3.1.

Effective efficiency criterion

The effective efficiency criterion takes into account both the thermal as well as hydraulic
components for performance evaluation. The energy flow diagram is as shown in Fig. 2. Under
steady state conditions, the useful heat delivered by the collector is equal to the energy absorbed
by the carrier fluid minus direct and indirect heat losses from collector to the surroundings. The
useful energy collected from the solar thermal collector can be obtained as [25]:
𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝐹𝑅 [I (τα) − 𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )]

where, FR is the correction factor, also known as collector heat removal factor, obtained as
[26]:
𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑈𝐿 𝐹′ 𝐴𝑝
𝐹𝑅 = (1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]) …….2
𝐴𝑝 𝑈𝐿 𝑚𝐶𝑝

In Eq. (2) F ′ is the collector efficiency factor which decreases with increase in overall loss
coefficient. The overall heat loss coefficient (UL) is the heat transfer resistance from the
absorber plate to the ambient air and was developed by Klein [27] following the basic
procedure of Hottel and Woertz [28]: Finally, the collector's thermal efficiency is obtained
as follows [29]:
𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝐹𝑅 [(𝜏𝛼) − 𝑈𝐿 ( )] (3)
𝐼

The effective efficiency is evaluated on the basis of net thermal energy gain as [31]:
𝑃
𝑄𝑢 − 𝑚⁄𝐶
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (4)
𝐼 X 𝐴𝑝

where, (𝑃𝑚 ) is the mechanical power required to propel the air through the solar thermal
collector duct [32]. The effective efficiency finally attains the form [33]:
𝑓𝐿𝑉 3 𝜌𝑎 (𝑊+𝐻)
𝜂𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ − (5)
𝐶 𝑋 𝐴𝑝 𝑋 𝐼

The variation in thermal and effective efficiency of conventional solar thermal collector is as
shown in Fig. 3.
3.2. Exergy efficiency criterion
Exergy analysis is an assessment technique for systems and pro- cesses based on the
second law of thermodynamics and can be defined as the maximum work potential which can
be obtained from a form of energy [34]. The exergy analysis yields useful results as it deals
with irreversibility minimization or maximum exergy delivery [35]. The exergy flow
diagram of solar thermal collector is as shown in Fig. 4. Altfeld et al. [36] proposed a method
based upon second law of thermodynamics for establishing the equivalence of useful energy
and frictional losses.
The exergetic efficiency of solar thermal collector is expressed as:

𝐸𝑛
𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑟 = ⁄𝐸 (6)
𝑠
where, the net exergy flow (𝐸𝑛 ) is the increase in exergy flow of air while flowing
through the collector and is to be maximized for opti- mization. The exergy flow can be
expressed as:
En = IAp𝜂𝑡ℎ ηc − Pm (1 − ηc ); Where ηc = 1 − Ta/Tfm (7)

Also, the exergy inflow associated with solar irradiation (Es ) is given by:
Es = I × Ap (1 − Ta/Tsun)

The exergetic efficiency of the system can be maximized by maximizing (En) which can
be done by minimizing the exergy losses taking place in the collector. The variation in thermal
efficiency and exergetic efficiency of solar thermal collector is as shown in Fig. 5. It can be
seen that the exergetic efficiency first increases at lower values of Reynolds number, attains
maxima and decreases thereafter due to increase in exergy losses. Apart from exergy
losses due to absorption, the exergy losses due to internal irreversibility’s i.e. heat transfer
from the absorber to the fluid at finite temperature difference and friction in the fluid flow
duct [37] affects the exergetic efficiency of the solar collector.