
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Seismic Observations
Fig. 17.7
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Earth Interior layers
ú Crustal composition is based on direct observations, mantle is based on seismic velocities, xenoliths, and indirect
observations, and the core is based on seismology, indirect observations, and moment of inertia.
ú Crust
ú Continental: granodiorite/granitic
ú Oceanic: Basaltic
ú Mantle: Peridotite
§ Mechanical Layers
ú This is based on our observation of density structures, laboratory experiments determining mechanical properties of
certain rocks at various pressure-temperature conditions, and on estimates of the variation of temperature with depth
ú Lithosphere is solid and includes the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle.
Crust has P-wave velocities <8 km/sec (usually 5.5-7.2 km/sec) BY DEFINITION
Continental crust is granodiorite-like and usually about 35 km thick, going up to 70-100 in collision zones. In
areas of extension, it can be thinner. The lower part of continental crust is plastic.
Oceanic crust is basaltic and usually about 0-7 km thick. At ocean ridges it is thinner. It is less dense than the
mantle when hot (recently-extruded=young) and slightly denser when cold (old). This may be one of the main
driving forces behind plate tectonics.
The strange density situation is due to partial melting of peridotite. Generally, partial melts are more iron-rich than
the source rock: the restite is typically more magnesium-rich. The liquids are less dense than the solids, but as
they cool, they contract and the denser, more easily melted iron-rich product becomes denser. When the overlying
solid is denser, it
tends to sink.
§ Mechanical Layers
ú The Moho is the boundary between >8km/s rock and slower rock above, and is as the crust-mantle border.
Asthenosphere has fast P-waves and slow, attenuated S-waves, indicating partial melting or plastic state
Lower mantle has fast P-wave and S-waves, indicating solid behavior.
There are at least two important phase changes in the mantle, one where olivine goes to a denser spinel structure
and one where it goes to an even denser perovskite structure.
ú Core
Outer Core has lower P-wave speeds than the mantle and results in a shadow zone of
P-waves and loss of direct S-waves. No S-waves indicates definitely liquid behavior.
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