AUTOMATION

IN
ENGINEERING
(ASSIGNMENT – 2)

Mechanical
Question1)
Hydraulic and pneumatic system designs and its applications to manufacturing equipment?
Hydraulic system –
A hydraulic system is a drive technology where a fluid is used to move the energy from e.g. an
electric motor to an actuator, such as a hydraulic cylinder. The fluid is theoretically incompressible
and the fluid path can be flexible in the same way as an electric cable.
Hydraulic systems are mainly used where a high-power density is needed or load requirements
changes rapidly. This is especially the case in all kinds of mobile equipment such as excavators and in
industrial systems such as presses.

Hydraulic System Components –

The major components that make up a hydraulic system are the reservoir, pump, valve(s) and
actuator(s) (motor, cylinder, etc.).

 Reservoir
The purpose of the hydraulic reservoir is to hold a volume of fluid, transfer heat from the system,
allow solid contaminants to settle and facilitate the release of air and moisture from the fluid.
 Pump
The hydraulic pump transmits mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. This is done by the
movement of fluid which is the transmission medium. There are several types of hydraulic pumps
including gear, vane and piston. All of these pumps have different subtypes intended for specific
applications such as a bent-axis piston pump or a variable displacement vane pump. All hydraulic
pumps work on the same principle, which is to displace fluid volume against a resistant load or
pressure.
 Valves
Hydraulic valves are used in a system to start, stop and direct fluid flow. Hydraulic valves are
made up of poppets or spools and can be actuated by means of pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical,
manual or mechanical means.

 Actuators
Hydraulic actuators are the end result of Pascal’s law. This is where the hydraulic energy is
converted back to mechanical energy. This can be done through use of a hydraulic cylinder which
converts hydraulic energy into linear motion and work, or a hydraulic motor which converts
hydraulic energy into rotary motion and work. As with hydraulic pumps, hydraulic cylinders and
hydraulic motors have several different subtypes, each intended for specific design applications.
Applications -

 Industrial: Electro hydraulics is the mechanism used for controlling the industrial applications of
hydraulics. Precise and fast response is an advantage of this. Plastic processing machinery, steel
making and primary metal extraction applications, automated production lines, machine tool industry,
paper industries, loaders, crushers, presses, textile industry machinery, etc. are some of the examples
of industrial hydraulics.
 Mobile Hydraulics: In mobile hydraulics, the hydraulic system is controlled manually. Building and
construction equipment like cranes, excavators, backhoe, earth moving equipment, etc., tractors,
irrigation system, material handling equipment, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, etc. are
some examples of mobile hydraulics.
 Automobiles: Hydraulics have many interesting applications in the automobile industry. Most of the
important work using the principle of hydraulics. Power steering, shock absorbers, windshields, and
brake are the common applications of hydraulics in vehicles. Two-post lifts and four-post lifts are
used in the automobile industry to lift vehicles for servicing and inspecting.
 Marine Applications: Hydraulics plays an important role in maintaining the stability and control of
ships. Steering gears, bow and stern thrusters, engine room maintenance systems including pumps and
jacks, deck machineries like cranes, winches, hatch covers, mooring drums and others are examples of
hydraulics in the marine industry.
 Aerospace Applications: Airplanes, rockets, spaceships, etc. use hydraulic systems for various
applications. Aerospace industry uses hydraulics for adjusting wings, retraction and extension of
landing gears, opening/closing of doors, brakes, steering, etc.
 Mining: Hydraulic fracturing is one of the advanced mining technologies used for extracting unused
gases/oils beneath the earth surface. In this approach, a high-pressure mixture of water, sand and other
chemical additives are passed into the cracks.
Pneumatic Systems -
A pneumatic system is a collection of interconnected components that uses compressed air to transmit
and control energy.
Most pneumatic systems rely on a constant supply of compressed air to make them work. This is
provided by an air compressor. The compressor sucks in air from the atmosphere and stores it in a
high-pressure tank called a receiver. This compressed air is then supplied to the system through a
series of pipes and valves.

