Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287 – 295

www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev

Earth Reflections
The complexity of simple geology
A.J. van Loon
Geocom B.V., P.O. Box 336, 6860 AH Oosterbeek, Netherlands

Abstract

Geology becomes, like all natural sciences, increasingly dependent on sophisticated, complex technologies. This is not
generally acknowledged, because many geological ‘products’ seem so simple that it is, for both the general public and decision
makers, often difficult to understand how complex the activities are that are needed for making these apparently very simple raw
materials available. A good example is aggregate, probably the simplest geological product. The understanding of aggregate
characteristics (required to determine whether the material is suited for a specific purpose) requires a profound knowledge of the
rock properties and of the variation of these properties. This is not enough, however, since the users must also be convinced that
‘stones’ are not always interchangeable, but that the efficacy of their application depends on their characteristics. Particularly
decision makers and customers in the fields of housing, civil engineering and environmental planning should be convinced that
they need the expertise of earth-science specialists, and that they should have themselves at least a basic knowledge of applied
geology, including the possible use of, and the problems related with, aggregate.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Aggregate; Engineering geology; Applied geology; Environmental geology; Quarry rehabilitation

1. Introduction have, in one way or another, to do with earth science.

Much earth-scientific knowledge has disappeared
since most people lost immediate and continuous
contact with nature. Stone-age people were well
aware that not all types of rock are suitable for all
purposes, and they selected specific rock types for
tools that had a particular purpose. Arrow points, for
instance, were made of flint preferably, but the pre-
historic hunters knew very well that not all flint was
equally suitable, and they were highly selective in
gaining the right material, by mining or trade. It
seems that such practical knowledge has gone lost
on a large-scale, considering the many unjustified
decisions taken by politicians and customers that
E-mail address: geocom@wxs.nl (A.J. van Loon).
Examples are numerous; a well-known recent project
that suffered from insufficient earth-scientific inves-
tigations is the foundation of the Traneberg bridge in
Stockholm, for which work the rock surface had been
mapped, but for which no testing of rock properties
had been undertaken. When considerable vertical
movements of the arches occurred, the work had to
be interrupted; boreholes were made, characteristics
were measured and deformation moduli, compressive
strengths and bearing capacities were estimated. Five
potential causal mechanisms for the foundation move-
ments were found, and stabilization was required
(Röshoff et al., 2002). The result was a significant
delay in construction, which would have been
avoided if only it had been realized beforehand that
even apparently simple geological aspects may be
fairly complex. Even though it is, fortunately, in most

