Design of Machines- MCL211

Jan 2, 6, 7, 9, 13, 16, 20, 21,

23, 27, 28, 30
Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday – 10 to 10.50
Feb 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 13,
Minor 18, 20, 24, 25, 27
Laboratory: 2 to 4 pm Mar 10, 11, 13, 17, 18,
Instructors Minor, 24, 25, 27

Prof. Harish Hirani Apr 1, 7, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17,

21, 22, 24, 28, 29 Major
Dr. Naresh Datla
 Grading
Minor 1 15%
Minor 2 15%
End Sem 30%
Assignments (Labs + Project) 40%

A (>= 80%); E (>= 20% and < 30%); F (<20 %)

All other grades are relative

2
 Attendance
If attendance is lesser than 75% then your PMT (total of
minors and assignments) will be corrected as below

௖௢௥௥௘௖௧௘ௗ ௔௖௧௨௔௟

3
 Aim of this course
Introducing design of mechanical machinery
Conceptualize a machine and synthesize an assembly to meet
the functional requirements
Size machine components and select suitable material

Solve social problems by applying engineering principles

4
 Course Contents
Conceptualizing a machine
Solid modelling, Assembly of components
Materials and process selection

Force analysis, Stress analysis, Rigidity analysis

Design of machine components
Case studies

5
 Books
Norton R.L., Machine Design: An integrated approach, 2nd
Edition, Pearson Education, 2000
Shigley J.E., Nisbett J.K., and Budynas R.G., Mechanical
Engineering Design, 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2011
Dieter G.E., and Schmidt L., Engineering Design, 4th Edition,
McGraw-Hill Education, 2013
Ashby M.F., Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4th Edition,
Elsevier, 2011
http://pergatory.mit.edu/resources/FUNdaMENTALS.html

6
Creativity is essential ……
• Seeing the same thing as
everybody else but thinking
of something different
• Ability to think new
combinations of ideas &
concepts.
• Creative ideas occur by a
slow deliberate process that
can be cultivated &
enhanced with study and
practice.

Design can never be taught. It can only be learnt.

Ex: Consider a clutch plate with two pairs of friction surfaces,
transmits a 200 N-m torque.
y Inner and outer diameters of disk are 170 and 300
mm respectively.
• Coefficient of friction=0.35.
◦ Normal force on friction
surfaces is exerted by nine
helical compression springs,
so that the clutch is always
engaged.
◦ Spring index =5, mean coil
dia. = 22mm, L=60mm and
no. of active coils are 6. Mat
T = 2 * μF * 0.25 * ( D + d )
Spring steel. Design the
spring.
 8 FDcoil K w
T = 2 * μF * 0.25 * ( D + d ) ; τ max =
πd 3

Load per spring = 270 N

Max stress = 233 MPa

Conclusion: Restricted problem. Analysis… Most of inputs

were given and only one definite answer was expected.
 Maximum contact pressure Maximum bulk temp erature,
p m ax t m, max
Coefficien t of
a
Friction material friction, µ psi kPa °F °C
Molded 0.25-0. 45 150-300 1030-2070 400-500 204-260
W oven 0.25-0.45 50-100 345-690 400-500 204-260
Sintered Metal 0.15-0.45 150-300 1030-2070 400-1250 232-677
Cork 0.30-0.50 8-14 55-95 180 82
W ood 0.20-0.30 50-90 345-620 200 93
Cast iron; hard steel 0.15-0.25 100-250 390-1720 500 260
a
When rubbing against smooth cast iron or steel.

Stress = 326 MPa

F r ic tio n m a t e r ia la C o e ffic ie n t o f f r ic t i o n , µ
M o ld e d 0 .0 6 - 0 .0 9
W oven 0 .0 8 - 0 .1 0
S in te r e d M e ta l 0 .0 5 - 0 .0 8
P ap er 0 .1 0 - 0 .1 4
G r a p h it ic 0 .1 2 (a v g)
P o ly m e r ic 0 .1 1 (a v g)
C o rk 0 .1 5 - 0 .2 5
W ood 0 .1 2 - 0 .1 6
C a s t ir o n ; h a r d s te e ls 0 .0 3 - 0 .1 6
a
W h e n r u b b in g a g a in s t s m o o t h s te e l o r c a s t ir o n .
y IN REAL WORLD …FRAGMENTARY
INPUTS
y Selection of inner and outer diameters of disk ???
y Coefficient of friction ???
y Number of helical compression springs.
y Spring index ???
y No. of active coils ???
y Spring mat ???
y Design the spring.
Ex: Weather Effective
Bicycle Rim Brake
y Material A (soft rubber)
against chromium plated
steel rim (CPSR)
y μ =1 (dry)
y μ =0.05 (wet).
y Material B (rigid, molded
asbestos reinforced).
y μ =0.34 (dry)
y μ =0.17 (wet).

Material B is better Material A

Bearing Clearance: Measurement by which one bearing ring can be
displaced in relation to the other in radial direction (radial clearance)
or in the axial direction (axial direction) from one end position to the
other.
C2 – for precision
running
Clearance before
installation & after
installation ???
Axial clearance is
generally mentioned
for four point bearings
& double row angular
For Fits shaft j5 to k5 & housing j6 contact ball bearings.
NEED recognition:
Pace of technological development
Customers view (economics, boring products)
failure-analysis
Over a period of years an island X
Need of Society: become increasingly populated.
Safety & health issues A bridge linking it with the mainland is
Environmental protection required.
(Lead free petrol)
The need is obvious: a bridge.
Something new or existing things in a new
way:
Techniques to enhance creativity
What sort of bridge should be built?
To pull together:
SYNTHESIS. Should it be a footbridge or a road bridge?
What will be density of traffic?
To satisfy Do boats have to pass under bridge?
Analysis
Are they small motor boats, or tall yachts,
or even ships?
Problem !!!!
Problem Rubber pipe should be Hard to drill hole
in it, and should be Soft to preserve elasticity.