Pneumatic System Components –

There are many components connected to create a complete pneumatic system. Nearly all pneumatics
systems consist of these items:
•A method of generating compressed air to power the system. This is usually a plant air compressor
and often includes pressure tanks, for reserve air, and distribution piping to machines and equipment.
•A method of conditioning the compressed air, both at the compressor and locally, at the machine.
All pneumatic motion requires clean and dry air with enough flow and pressure to perform the work.
The process of filtering, regulating and lubricating compressed air is known as air preparation, or air
prep. Manufacturing plants include air prep at centralized compressors, and additional air prep is
beneficial at each machine’s point- of-use. This includes a manual shutoff, a filter to remove dirt, oil
and water as needed, a regulator to control the system pressure, and possibly a lubricator to lubricate
the air when needed for air tools or similar. A “soft start / exhaust dump” valve is also often included
for operator safety to shut off upstream pressure and quickly relieve motion causing downstream
pressure (pneumatic energy) when de-energized during a safety event.
•A method of controlling the directional flow of air. These are typically one or more types of valves.
A good choice in machine control would be a 5-way, 3-position, center-exhaust valve where the
center off position dumps air from both sides of the cylinder when an emergency stop is pressed, and
power is removed. This valve typically operates using two 24 VDC solenoids. Energizing individual
solenoids extends or retracts its corresponding cylinder.
•One or more air-driven work devices. These can be linear or rotary actuators (cylinders), grippers,
motors, air nozzles, etc.
•A collection or fittings and piping to connect all the components of a pneumatic system. These
include rigid pipe and tubing or flexible tubing or hoses. Most cylinders include flow controls to both
ports, to limit the cylinder speed by restricting air as it leaves the cylinder.
 Applications –

 Automobile: Automobile industry use pneumatic systems for dismantling vehicle tire, filling
compressed air in the tire, vehicle painting, opening and closing of doors, air brakes on heavy
vehicles, etc.
 Transporting Goods: Pneumatics is used to transport goods from shelf to other location inside the
company. The cylinder will push the item on the shelf into the moving belt if the button is pushed.
 Industrial Applications: Material handling, drilling, sawing, filling, packaging, clamping, shifting,
etc. are some of the general applications of the pneumatic system.

Question 2)
Explain the following:
1) Sequence operation of hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders
You can make two or more cylinders stroke in a specific sequence using electronic components. But
simple sequence valves can do the same thing, and without adding as much cost and complexity.

Figure shows symbols and cutaways for hydraulic and pneumatic sequence valves. The main
difference between these valves is that most hydraulic sequence valves are single purpose and must be
used in series with a directional control valve. However, many pneumatic sequence valves are pilot-
operated directional control valves with an adjustable spring return. In either case, a preset pressure
must be reached before the valves allow fluid to pass or change flow paths.
Whether sequence valves are used with compressed air or hydraulic fluid, keep in mind that sequence
valve shifts on a pressure build up and may start a second operation prematurely if an actuator stalls
or is stopped for any reason. Don’t use sequence valves if personnel safety or product damage can
occur due to an incomplete stroke. Instead, use limit switches or limit valves and directional control
valves for each operation sequence.

Pneumatic sequence
Pneumatic sequence valves typically are five-way directional control valves with adjustable springs to
set their shifting pressure. They are used to start a second operation after the preceding one finishes.

The circuit in figure is typical for air-powered machines. The clamp cylinder extends to clamp a part
when an electrical input signal shifts the solenoid pilot-operated valve. As it extends, pressure beyond
the meter-in flow control at the clamp cylinder’s cap end becomes as high as necessary to move the
piston and its load. With the sequence valve set to shift at 70 psi, the stamp cylinder should not move
until the clamp cylinder has extended and securely clamped the part. If the clamp cylinder does not
achieve its full stroke for any reason, the stamp cylinder will extend prematurely but not damage the
part or be unsafe. When pressure in the clamp cylinder reaches or exceeds 70 psi, the sequence valve
shifts to extend the stamp cylinder. Both cylinders can return simultaneously with no issues.

Flow controls in sequence valve circuits must be the meter-in variety. They take the signal to the
sequence valve from the line downstream from the flow control because pressure at this point will be
whatever is required to move the cylinder and its load. However, the stamp cylinder in figure has
meter-out flow controls to retard its movement and hold pressure on the clamp cylinder during the
stamping operation. De-energizing the solenoid pilot-operated valve allows both cylinders to return
home at the same time.
Hydraulic Sequence

The hydraulic sequence circuit in figure is typical for a machine that must clamp and hold pressure
while a second operation takes place. Sequence valve 1 is set at 550 psi; pressure at the clamp
cylinder must be at least 550 psi before the punch cylinder can extend. Pressure in the circuit never
drops below 550 psi while the punch cylinder is extending. If the punching operation requires more
than 550 psi, the pressure in the whole circuit will increase all the way up to the circuit’s relief valve
setting.

Sequence valve 2 (set at 450 psi) keeps the clamp cylinder from getting a retract signal until the punch
cylinder has returned and pressure increases. A pilot-operated check valve maintains clamp force
while the punch cylinder retracts. The signal to open the pilot-operated check valve comes from the
line between Sequence Valve 2 and the clamp cylinder, so no signal occurs until the punch cylinder
fully retracts. (This circuit is not safe if pressure build-up comes from a source other than clamp
contact or the end of stroke because the punch cylinder would extend prematurely.)