0921-8181/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 8 1 8 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 6 4 - 9
288 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
cases realized that large infrastructural projects such
as bridges require careful engineering – geological
analyses, it is less well known that much simpler
geological products such as aggregates also require a
good insight into their properties if problems are to be
avoided.
It seems, however, that particularly aggregate is
considered by non-geologists (but possibly also by
part of the professional earth-science community) as a
product that hardly needs any expertise. However
simple this geological product may be, it needs just
as much attention, for almost each application, as
arrow heads needed in prehistoric time. Bill Langer
(USGS) stated in this respect at the Aggregate 2001
conference (Helsinki): ‘‘nothing is as simple as it
seems, and certainly not aggregates’’. It seems there-
fore justified to mention here, as an example of how
complex even seemingly simple geology can be, some
aspects of aggregates.
2. Aggregate
The term ‘aggregate’ (Primel and Tourenq, 2000)
was originally used exclusively for crushed rock,
sometimes produced as a by-product of dimension
Fig. 1. Storage area (with heaps of different grain sizes) near the exploitation site of aggregate in the form of alluvial blocks, boulders, cobbles,
pebbles and sand of varying roundness. Just north of Kaikoura (New Zealand).
stone (production of 1 ton of dimension stone yields,
on the average, 5 tons of aggregate: Smith, 1999;
Selonen et al., 2001). Nowadays, uncrushed materials
(scree, gravel, sand: Fig. 1) are sometimes also
included, because rounded particles are for many
purposes more suitable than angular fragments. Some-
times, indeed, but not always: this makes it difficult to
compare figures from different sources with one
another. The lack of strict terminology seems typical
for the geological discipline that is most involved in
aggregate research and application: engineering geol-
ogy. This discipline, at the crossroads of geology and
engineering, is aimed at practice rather than at science
with its need of unambiguous definitions. However
practical this approach may seem, such a practice-
oriented attitude has certain disadvantages: the lack of
clear definitions (although classification systems do
exist; see, among others, Barton et al., 1974) gives
frequently rise to misunderstandings and, conse-
quently, to products that lack optimum properties,
and thus may lead to hazardous situations.
One may wonder what can go wrong with the
application of aggregate. This depends, obviously, on
the combination of aggregate type and intended appli-
cation. The product is used for a wide variety of
purposes, such as filling for concrete and road-con-
 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
struction material (e.g., asphalt), railway ballast, water
defence (Fig. 2), and pipeline bedding. These applica-
tions seem simple, and not requiring many specific
characteristics of the aggregate, but the opposite is true:
aggregate with properties that do not meet strict speci-
fications may fail to fulfill their tasks. It is of utmost
importance to recognise this, because aggregates are
produced and ‘consumed’ in huge quantities: only in
Europe, the yearly production is 2  109 tons/year, and
in Great Britain, it is even the largest industry if measured
by product weight (Hawkins, personal communication,
2001). This is one of the main reasons why the Interna-
tional Association of Engineering Geologists (IAEG)
started some years ago with (mostly bi-annual) confer-
ences about aggregate. The ‘Aggregate 2001’ Confer-
ence held in Helsinki (Kuula-Väisänen and Uusinoka,
2001) was a successful example.
New research results on aggregate (economical,
technical, environmental, political) can be exchanged
at the IAEG meetings, and good and bad results
obtained in practice can be discussed. Other important
aspects dealt with at these meetings are the develop-
ment of new production sites, and the rehabilitation of
abandoned sites (Rintala et al., 2001). Much attention
is also paid to the application of new research techni-
ques, including the replacement of aggregate by
artificial materials (such as treated ashes of burnt
Fig. 2. Application of crushed rock of decimeter size as surface layer of the dam of a reservoir lake near Cooma (Australia).
289
domestic waste, or coal ashes: Chun et al., 2001),
which could have the advantage of a product with
exactly the properties needed for a specific purpose.
Thus far, however, such a replacement is only rarely
economically feasible and, moreover, there is still a
lack of knowledge concerning the optimum aggregate
properties for specific applications, as detailed by
Prof. Raimo Matikainen (director of the Geological
Survey of Finland) during his opening speech at
‘Aggregate 2001’.
3. Economic and social importance
Aggregate is used in huge quantities. In Finland,
for instance, the ‘consumption’ amounts to 11 ton per
capita per year (Tuomo Laitinen, in a keynote address
at ‘Aggregate 2001’). Crushed rock makes up 19
million tons, gravel some 37 million tons. The aggre-
gate is used for road pavements (40%), construction
of houses (25%), concrete (12%), asphalt (10%) and a
number of other purposes (13%). The value of the
yearly production is some o 200 million; including
transport, it is 50% more.
Finland is a country with relatively few inhabitants.
If the production of aggregate is so high there, it
should be much larger in a country such as the US. It
290 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295

is: recent figures are not available, but the value of the
aggregate produced in 1990 amounted already to US$
9.1 billion. Also, the demand is still growing: it has
quadrupled since 1950 (Bichler and Bobrowski, 2001)
and will continue to grow (Persson, 2001). The
consequence of such a huge demand is that almost
innumerable sites must be found for the mining of
aggregate, and that many of these sites have large
dimensions. It is estimated (Bichler and Bobrowski,
2001) that a million acres were used in the US for
aggregate production since 1950. Only some 30% of
this area has been reclaimed afterwards, which implies
that some 700,000 acres have been left behind without
any measures having been taken for reclamation,
following the ‘time heals all’ approach that is adhered
to in a large number of countries. This has led to
hardly acceptable situations, such as waste dumping
(either legally or illegally) in abandoned pits, which
reduces the chances of later re-use of the area, but
which may also immediately pollute the groundwater.
It is true that this ‘time heals all’ approach is not
followed everywhere, nor always. In the US, for
instance, much effort is put in feasible solutions,
which range from the reshaping of abandoned sites
into parks, golf courses, and water recreation areas, or
playing areas for children. In this framework, it should
be realized that golf courses, situated on sites where
previous aggregate mines have been filled up with
waste, may pose problems in the future (in some
lowland countries such as The Netherlands, new golf
courses are commonly constructed on sites where
domestic - and sometimes even chemical - waste has
been piled up, and this has already resulted in serious
problems, but an even less understandable situation
was created in the community of Golden - near
Denver, Colorado - where a new golf course was
scheduled to be constructed around a site with famous
traces of ceratopsid dinosaurs, which were to be
protected against golf balls by covering the rock walls
with these traces with domestic waste: Dalton, 2001).
An interesting approach was followed in Czechia,
where in Tata, some 70 km NW of Budapest, an area
with several abandoned quarries has been transformed
into a ‘geological garden’ of some 7.5 acres, managed
by the Eötvös Loránd University. The park, which is
open for the public from April to October, is annually
visited by some 6000– 7000 people, who are informed
about the local geology, the natural resources of the
area, the prehistoric occupation, and the earlier quar-
rying activities (Haas and Hámor, 2001).
It may be true that other countries also try to reduce
the negative effect of aggregate mining, but the cost