Problem Need hard (to support) and soft water

(avoid harm).

Problem: Leaking flange joint

Aims of Course
y Design product, which is:
y Better
y Properly designed
y Your active participation:
y Team
y Identify a problem and provide solution (s).
y Evaluate solutions.
y Generate better solutions
y Finally show the product.
y Aim of the course is to prepare 'ingenious solvers of real
problems'

Cost effective mechanical machines

Problem: Decrease Human Involvement..
Most of patents involved labor saving
machinery
y Automate tedious regular functions. Allow people to do
more intellectual work.
Development of clothes washing from wash boards to
washing machine robot
Automatic car wiping system
Retrofit window arrangement
Manual to automatic transmission
Smart road hump…. Control vertical deflection of road
Mulching lawn mover
Garbage disposal unit
BLACK BOARD WRITER
Write on the black board without the user having to
directly interact with the board.

Automatic Book Scanner

With the increase in demand for online libraries, there has
been a growing need to scan books. Doing this job manually
not only leads to a waste of manpower but also the
efficiency is greatly reduced.
Figure 1 Figure 2
Problems
SPEED STRESS/PRESSURE
PRECISION LOSS OF INFO.
STABILITY LOSS OF TIME
RELIABILITY ENERGY LOSS
ADAPTABILITY MAT. LOSS
PRODUCTIVITY WEIGHT
MEAN TIME FAILURE LENGTH
POWER GENERATION VOLUME
EASE OF OPERATION FORCE
MEARUREMENT ACCU. AREA
EASE OF MENUFACTURE
EXTENT OF AUTOMATION
 Problem: Increase reliability

Bridge

Lesser cost
Higher reliability
Base-
plate
 A company X, decided to design air-circulators for paint shops. Length
of 2-m and diameter of 0.2-m was designed for rotor of air-circulator.
Company X wanted to design suitable bearings to reduce the power
consumption on 2/3.

On studying the air-circulator it was found that rotor length could be

reduced from 2-m to 1.4-m by relocating the drive-motor. Reduction in
length of rotor itself fulfilled the requirements.
 Vacuum Cleaners

Steel
Wooden
Polymeric
Cleaner & year Dominant material Power Weight Cost*
(W) (kg)
Hand powered, Wood, canvas, 50 10 $ 380
1905 leather ,Mild steel
Motor driven, 1950 Mild Steel 300 6 $150

Cylindrical shape, Moulded ABS, 800 4 $ 95

1985 polypropylene
Costs have been adjusted in 1998 values, allowing for inflation [Ref. M. Ashby]
Shape….. material-life in a corrosive medium?
 Brake squeal high frequency noise (1-12
kHz). No affect on performance but
detrimental to comfort.
y Problem: Brake disk interacts with brake
pad during vehicle braking. This
interaction produces intensive noise.
y Solution: Making annular grooves on the
surface of brake disk reduces noise
volume.

U.S. Patent, 5474161; Dec. 12, 1995, “Rotor for a disk brake assembly and method of
making same”, Ford Motor Company.
 Polymer coating dampens noise
y Problem: Brake disk interacts with
brake pad during vehicle braking. This
interaction produces intensive noise.
y Solution: Coating brake pad with
polymer reduces the noise level
during vehicle braking.

U.S. Patent, 5622785; April 22, 1997, “Coating for a brake pad, a method of reducing brake pad noise,
and a brake pad”, Performance Friction Corporation
To formulate problem: Prepare a number of questions, and try to
answer every question.
What

Where

Who Problem When

Why How
1. Why has the machine stopped?
Diagnosis of
Breakage of circuit because of an overload Machine Failure
2. Why was there an overload
There wasn't enough lubrication for the bearings
3. Why wasn't there enough lubrication?
The pump wasn't pumping enough Should we use
lubricant free bearings
4. Why wasn't lubricant being pumped?
The pump shaft was vibrating as a result of abrasion
5. Why was there abrasion?
There was no filter, allowing chips of material into the
pump
Installation of a filter solves the problem????????
Problem: Need to design shoes which can
acts as Roller Skate whenever required.

It is essential to review literature before

Framing the “Problem (s)”.
 Review internet

It is
cumbersome
to assemble
disassemble
wheels

Interchangeable
Removable boots
No need to design product
which already exists
Problem: Brakes for “Roller Skate
+ Shoes”

Difficult to
apply brake
United States Patent 5,342,071

Hand brakes decrease difficulty.

Hand-held brake actuator coupled to
brake assembly
 Functional Approach
y A machine/system contains interacting elements as opposed
to a single part. Designing the whole system at once, leads to
incomplete solution.
y Generally a machine contains a large number of functional
requirements (FRs). FRs are the minimum set of independent
requirements that characterize the design goals.
y To satisfy the FRs design parameters (DPs) are used such that
the FRs are satisfied.
y To make the problem more manageable, and to enable
teamwork, it is necessary to DECOMPOSE the overall
problem into smaller sub-problems.
 Functional Approach
y Your team must conceive physical embodiment containing
DPs that satisfy FRs.
y For proper development a machine, it is necessary to
understand interaction between various elements.
y Lack of knowledge about interactions leads to poorly designed
systems.
y Design method(s), which forces careful consideration of
functional interactions, must be used.
Macro to Micro
Decompose product into sub-assemblies, components, features.
AIM: Increase speed of cycle.

