Feedback Devices

By John Mazurkiewicz

Baldor Electric
Closed loop systems use feedback signals for stabilization, speed and position information. There are a
variety of devices to provide this data, such as the analog tachometer, optical encoder, Hall sensor, and
resolver. In the following, each of these devices will be defined and explained.
Tachometer
Tachometers resemble miniature motors. However, the similarity ceases there. The tachometer is not used
for a power delivering device, but for a signal providing device. Typical construction is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 – Typical tachometer assembly

Tach Magnet

Tach Armature

Brush Assembly

Operation is as follows. The tach armature is rotated and a voltage is developed at the terminals (a motor
in reverse!). The faster the shaft is turned, the larger the magnitude of voltage developed (i.e. the output
signal is directly proportional to speed). The output voltage has a polarity (+ or –) which is dependent on
direction of rotation.
Analog, or DC tachometers as they are often termed, play an important role in drives, because of their
ability to provide directional and rotational information. They can be used to provide speed information to a
meter (for visual speed readings) or provide velocity feedback (for stabilization purposes). The DC tach
provides the simplest, most direct method of accomplishing this.
As an example of a drive utilizing an analog tach for velocity information, consider a lead screw assembly
which must move a load at a constant speed. The motor is required to rotate the lead screw at 3600 RPM.
With a tachometer voltage constant of 2.5 volts/kRPM, the voltage read on the tachometer terminals
should be:
3.600 kRPM x 2.5 volts/kRPM = 9 volts. If the voltage read is indeed 9 volts, then the motor/load is rotating
at 3600 RPM. The servo drive will try to maintain this voltage to assure the desired speed. Although this
example has been simplified, the basic concept of speed regulation via the tachometer is illustrated.
Some of the terminology associated with tachometers includes: voltage constant, ripple and linearity. The
following defines each.
A tachometer’s voltage constant may also be referred to as voltage gradient, or sensitivity. This represents
the output voltage generated from a tachometer when operated at 1000 RPM. Sometimes this may be
converted and expressed in volts per radian per second, i.e. V/rad/sec.
Ripple may be termed voltage ripple or tachometer ripple. Since tachs are not ideal devices, and design
and manufacturing tolerances enter into the product, there are deviations from the norm. As shown in
Figure 2, when the shaft is rotated, a DC signal is produced which has an AC signal superimposed upon it.
Figure 2 – Scope trace showing tach ripple
Volts
Ripple

DC Volts

0 Time
In reviewing literature, care must be exercised to determine the definition of ripple, since there are three
methods of presenting the data: 1) Peak–to–peak – the ratio of peak–to–peak ripple expressed as a
percent of the average DC level; 2) RMS – the ratio of the RMS of the AC component expressed as a
percent of the average DC level and 3) Peak to Average – the ratio of maximum deviation from the average
DC value expressed as a percent of the average DC level.
Linearity – The ideal tachometer would have a perfect straight line for voltage vs. speed. Again, design
and manufacturing tolerances enter the picture and alter this straight line. Thus, linearity is a measure of
how far away from perfect the tach is. The maximum difference of the actual versus theoretical curves, as
shown in Figure 3, is linearity (expressed in percentage).
Figure 3 – Tach linearity
Volts Actual

Ideal

Deviation

Speed
Optical encoder
A digital tachometer, often termed an optical encoder or simply encoder, is a mechanical–to–electrical
conversion device. The encoder’s shaft is rotated and an output signal results, which is proportional to
distance (i.e. angle) the shaft is rotated through. The output signal may be square waves, or sinusoidal
waves, or provide an absolute position. Thus encoders are classified into two basic types: absolute and
incremental.
Absolute encoder
The absolute encoder provides a specific address for each shaft position throughout 360 degrees. As
shown in Figure 4, this type of encoder employs either contact (brush) or non–contact schemes of sensing
position.
Figure 4 – Example absolute encoder disk

Disk
Example Rotation
Brush

The contact scheme incorporates a brush assembly to make direct electrical contact with the electrically
conductive paths of the coded disk to read address information. The non–contact scheme utilizes
photoelectric detection to sense position of the coded disk.
The number of tracks on the coded disk may be increased until the desired resolution or accuracy is
achieved. And since position information is directly on the coded disk assembly, the disk has a built–in
“memory system” and a power failure will not cause this information to be lost. Therefore, it will not be
required to return to a “home” or “start” position upon re–energizing power.
Incremental encoder
The incremental encoder provides either pulses or a sinusoidal output signal as it is rotated throughout 360
degrees. Thus, distance data is obtained by counting this information.
The basic construction of the incremental encoder is illustrated in Figure 5. A disk is manufactured with
opaque lines. A beam of light passes through the transparent disk and is picked up by a photo sensor.
The photo sensor outputs a sinusoidal waveform and electronic processing transforms this signal into a
square waves, i.e. a pulse train.
Figure 5 – Concept of basic incremental encoder
Disk

Photo Squaring
Sensor Circuitry
Pickup
Grid
Light Source Assembly
There are typically two output signals or ‘channels’ and the relationship between these, as shown in Figure
6, informs the control which direction the motor is rotating.
Figure 6 – Incremental encoder signals
Code Disk