Fig. 3. Huge volumes of aggregate are available in mountain ranges (such as here in the Ötz valley, Austrian Alps), but such ‘reserves’ are
commonly too far away from places with a demand for aggregate to allow economically feasible large-scale exploitation.
 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
involved is sometimes prohibitive for less-industrial-
ized countries. This holds, for instance, for China.
Beijing, as a representative example, is situated on the
margin of a hilly area, where much sand and gravel is
locally being exploited by citizens, for an important
part in small, illegal pits. Since the local people have
no money for rehabilitation, these pits tend to be filled
up illegally with domestic waste, with groundwater
pollution as a result (Prof. Wang Sijing, President of
the IAEG, during his opening address at ‘Aggregate
2001’). The only feasible solution for this unfortunate
situation in Beijing might be making aggregate avail-
able to the local population at a low cost (or for free),
so that illegal exploitation of aggregate pits will stop.
An entirely different but not less important prob-
lem is commonly met in densely populated areas,
where insufficient aggregate may be available. This is
one of the unfortunate characteristics of nature: aggre-
gate is available in immense volumes in mountain
ranges (Fig. 3), but these areas need, particularly
because of the generally low population density,
relatively small amounts of aggregate. Coastal low-
lands, where aggregate is scarce, house commonly
huge numbers of inhabitants that require giant vol-
umes of aggregate. The Netherlands, for instance, has
to import the great majority of the aggregate needed
from Germany. Where sand and gravel from river
courses or from alluvial plains are exploited in The
Netherlands, the landscape is destroyed for many
years (cf. Kondolf, 1998); since ‘green areas’ are
scarce in The Netherlands, plans for the exploitation
of sand and gravel from alluvial plains meet always
much social resistance and have sometimes to be
given up.
4. The unknown properties of aggregate
During my student time, I carried out fieldwork in
the Cantabrian Mountains (Spain), in an area were the
only throughroad was unpaved. This dust road was
maintained by a man who every now and then walked
along the road with a broom, wiping away the small
stones that had fallen on the road from the walls
alongside. After the scarce showers that took place, he
had to change his activities, because large stones and
even blocks might have fallen on the road; the stones
and particularly the blocks had, obviously, to be
291
removed - always by manpower, commonly by a
group of villagers. Showers also caused gullies by
superficial runnoff, and these gullies had to be filled
up. This latter job was easy: the man took some
crumbled shale with a spade from the abundant
nearby exposures (Van Loon, 1972), filled up the
gullies, and thus made the road more or less smooth
again. This was simple and, because there was hardly
any traffic, usually sufficient to keep the road in order
until the next heavy rain. Then the whole procedure
started again.
Such a simple use of aggregate is, obviously, not
efficient for road construction and maintenance if
there is much traffic: the top layer of highways should
not be destroyed by a simple shower, and wearing by
traffic should take as long as possible. These require-
ments imply that the top layer of concrete or asphalt
roads should contain aggregate with specific charac-
teristics. This is not always sufficiently well under-
stood, particularly in regions where knowledge of
hard rock is restricted. This was one of the reasons
why a highway in The Netherlands, near Almere, had
to be provided with a new top layer already before it
had been opened for the public (Verhoef, personal
communication, 2001). The authorities had decided
that the top layer should consist of so-called ‘very
open asphalt concrete’, which has an average pore
volume of some 20%, and which is applied nowadays
for the top layer of some 55% of highways in The
Netherlands. The advantage of this porous material is
that it diminishes the noise caused by the traffic, but
also - and even more important - that rain water is
largely drained through the pores, and not over the
surface, thus making driving much more safe (less
aquaplaning). These advantages are accompanied,
however, by some disadvantages, among others a
much more slippery surface than occurs on other
roads if icy, and a 200% higher volume of salt for
keeping the road snowfree when it snows.
The constructor of the road had, following a fairly
normal procedure, opted for aggregate (as filling
material) that had been imported from Germany. It