1.Frame 6. Chain
2-3. Bearing & Shaft 7. Sprocket
4. Fixed Foot Pedal 8. Shaft
5. Drive Sprocket 9. Wheel
 Bicycle: Functions
y Transportation–
y Human being….. Joy ride
y Luggage
y Animal

y Exercise
y Washing clothes
y Driving potter wheel
y Driving grain mill
y Driving Ghani-oil machine
y Charging batteries
Macro to Micro Approach Useful function ( )
Harmful function ( )

• Schematic representation of all activities & interaction

Human Seat: surface, spring

Pedals: shaft, foot grips

Wheels: wheel frame, spokes, tires

Frame
Sprocket1
Road
Shaft1
Chain: links
Bearing
Sprocket2 Shaft2
Air
Human Seat: surface, spring

Pedals: shaft, foot grips

Problem(s):
1. Eliminate/Reduce Aerodynamic Resistance
2. Eliminate/Reduce Friction Losses
- sprocket chain
- chain sprocket
- bearing shaft
3. Increase Efficiency ( 100%) of Transmission
4. Use a Supplemental Energy
5. Increase grip between feet and pedals
6. Provide better support
7. Reduce weight of frame
 PARAMETRIC STUDY: Hydrodynamic Bearing
U = omega * radius
omega = 2 *pi()/60 * speed
load = U * visco * (length ^ 3) /(clearance ^2) * pi()/4 *
ecc/((1-ecc^2)^2) *sqrt((16/(pi()^2)-1)*(ecc^2) + 1)
clearance = 0.001 * radius
Input Name Output
U 2.094
omega 104.72
.02 radius
1000 speed
load 93.6
.005 visco
.01 length
clearance .00002
48.75 ecc
 TKSolver: Problem solving and math modeling environment
y Package for solving numerical equations:
y linear or nonlinear,
y single or multiple equations - up to 32,000.
y No need to enter the equations in any special order-- TK
Solver is based on a declarative (as opposed to procedural) programming
language..
y No need to isolate the unknowns on one side of the
equations

Input (a,b) or (b,c) or (c,a)

a ^ 2 + b^ 2 = c ^ 2
Output c or a or b
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 Enter Equations
This sheet shows the relationship between variables in
the models. This is where model is controlled from.

Variable sheet shows the input or

output value, with units if relevant,
and the status of each variable

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 BUILT IN FUNCTIONS
COS(), ACOS(), SIN(), ASIN(), TAN(), ATAN()
COSD(), ACOSD(),SIND(),ASIND(),TAND(),ATAND()
EXP(), LN() {base e}, LOG() {base 10}
ATAN2(y,x), ATAN2D(y,x) {4-Quadrant arc tangent of y/x }
COSH(), ACOSH(), SINH(), ASINH(), TANH(), ATANH()
ROOT(X,N) nth root of x; SQRT(x) , ABS(x),
INTEGER(x) or INT(x) integer part of x
MODULUS (x1,x2) or MOD(x1,x2) remainder of x1/x2
SIGNUM(X) or SGN(X) -1 if x < 0, 0 if x=0, 1 if x > 0

ROUND(x) nearest integer to x

CEILING(x) smallest integer >= x
FLOOR(x) largest integer <= x

TK’s built-in functions are NOT case-sensitive; SIN(x)=sin(x)=Sin(x)

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User-defined function names ARE case-sensitive.
 Material Selection using TKSolver

Machine Design: An
Integrated Approach..
by Robert L. Norton

52 7/24/2009
List Function Sheet
Expresses functional relationship between the corresponding
elements of two lists

Comment: returns the weight density of a mat

Domain List: matl
Mapping: Table
Range List: density
Element Domain Range
1 'alum 2.76805
2 'steel 7.75054
3 'copper 8.580955
 http://www.techpedia.in/
Example: Electric Iron
Power Supply
Handle Human

Temp. Wires/Plug
Control
unit Main Body

Water Spray
Cloth/Fabric
Heating Coil

Base plate
 Power_supply

Wire/Plug Entanglement Electrical Iron

Cost,
accident_chances

Interchangeable cord
Power cord can be setup on either side to allow easy ironing for right and left hand operation.
Cordless iron
 Holding, movement &
operation, safety

Handle Volume Electric iron

Cost

Detachable handle
y Problem: The water faucet designer’s job is to develop a
system that allow the user to easily and exactly control
the temperature and flow rate of water coming out from
the faucet.
 Let us consider an example of a typical water
faucet. Two required functions are:
FR1 - "control the temperature"
FR2 - "control the flow rate."
DP1 - “Cold water Tap"
DP2 - “Hot water Tap"

⎧ FR1 ⎫ ⎡ X 1 X 2 ⎤ ⎧ DP1 ⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
⎩ FR2 ⎭ ⎣ X 3 X 4 ⎦ ⎩ DP2 ⎭

Coupled Design It is impossible to adjust independently either

59 38 temperature or flow rate without affecting other.
1/28/2015
 Let us consider an independent design: One
valve which controls the ratio of hot to cold
water.
Second valve which controls water flow.

In such a case, the two FRs-

"control the temperature" and
"control the flow rate" are independent.

One valve does not effect the other so

this design is uncoupled.
⎧ FR1 ⎫ ⎡ X 1 0 ⎤ ⎧ DP1 ⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
⎩ FR2 ⎭ ⎣ 0 X 2 ⎦ ⎩ DP2 ⎭
Conclusion: Lesser efforts to operate,
38
60 minimum Maintenance. 1/28/2015
 Example: Vertical hung refrigerator door
Ref: Axiomatic Design, N.P.Suh
Consider the refrigerator door design shown in
Figure. Is it a good design?