Light Sensor
(three sensors)

CB
A

Three Light Beams

Light Source
(three lights)

1024 Pulses per Revolution

PW

Outer Track A
Zone A B
0 0 0 Pattern repeats
Middle Track B 1 1 0 1024 Times/
0 1 2 3 Zones 2 1 1 Revolution
3 0 1
Inner Track C
(1 Pulse per 0
Time
revolution)
In utilizing an encoder, the following parameters are important: 1) Line count: The number of pulses per
revolution. The number of lines is determined by the positional accuracy required in the application. 2)
Output signal: The output from the photo sensor can be either a sine or square wave signal. 3) Number
of channels: Either one or two channel outputs can be provided. The two channel version provides a
signal relationship to obtain motion direction (i.e. clockwise or counterclockwise rotation). In addition, a
zero ‘index’ pulse can be provided to assist in determining the “home” position.
An encoder provides information similar to the information derived by a micrometer. The micrometer screw
is turned to accurately measure the thickness of a piece. A micrometer barrel is divided so measurements
can be made. The encoder does exactly the same thing with one important difference. Instead of having
to read and interpolate (as with the micrometer), the encoder provides the information, in the form of
electrical signals. An encoder translates the rotation into discrete electrical signals, that are directly related
to the shaft position, and therefore the distance traveled. These signals are fed into a counter.
A typical application using an incremental encoder is as follows (see Figure 7): An input signal loads a
counter with positioning information. This represents the position the load must be moved to. As the motor
accelerates, the pulses emitted from the encoder come at an increasing rate until a constant run speed is
attained. During the run period, the pulses come at a constant rate which can be directly related to motor
speed. The counter, in the meanwhile, is counting the encoder pulses and, at a predetermined location,
the motor is commanded to slow down. This is to prevent overshooting the desired position. When the
counter is within 1 or 2 pulses of the desired position, the motor is commanded to stop. The load is now in
position.
Figure 7 – Monitoring encoder pulses to measure distance
Input Up/Down Servo
Servo
Signal Counter Control

Encoder
Speed

Encoder Pulses

Hall sensors
Hall sensors are solid state devices which are used to sense magnetic fields. As a magnetic field is
passed near the Hall sensor, its output changes from ‘on’ to ‘off’.

In some motors, a 4–pole magnet wheel is attached to the rear of the motor shaft, and as this magnetized
wheel passes by the Hall sensor, the Hall’s output changes state. Figure 8 illustrates typical construction. In
other motors, the actual rotor magnets are used (rather than the magnetized wheel).

Figure 8 – Typical Hall sensor assembly

Magnet

Hall Sensor

Mounting Ring
(Holds Hall Sensor Assembly)
PC Board

In some brushless motors, three Hall sensors are used to provide ‘electronic commutation’ information.
These three square wave signals, as shown in Figure 9, are phased 120 degrees apart, and provide
information to the control, so the control knows which electrical winding power should be applied to.

Figure 9 – Hall sensor output signals

Mechanical Degrees 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Electrical Degrees 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720
Hall Leads
U
Hall Signal

W
Additionally, since the output of the Halls look like a series of square waves or pulses, the timing between
these pulses can be used to derive speed information. This can be used for speed control or speed
regulation. This scheme works best at higher speeds. At very low speeds the pulses are far apart, thus it
becomes extremely difficult to accurately control speed.
Resolver
Resolvers look similar to small motors – that is, one end has terminal wires, and the other end has a
mounting flange and a shaft. Internally there is a rotor and stator. A “signal” winding revolves inside a
fixed stator. As the winding is moved (the rotor), the output of the signal changes. This changing signal is
directly proportional to the angle which the rotor has moved through.
The simplest resolver, as shown in Figure 10, contains a single input winding, and two output windings
(located 90 degrees apart). A reference signal is applied onto the input winding, the stator (the primary),
then via transformer action this is coupled to the rotor (the secondary). As the rotor is moved, the signal is
modified according to, and proportional to, the angle the resolver rotor is moved thru. This signal then is
coupled (via transformer action) back to the stator. The stator has two secondary windings which provide a
sine and cosine output. These signals are then fed into the controller.
Figure 10 – Brushless resolver construction
Sin Cos
R1 R2 S4 S2

0° 360°

1 Electrical
Cycle
Waveforms from windings of a resolver.
Note that signals are always 90° out of phase.
S3 S1

Inside the controller, a resolver to digital (R to D) converter produces a signal representing the angle which
the rotor has moved through, and a signal proportional to speed.
There are various types of resolvers. The type described above would be termed a single speed resolver;
that is, the output signal goes through one sine wave as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees. If
the output signal went through four sine waves, as the rotor goes through 360 mechanical degrees, it
would be called a 4–speed resolver.
Another version utilizes three windings on the stator – and would be called a Synchro. The three windings
are located 120 degrees apart.
Each feedback device has its own characteristics, parameters, operating range, and advantages. The
engineer designs the control package to make best use of the features and advantages of the feedback
device in the application.