turned out, however, that the asphalt showed
extremely rapidly ravelling (the loss of aggregate
particles from the surface, which thus loses its smooth
character; in addition, ravelling leads to the quick
destruction of the road’s top layer if traffic affects the
irregular surface). The reason for the quick ravelling
292 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
was found immediately: the aggregate particles were
extremely soft. It appeared that the aggregate con-
sisted of a Devonian greywacke. The quarry where the
aggregate came from, was examined and it was found
that exceptional weathering had affected the rock. The
unusual degree of weathering was due to a locally
extremely high content of clay (60%), in combination
with an uncommonly frequent occurrence of joints.
Although the aggregate filling of road asphalt should
be relatively easily wearable (in order to maintain
sufficient road roughness), the material chosen for the
Almere project had been too soft. The consequence
was a considerable delay in the opening of the road,
and a great financial loss. This illustrates well how
important the right choice of an aggregate can be, with
properties between fairly narrow limits. However, it is
not only the composition of the aggregate that plays a
role: choosing the right grain-size distribution is
equally important. This is why sites, where rocks
are crushed or where sand/gravel mixtures are
exploited, are characterised by the presence of sorting
equipment (Fig. 4).
The ‘Almere story’ is just one example of the many
that could be given concerning projects that do not
develop according to the time schedule and the
financial planning, as a result of insufficient insight
into aggregate characteristics. In each country, indus-
trialized or not, such projects abound, and newspapers
Fig. 4. Equipment for grain-size sorting in the Jansen quarry near Uelsen (Germany).
devote much attention to them. This seems insuffi-
cient, however, to convince all those involved of the
complexity of this simple geological product.
5. The difficult aggregate characteristics
One might question why costly mistakes such as in
the above case history are so frequently made. The
answer to this question is almost as complex as
aggregate is.
A first reason is that exploitation of aggregates, in
the form of both crushed rock and gravel or sand,
always involves large volumes, and that the properties
of aggregate are consequently not constant: crushed
rock from one side or one level in a quarry may be
highly suitable for a specific purpose, whereas rocks
from another place may not. This is one of the reasons
why igneous rocks are often preferred: their properties
may remain fairly constant over relatively large dis-
tances; such rocks are, however, not available at most
places.
A second reason is that there is still little known
about the physical and chemical properties of aggre-
gate, and about the influence of these parameters on
the suitability of specific aggregate types for particular
applications. During the past few years, much atten-
tion has been paid to the relationships between proper-
 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
ties and quality, but it became obvious during the
‘Aggregate 2000’ conference, from both presentations
and discussions, that the experts do not (yet) agree.
Whereas Brian Hawkins defended ‘traditional’ tests
for the characterisation of aggregate, others pointed
out that these tests are not always useful, and rarely
reliable. In a discussion at the ‘Aggregate 2001’
conference, one of the conclusions about test results,
their statistical significance and the underlying quan-
titative data was that such results are, in the aggregate
industry, interesting for lawyers rather than engineers.
This is because some properties may be easily defined
for specific rock types on the basis of experiments
(e.g., the abrasion rate of mica-containing granite:
Tolppanen and Ebeling, 2001; or shape analysis:
Wang and Fernlund, 1994), but one should bear in
mind that aggregate usually consists of a mixture of
rock types; in addition, the test results depend on the
sampling techniques, the laboratory equipment, the
conditions during sampling (climate, temperature,
wind) and during the laboratory analysis (separation),
and even on the day of analysis (experiments show
that the personnel involved in the analysis signifi-
cantly influences the test results: Klingberg, 2001).
Even if test results would be reliable, this would not
automatically imply that it is clear what the results
mean in practice, although some progress is reached
(Åkesson et al., in press). Bill Langer quoted Albert
Einstein: ‘‘Not everything that can be counted counts,
and not everything that counts can be counted’’.