“What are the functional requirements for the

door design?"

What are the functional requirements? Are DPs able to satisfy FRs?

Lack of identification of proper functions

Makes it difficult to evaluate product/process.
61 38 1/28/2015
If the purpose of the
door is to provide
access items inside
the refrigerator, then
the door performs
that function and it is
a good design.

FR = Provide access to the items stored

in refrigerator
DP = Vertical hung door

1/28/2015 38 62
On the other hand, if the functional
requirements of the door are:
FR1 = provide access to the food in the
refrigerator
FR2 = minimize the energy consumption,

DP1 = Vertical hung door

DP2 = Thermal insulation (polyurethane foam)
material in the door

⎧ FR1 ⎫ ⎡ X 1 0 ⎤ ⎧ DP1 ⎫ Concept of coupling

⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬
⎩ FR2 ⎭ ⎣ X 2 X 3 ⎦ ⎩ DP2 ⎭ among functions

1/28/2015 38 63
The door is a poor design since each time the
door is opened to take the food out, cold air in
the refrigerator is replaced by hot outside
air, requiring the use of additional energy.

1/28/2015 38 64
 Uncoupling provides a better solution !!!!!

EXAMPLE: Design a gasoline engine that provides high

efficiency at part load and full load conditions..
FR1 Maximize efficiency at idle condition
FR2 Maximize efficiency at low load condition
FR3 Maximize efficiency at medium load condition
FR4 Maximize efficiency at full load condition
Here, all four functional requirements are independent.

65 1/28/2015
 Solution A
y Choose four cylinders DP1, DP2, DP3 and DP4 to satisfy FR1,
FR2, FR3 and FR4 respectively.
y Here DP1 is smaller in size compared to DP2. Similarly DP2 is
smaller than DP3.
y DP1 cylinder for idle operation,
y DP2 cylinder for low load condition,
y DP3 cylinder for medium load condition, and
y DP4 cylinder for full load condition

knocking, vibration, crankshaft balancing, etc.

Relatively large size engine is difficult to fit in a small vehicle demanding large
power.
66 1/28/2015
Solution B
y Only one cylinder (of capacity equivalent to that of DP4 of solution A) for
all four FRs.
y This cylinder has three additional geometric parameters which change the
volume of cylinder. In other words to satisfy:
y FR1, volume of cylinder is made to DP1 This solution may be
y FR2, volume of cylinder is made to DP2 referred as “variable
y FR3, volume of cylinder is made to DP3 stroke cylinder”, “variable
y FR4, volume of cylinder is made to DP4
compression ratio
Drangel et al [SAE 2002-01-0996] cylinder” or a “cylinder
used variable compression ratio
with variable EGR” …
approach and varied volume by tilting
the “Monohead” relative to the “Saab. Approach 8:1 –
crankcase. 14:1.”
1/28/2015 38 67
 Solution C: Four cylinders of same
volume capacity for four FRs.
y Manufacturing same capacity cylinders reduces the cost and helps in
engine balancing.
⎧ ⎫ ⎡1 0 0 0⎤ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ FR1 ⎪ ⎢ ⎥ ⎪ DP1 ⎪ This type of design is
⎪ ⎪ ⎢1 1 0 0⎥ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ FR2 ⎬ = ⎨ DP2 ⎬ termed as “decoupled
⎪ FR3 ⎪ ⎢1 1 1 0⎥ ⎪ DP ⎪
design”
⎪ ⎪ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎪ 3 ⎪
1 1 1⎦ DP
⎩ FR4 ⎭ ⎩ 4⎭
y Here DP1 can be made suitable for FR1 at time t1, suitable for FR2 at time t2,
appropriate for FR3 at time t3, and fit for FR4 at time t4.
y Such a multi-functionality is obtained by variable spark timing, variable amount
of fuel injection, and variable valve actuation system.
y If DP2 and DP3 also have such multi-functionality, then “solution C” is an
innovative design solution.
68 y In automotive industry “solution C” is referred as “Cylinder Deactivation”.
1/28/2015
 Independence of functional requirements (FRs)
If one selects temperature rise (ΔT=f1) and flow rate (Q=f2) as two
harmful functions for bearing optimization.

minimize f = ΔT + Q
The temperature rise (ΔT) is function of power loss (W) and flow rate
(Q), which means f1 = func (W, f2).
This leads to a contradiction even before starting solution approach.

W
minimize f = + Q
Q

69 38 1/28/2015
Water Saving Toilet System: Case Study
by “Hong Suk Lee & Kyeong Won Lee”
y How much water is required for toilet bowl?
y About 2.5 liters for preventing bad smell from septic tank.
+ 0.5 liter remove the stool and flush the toilet bowl (in ideal
condition).
y The “S” shaped trap is required to prevent bad smells from septic
tank. But this structure has to be removed when flushing the
stool in order to save the water.
 Summary
y Problem formulation requires:
y Understanding of system as well as associate
systems.
y Enquire about almost every design-feature/parameter
using literature review (internet, articles,
patents).
 Material Selection

Selection of material at intermediate design stage ?

Material selection during preliminary design stage ?

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 Journal bearing test rig

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 Brass bearing

2000
Fluid pressure

1500
(kPa)

1000
500
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Max pressure = 1800
kPa
Angle (Degree)

Estimating stress
Acrylic bearing

1500
Fluid pressure

Selecting material
1000
(kPa)

500
Max pressure = 1300
0
kPa
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Angle (Degree)

P Samanta, S Dani, and HHirani*, "Is there a Need for Better Bearing Material?", Feb 23-25, 2005,
Recent Advances in Material Processing Technology, pp. 277-285.
 Exploration of materials at beginning of design is
essential.
Analyze material specific requirements of
application.
Emphasize Material properties instead of
material.

Ceramic material
77 Precompressed Ceramic material 1/28/2015
 Parts made of Ceramic materials

http://www.advancer.fraunhofer.de/en/demonstrationszentrumadvancer1/cerlag.html
☺ Ceramic ball is tremendously harder than steel (Rockwell 78c versus Rockwell 60c
for steel balls)… longer life
☺ Ceramic ball is 60% lighter than a steel ball.
☺ Can operate at higher temperature.
☺ Lesser lubricant requirement
 NOTE: Same material can be either
ductile or brittle depending the way it
is manufactured (casting), worked,
and heat treated (quenched,
tempered). Temperature plays
important role. CERAMICS

Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

Necking down or reduction in area.
Even materials.

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Material E (GPa) Sy (MPa) Su (MPa) Ductility (% EL)

Ferrite SS 200 345 552 20

Austenite SS 193 207 552 60
Martensitic SS 200 275 483 30

Remark: Property of material depends on the choice of process by which

material is formed/treated.

Ex: A flat SS plate is rolled into a cylinder with inner radius of 100mm and a wall thickness
of 60 mm. Determine which of the three SS cannot be used to make the cylinder?

l0 = 2 π (ri + 0.5 t ) = 2 π (100 + 30 ) = 816.8mm

l fr = 2 π (ro ) = 2 π (160 ) = 1005
⎛ l fr − l0 ⎞
% EL = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(100 ) = 23.1%
ANS: Ferrite SS cannot
⎝ l0 ⎠ be formed to the
80 1/28/2015
cylinder.
 Resilience (energy per unit volume)
ε el ε el Ex: In mining operation the iron ore is
U R = ∫ σ dε = ∫ E ε dε dumped into a funnel for further transport
0 0 by train. Choose either steel (E=207 GPa,
2 ε el Sy=380 MPa) or rubber (E=4 GPa, Sy=30
ε
=E MPa) for the design of funnel.
2 0 0.3488, 0.1125
2
1 Sy
UR =
2 E
NOTE: Involving two material
properties.
81 1/28/2015
Ex: Choose either steel (E=207 GPa, Sy=380 MPa) or rubber (E=4 GPa, Sy=30 MPa) for
the design of funnel. 0.3488, 0.1125

Properties of Rubber from CES

Storage time

CPE 15-20 MPa 2-3 MPa 61.25

CSM 4-28 MPa 0.7-21 MPa 11.8
CO & ECO 16-25 MPa 1-14 MPa 28
EPDM 4-28 MPa 0.7-21 MPa 11.8
EPM 4-28 MPa 0.7-21 MPa 94.8
NBR 8-28 MPa 3-3.7 MPa 48.4
ACM 15-17 MPa 0.7-10 MPa 23.9
Neoprene 4-28 MPa 0.7-2 MPa 94.8
 Material property- charts: Modulus - Density
1000
Modulus E is plotted
Ceramics against density on
logarithmic scale.
100
Young’s modulus E, (GPa)

Composites
Data for one class are
10 Woods enclosed in a property
Metals envelop.

1 Some of Ceramics have

Foams lower densities than
Polymers
metals because they
0.1 contain light O, N, C
atoms..
Elastomers
0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Density (Mg/m3)
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 Optimised selection using charts
ρ ρ ρ
ρ = C =C =C
Index M = 1/2 E1/ 3 E1 / 2 E
E
1000
2 2
E = ρ /M
Ceramics
Log(E ) = 2 Log(ρ ) − 2 Log(M)

Young’s modulus E, (GPa)

100 Composites

ρ Woods
Index M= 10
E1/3
E = ρ3 / M3
1 Metals
Log (E ) = 3 Log (ρ )− 3 Log (M ) 1 2 3
Polymers
0.1
Contours of constant
M are lines of slope 2 Foams Elastomers
on an E-ρ chart 0.01
0.1 1 10 100
84
Density (Mg/m )
3
1/28/2015
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 Outcome of
screening step is to
shortlist of
candidates which
satisfy the
quantifiable
87 information1/28/2015
 Viewing Material Record in CES

Browse

Table > Material

Select Mat.

Double-click to open
the record

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 Viewing Material Record in CES by Search

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Spring steel 15-25
Rubber
GPa
20-50

σ2
Selection based on
E

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 σ2
Selection based on
σ2 ρE
Selection based on
E

σ2
Selection based on
ρ E Cm

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 Using Minimum criterion on E (> 6.89 GPa)

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 Chromium steel
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 Ex: Select mat. For beam
y Object Min. weight
y Constraints:
y Must not fail by fatigue,
y Must be adequately tough,
y Must be inexpensive, Cm < 2500
Rs/kg 1
K IC > 15 MPa.m 2

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 Stage 2: Graph stage…
Material/Performance Index, M1

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 Stage 2: Graph stage…

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 Material Selection

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 Material Selection

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103 1/28/2015
 y Ex: Select material for a component sliding un-lubricated at low load but
high relative speed (20,000 rpm).