The third important reason for costly problems is
the ignorance of authorities. It happens that authorities
prescribe that material from one specific location must
be used for a specific project somewhere else. Such
prescriptions are commonly based on either low cost
(for instance, because one project—such as the low-
ering of an alluvial plane in order to increase the river
discharge during flood phases—yields large volumes
of sand), or environmental considerations (e.g., be-
cause a pressure group opposes against a previously
scheduled site for gravel extraction). In densely popu-
lated areas, it may also be extremely difficult to
appoint suitable places for aggregate exploitation.
One of the consequences is that it has happened
numerous times that politicians in coastal areas stated
that sufficient aggregate for large infrastructural works
was available, viz. in the form of gravel and/or sand
from shallow-sea bottoms, even in cases where the
293
scheduled application needed salt-free aggregate.
Consequences were infrastructural works that had to
be repaired or even replaced soon because of insuffi-
cient quality.
6. Much is being done, much more is to be done
The great importance of aggregate for economy
and society is increasingly recognised, and the neces-
sity of choosing the right type of aggregate therefore
gets ever more attention. This is reflected in the
research and experiments being carried out with
respect to long-term durability (see, among others,
Khachadoorian, 2001; Lashkaripour, 2001) and envi-
ronmental impact (Dryden and Beer, 1999; Amaral,
2001; Bichler and Bobrowski, 2001; Langer and
Kolm, 2001a,b).
It seems that the impact on the environment, both
during exploitation and after abandonment of quarries,
gets relatively much attention. The result is that the
final impact may be small if thorough procedures are
followed (Box, 1998; Arbogast et al., 2001). This
development is, beyond doubt, partly due to political
and social pressure. One can only enjoy this interest
from third parties, because it shows that society
becomes gradually more aware of the activities of
the aggregate industry. Such increasing interest can,
on the long term, only lead to a better understanding of
the problems that the industry is faced with. It is
therefore to be expected that future policies will take
the need for large aggregate volumes in account in a
more structural way than happened in the past decades.
Much less positive seems the development of
methods aimed at a more effective use of aggregate,
for instance, by avoiding unnecessarily early repairs
due to the wrong choice of aggregate. It has to be
admitted that testing of aggregate properties has
become routine in many countries, but it must also
be stressed that the value of these tests is questioned
by many experts, and that the interpretation of the test
results is often subjective, and that it is still difficult to
predict the behaviour of the tested aggregate under
practice conditions. This is remarkable, considering
the fact that such high costs are involved in failing
infrastructural (and other) works. It seems likely that
the pressure exerted on the aggregate industry by
politicians, customers and public is not (yet) strong
294 A.J. van Loon / Earth-Science Reviews 59 (2002) 287–295
Fig. 5. Characteristic small-scale aggregate quarry (near Christchurch, New Zealand).
enough to result in optimum efforts to get a better
insight into the relationship between aggregate phys-
ical and chemical properties on one hand and func-
tionality in practice on the other hand. Obviously,
owners of small quarries (Fig. 5) will not be able to
spend money on high-tech research, but large aggre-
gate-producing companies could - and should - do
more than wait for universities and geological surveys
to carry out such research. Could it be that the lack of
pressure from the side of authorities is partly due to
the - unjustified - idea that all rocks are equal? In this
case, it seems worthwhile for the aggregate industry -
however paradoxically this may sound considering the
cost of research involved - to convince the authorities
and customers that some rocks are more equal than
others. This was already generally recognised by our
prehistoric ancestors, who had so much less sophisti-
cated equipment, but who were so well aware of the
variability found in nature.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank the organisers of the ‘Aggregate
2001’ conference, particularly Prof. Raimo Uusinoka
and Ms. Pirjo Kuula-Väisänen (both of the Laboratory
of Engineering Geology of Tampere University of
Technology) for their hospitality and their help during
the conference.
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