(1) Hardness – Higher the better,

(2) Surface roughness – lower the better,
(3) Cost – Lesser the better,
(4) Adhesion to substrate – Higher the better, and
(5) Change in dimension during surface treatment/coating–Lesser the
better
Hardness Roughness Cost Adhesion Dimension Dummy Weighting
Design factor
property
Hardness - 1 1 0 1 1 0.267
Roughness 0 - 1 0 0 1 0.133
Cost 0 0 - 0 0 1 0.067
Adhesion 1 1 1 - 1 1 0.333
Dimension 0 1 1 0 - 1 0.2

1/28/2015 104
 Material Selection: Deciding weighting factors
Attribute 1 2 3 4 5 Dummy Total normalized

1 1 1 1 1 1 5 0.333

2 0 1 1 0 1 3 0.2

3 0 0 1 0 1 2 0.133

4 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.066

5 0 1 1 1 1 4 0.266

Total 15

Fatigue strength, Corrosion resistance, Wettability,

Conformability, Embeddability, Compatibility,
105 Hardness, Cost, etc. 1/28/2015
 Four methods to fulfill the required functions:
(1) Plasma sprayed Al2O3 (polished),
(2) Carburizing,
(3) Nitriding,
(4) Boronizing
Hardness Roughness Cost Adhesion Dimension Weighted
Surface total
improvement
method
Weighting factor 0.267 0.133 0.067 0.333 0.2

P S Al2O3 9 78 HRC 2 3 microns 5 5 100 MPa 3 5.27

Carburizing 4 52 HRC 7 1 microns 9 8 300 MPa 8 6.87
Nitriding 4 50 HRC 9 0.5 microns 7 8 300 MPa 9 7.2
Boronizing 8 72 HRC 7 1 microns 6 9 320 MPa 7 7.87

Subjective ranking & weighting impairs the material selection

process.
 PERFORMANCE INDEX
Best material for a light stiff rod, under tension is one that have
greatest value of “specific stiffness”
(E/ρ) Larger Better For Light & Stiff Tie-rod

Light & Strong σ Y/ ρ

Best material for a spring, regardless of its shape or the way it is

loaded, are those with the greatest value of (σY)2 /E

Best thermal shock resistant material needs largest value of σY/Eα

Combination of material properties which optimize some aspects

of performance, is called “MATERIAL INDEX”
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 PERFORMANCE INDICES
•GROUPING OF MAT. PROPERTIES REPRESENT SOME
ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE

Design requirements
To support load,
transmit power,
store energy

Function
What does the component do ?
Cost,
energy Constraints
What essential conditions must be met ?
storage
Objectives
What is to be maximised or minimised ?

Free variables Which design variables are free ?

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 Example 1: strong, light tie-rod
Strong tie of length L and minimum mass
Hollow or solid.
Shape factor !!! F F
Area A L

• Tie-rod is common mechanical component.

• Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F, without failure.
• L is usually fixed by design.
• We need strong as well as lightweight.

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 Selection of Shape
y Cross-sectional shape of a part can be used to enhance the load bearing
capacity !!!!
y Material loaded under bending or twisting can be made stronger by
shaping it into an I-beam or a hollow tube, respectively !!!!
y ‘Shaped’ sections/cross-sections carry bending, torsional, and axial-
compressive loads more ‘efficiently’ than solid sections!!!

y The range of shapes for a given material is limited either by

manufacturing constraints or by local buckling.
y Steel can be drawn to thin walled tubing or formed into desirable efficient (30-50
times) shapes.
y Wood cannot be shaped so easily and shapes with values greater than 5 are rare.
y Bamboo, shaped in tubular fashion possesses a high value of shape factor. But it is very
difficult to give it any other shape and present it in thin-walled shapes.
 Function Tie-rod: Rod subjected to tensile force.
F F
Area A L
Objective Minimise mass m:
m = ALρ (1) m = mass
A = area
Constraints L = length
• Length L is specified
ρ = density
• Must not fail under load F σ y= yield strength

F / A≤σy (2)

Free variables • Material choice

• Section area A; eliminate in (1) using (2):
⎛ ρ⎞
m = FL⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ σy ⎠

⎛ ρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Choose materials with smallest, Mat. index
M = ⎜⎜ σ ⎟⎟
1 ⎝ y ⎠
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 Example 2: stiff, light beam
F
Function Beam (solid square section). b

Objective Minimise mass, m, where: b

m = A L ρ = b2 L ρ
L
Constraint Stiffness of the beam S: m = mass
CEI A = area
CC, C =3 S= L = length
CD,C = 8, L3
ρ = density
SS = 48 I is the second moment of area: b = edge length
SSD =384/5
b4 S = stiffness
RS = 192 I= I = second moment of area
12
E = Youngs’ Modulus
• Material choice.
Free variables
• Edge length b. Combining the equations gives:
1/ 2
⎛ 12 S L5 ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
m=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟ Chose materials with smallest M 1 = ⎜ 1/ 2 ⎟
⎜ C ⎟ ⎝E ⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝E ⎠
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 Example 3: stiff, light panel

Function Panel with given width w and length L F

Minimise mass, m, where w
Objective
m = ALρ = w t Lρ t
L
Constraint Stiffness of the panel S:
m = mass, w = width
CEI L = length
S=
L3 ρ = density
I is the second moment of area: t = thickness
S = stiffness
w t3
I= I = second moment of area
12 E = Youngs’ Modulus

Free variables • Material choice.

• Panel thickness t. Combining the equations gives:
1/ 3
⎛ 12 S w 2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
m=⎜ ⎟ L2 ⎜ 1/ 3 ⎟ Chose materials with smallest ⎜ 1/ 3 ⎟
⎜ C ⎟ ⎝E ⎠ ⎝E ⎠
⎝ ⎠
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Function, Objective, and Constraint Index
Tie, minimum weight, stiffness E/ρ
Beam, minimum weight, stiffness E1/2 /ρ
Beam, minimum weight, strength σ2/3/ρ
Beam, minimum cost, stiffness E1/2/Cmρ
Beam, minimum cost, strength σ2/3/Cmρ
Column, minimum cost, buckling load E1/2/Cmρ
Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage σYS2/Eρ

Minimizing cost instead of weight is achieved by replacing

density ρ by ρCm , where Cm=cost/mass
 y Michael F Ashby (MFA)
y Material Selection in Mechanical Design
Reference y Butterworth Heinemann
y Rs 800/-
Book on mat sele

Ex: MATERIALS for SPRINGS

OBJECTIVE: MAXIMIZE ENERGY STORAGE

σ2
WV ∝
E
115
 σ2
WV ∝
116 E
Bearings for Marine
Shaft

y Marine environment is hostile and corrosive

y Coast Guard Ship has twin shafts
y Each shaft transmits 6000 hp of power
y Shaft diameter ranges from 345 to 365 mm
y Shaft rpm is ranging from 100 to 250
y Weight of shafting is 10 T.
y Required properties:
y Hardness 2B or 3B abrasion
y Resistance to abrasion -- Fracture toughness
y Corrosion resistance
y Long life, but sacrificing component.
Bearings for Ships

590 mat.
Sacrificing material
Connecting rods for high-performance
engines/pump/compressor
Connecting rods for high-performance
engines/pump/compressor
Connecting rod:
y Should not fail - strong
y Max. load is F.
π 2 EI (α w)w3
y Buckling F≤ ;I =
L2 12
y Fatigue F A ≤ S e
y Should be light to minimize inertial
forces m = ρ LA
y Assuming rectangular (A=b*w) area
y Must be cheap.
⎛ Se ⎞ ⎛ E 1/ 2 ⎞
M 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ M 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ρ⎠ ⎝ ρ ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ 12 L ⎞
2
M 2 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ M 1
⎝ π αF ⎠
If cost is accounted

27 Mat
What is SHAPE factor
y When element is subjected to
axial tension, area of cross-
section is important but shape is
not. All sections with same area
will carry same load.
y For bending/torsion/buckling
there are section, which are
better than a solid section of the
same cross-sectional area.
y Shape factor a measure to
characterize the efficiency of a
section shape compared to solid
section.
No need to account shape factor if
“uniformly distributed stress”
 Shape Factors: Stiffness (Elastic)
y Torsion
S J
CG J φ =
e
T =
S= Ssolid_circular Jsolid_circular
L
2π J
π A
4
2
φ = 2e

J solid _ circular = r = T
A
2 2π ⎡π 4 4 ⎤
2π ⎢ ro − ri ⎥( )
φTe = ⎣2 ⎦
Inner radius ri
Outer radius ro [(
π ro − ri
2 2 2
)]
Thickness t
φTe =
(r o
2
)
+ ri 2
≈
ri
(r o
2
)
− ri 2 t
 Shape Factors: Stiffness (Elastic)
y Bending
S I
S=
CEI φ =
e
B =
L3 Ssolid_circular Isolid_circular
π A 2
4π I
φ = 2
= r4 =
e
I solid _ circular B
4 4π A

φ =
e S
=
I b 4 A2
B
Ssolid _ square I solid _ square I solid _ square = =
12 12
12 I
φ = 2
e
B
A
 Shape factor of I-
section
12 I
φ = 2
e
B
A

4
12 * 35 t
φ =
e
≈ 3.4
B
[11t ]
2 2

I section provides 3.4 times stiffness

compared to square section A = 4t 2 + 3t 2 + 4t 2
 Shape Factors: Strength
y Torsion
T Q
Tr T φTf = =
τ= = Tsolid _ circular Qsolid _ circular
J Q
π 2 πQ
3/ 2
A
= r3 =
Qsolid _ circular
2 2 π φ = 3/2
f
T
A

Inner radius ri
2 π π 4 4 2ri
Outer radius ro φ = 3/ 2
T
f

A 2ro
ro − ri ≈
t
( )
Thickness t
More effect of shape
factor on the stiffness
 Shape Factors: Strength
y Bending My m M
σ = =
I Z
M Z
φ =
B
f
=
M solid _ square Z solid − square

b 3 A3 / 2 6Z
Z solid _ square = =
6 6 φ = 3/ 2
B
f

A
2 2 2
A = 4t + 3t + 4t

φ =f ( ) ≈ 2. 3
6 13.97 t 3
B
(11t )
2 3/ 2
Shape Factors
Section Stiffness Failure/Strength
Shape φ e
B φ e
T φBf φTf

1 1 1 1

π 2 π
= 1.05 0.88 = 1.18 0.74
3 3

a 2ab
b a + b2
2
a a
(a < b )
b b

2πb ⎛ h⎞ 1/ 2 2 π (b / h )1/ 2
πh ⎜1 − 0.58 ⎟ 2 π ⎛h⎞
3h ⎝ b⎠ ⎜ ⎟ 3(1 + 0.6b / h )2
3b 3 ⎝b⎠
(h > b ) (h > b )
2π 2π
= 1.21 = 0.73 0.77 0.62
3 3 5 3

1/ 2 1/ 2
r r ⎛ 2r ⎞ ⎛ 2r ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
t t ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠

In final selection of shape, use formulae without neglecting any term.

Use parametrization to optimize the shape.
 Shape Factors cont’d

Section Stiffness Failure/Strength

Shape φ e
B φ
e
T φ f
B φTf
4 1/ 2 1/ 2 2
πb πb ⎛ t⎞ 2 π ⎛b⎞ π ⎛b⎞ ⎛ t⎞
⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟
6t 8t ⎝ b ⎠ 3 ⎝t⎠ 2 ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ b⎠

1/ 2
a(1 + 3b / a ) 8(ab )5 / 2 ⎛a⎞ (1 + 3b / a ) 4a1/ 2
⎜ ⎟
t (1 + b / a )2 t (a 2 + b 2 )(a + b )2 ⎝t⎠ (1 + b / a )3 / 2 t 1/ 2 (1 + a / b )3 / 2

πh 2 2π h
2bt (bt )1/ 2
1/ 2
πh(1 + 3b / h ) πb 2 h 2 πt (1 + 4h / b ) 2π ⎛ h ⎞ (1 + 3b / h ) 2π h 2π ⎛ t ⎞
1/ 2
(1 + 4h / b )
2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
6t (1 + b / h ) t (h + b ) 3
3b(1 + h / b )2
3 ⎝t⎠ 3/2
(1 + b / h ) (bt ) (1 + h / b )3 / 2
1/ 2 3 ⎝b⎠ (1 + b / h )3 / 2

1/ 2
πh(1 + 4bt 2 / h3 ) πt (1 + 8b / h ) πt (1 + 4b / h ) π ⎛h⎞ (1 + 4bt 2 / h 3 ) ⎛ πt ⎞1/ 2 (1 + 8b / h) 2π
1/ 2
⎛t ⎞
⎜ ⎟
(1 + 4b / h )
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 3/2 3 ⎝h⎠ (1 + b / h )3 / 2
6t (1 + b / h )2 6h(1 + b / h )2 3h(1 + b / h )2 2 ⎝t ⎠ (1 + b / h )3 / 2 ⎝ 18h ⎠ (1 + b / h)

πd 2 πd
2tλ (tλ )1/ 2
Performance Indices which include
Shape - Elastic Bending
4πI
Function Beam with shape φ = 2
e
B
A
Objective Minimise mass, m, where:
m = ALρ
Constraint Stiffness of the beam S:

C E I C E φBe A2
S= = 3
L3
L 4π

Free variables • Material choice.

• Area. Combining the equations gives:

⎛ 4π SL3
m = ⎜⎜
φ e
⎞
⎟⎟ L ρ
M1 =
(φ E)
e
B
12

=
(Eφ )
e 12
B
⎝ CE ⎠
ρ ρ φ
B e
B
Performance Indices which include
Shape - Elastic Twisting
y Aim: light stiff shaped shaft
m = AL ρ
JG G e A2
y Torsional stiffness ST = = φT
L 2π L
y Eliminate A gives
ρ
m = (2πLST ) L
12

(φ G )
e
T
12

M2 =
(φ G)
e
T
12

=
(Gφ ) e 12
T
ρ ρ φ e
T

Geometric shape depends on manufacturing of the

selected material. Shape factor range is a material
property.
Performance Indices which include
Shape - Failure of Beam
y Aim: light strong shaped beam 6Z
y Failure Stress φ = 3/ 2
B
f
m = ALρ
σ = C2
M 6M
= C2 3 / 2 f
A
Z A φB
y Eliminate A gives

23
⎛ 6M ⎞ ρ
m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ L
⎝ C2 ⎠ (
σφBf )
2/3

23
⎛ σ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
M3 =
(σφ )
B
f 23 ⎜ φf
=⎝ B
( ) 2 ⎟
⎠
ρ ρ (φ ) B
f 2
 Revisiting Con rod exam

23
⎛ σ ⎞ The maximum
⎜ ⎟
M3 =
(σφ )
B
f 23
( )
⎜ φf
=⎝ B
2 ⎟
⎠
values of the shape
factors!!!. Probably
ρ ρ (φ )B
f 2
not correct to be
used in final
M1 =
(φ E)
e
B
12

=
(Eφ ) e 12
B selection of
ρ ρ φ e materials.
B
Materials Young’s Endurance Density, Shape Fracture Price/kg
modulus, strength, kg/m^3 factor toughness,
GPa MPa MPa. M^0.5
AISI 1060 212 358 7850 54 > 54 29
AISI 1141 208 323 7850 57 >57 29
AISI 4150 207 343 7850 56 > 94 29
AISI 5140 213 289 7850 61 > 97 29
AISI 5150 207 325 7850 57 > 93 29
AISI 5160 209 340 7850 62 > 132 29
AISI 8650 211 338 7850 57 > 95 29
Materials Young’s Endurance Density, Shape Price/kg
modulus, strength, kg/m^3 factor
GPa MPa
AISI 1060 212 358 7850 54 29
AISI 1141 208 323 7850 57 29
AISI 4150 207 343 7850 56 29
AISI 5140 213 289 7850 61 29
AISI 5150 207 325 7850 57 29
AISI 5160 209 340 7850 62 29
AISI 8650 211 338 7850 57 29

M Unknown
σ = C2 CEI
Z S= variables/inputs
L3
 Assembly
design

Dimensions of the rod bearing inserts (crank-pin/big-end

bearing) and the piston-pin-bearing/rod-bushing .
Size of the bolts for securing the big end cap.
Thickness of the big end cap
Side buckling

Front/rear
buckling
π 2 EI
F≤
L2

I xx = 4 I yy
Engine
animation
 12 I
φ = 2
e
B
αt
A
φ ≈ 3.65
e
B

αt

t 3 α t 3 2
Ixx = (3 t ) +2 t + t (α t ) (2 t )
12 12
3
t 3 t
Iyy = 2 (α t ) + (3 t )
12 12

I xx = 4 I yy
A = 10.2 t 2
3
8 α - 98 α - 15 = 0
Using TK Solver
Assignment 4