2) Motors
a) AC Motors
A typical AC motor consists of two parts: a stator having coils supplied with AC current to
produce a rotating magnetic field and an inside rotor attached to an output shaft. The rotor is
provided a torque by the rotating field that is generated by the alternating current. AC motors
often include designations relating to their physical construction such as TE (totally enclosed), FC
(fan cooled), and PM. Other information, such as frame size, also describes motors physically,
including mounting options, sealing methods, and shaft sizes.
i. Synchronous Motors

A synchronous motor is an AC machine with a rotor that rotates at the same speed as the
alternating current that is applied. This is accomplished by exciting the rotor’s field winding
with a direct current. When the rotor rotates, voltage is induced in the armature winding of
the stator; this produces a revolving magnetic field whose speed is the same as the speed of
the rotor. Unlike an induction motor, a synchronous motor has zero “slip” while operating
at speed.
Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to
each other and move at the same speed; hence, the name synchronous motor. Synchronous
motors are used mainly in applications where a constant speed is desired and are not as
common in industrial applications as induction motors. One problem with synchronous
motors is that they are not self-starting. If an AC voltage is applied to the stator terminals
and the rotor is excited with a field current, the motor will simply vibrate. This is because as
the AC voltage is applied it is immediately rotating the stator field at 60 Hz, which is too
fast for the rotor poles to catch up to. For this reason, synchronous motors have to be started
by either using a variable frequency supply (such as a drive) or starting the machine as an
inductive motor. If a drive is not used, an extra winding can be used called a “damper”
winding. In this instance, the field winding is not excited by DC but is shunted by a
resistance. Current is induced in the damper winding, producing a torque; as the motor
approaches synchronous speed, the DC voltage is applied to the rotor and the motor will
lock onto the stator field.

ii. Asynchronous Motors

 Induction motors are the most rugged and widely used motor for industrial applications. An
induction motor has a stator and rotor with a uniform air gap between their windings. The
rotor is mounted on bearings and is made of laminated sheets of ferromagnetic metal with
slots cut on the outer surface. The rotor winding may be of the squirrel cage type or the
wound rotor type. The stator is also made of laminations of high-grade sheet steel with
distributed windings. In induction motors, alternating current is applied to both the stator
and rotor windings.

b) DC Motors
A DC motor places the armature winding on the rotor and the field windings on the stator, which
is the opposite of the AC motors described previously. It is designed to run on DC power, though
it alternates the direction of current flow in the windings through commutation. The stator has
salient or projecting poles excited by one or more field windings; these produce a magnetic field
that is symmetrical around the pole axis, also called the field or direct axis. The voltage induced
in the armature winding alternates by using a commutator-brush combination as a mechanical
rectifier. Alternatively, a brushless DC motor uses an external electronic switch synchronized to
the position of the rotor. The field and armature windings can be connected in a variety of ways to
provide different performance characteristics. The field windings can be connected in series, in
shunt (parallel with the armature), or as a combination of both, called a compound motor. DC
motors can also have a PM.
i. Brushed DC Motors

The field winding is placed on the stator to excite the field poles and the armature winding
is placed on the rotor. The commutator consists of a split ring connected to each end of the
rotor windings. DC voltage is then applied to the brushes; as the rotor turns, the brushes
alternately contact the different halves of the ring, changing the direction of the current flow
and thereby creating an alternating field. This field never fully aligns with the salient poles
of the stator, which keeps the rotor moving. More than one set of rings and poles can be and
often are used in larger DC motors. The distance between the centers of adjacent poles is
known as pole pitch, while the difference between the two sides of the coil is called coil
pitch. If the coil pitch and pole pitch are equal, it is called a full-pitch coil. A coil pitch that
is less than a pole pitch is known as a short pitch or fractional pitch coil. AC motors often
have short pitch coils, while DC motors have full-pitch coils.

ii. Brushless DC Motors

 The brushless DC motor replaces the brushes and commutator with an electronically
alternating pulse that is synchronized to the position of the rotor. Hall effect sensors are
used to sense the position of PMs on the rotor and the driving coils are activated
sequentially. Coils are usually arranged in groups of three, acting very similarly to a three-
phase synchronous motor. Another method of sensing rotor position is by detecting the
back-EMF in the inactivated driving coils. This allows the drive electronics to sense both
speed and position of the motor. These motors are often used in applications where very
accurate speed control is required. Brushless DC motors last much longer than those with
brushes and run cooler than AC motors. They are very quiet from an electrical noise
standpoint as well as audibly. Since they do not create sparks like motors with brushes, they
are better suited to chemical or explosive environments.

iii. Coreless or Ironless DC Motors

A motor capable of very rapid acceleration is the coreless or ironless motor. This motor
makes use of a very lightweight rotor by making it almost entirely of the windings
themselves with no steel or ferromagnetic material in the rotor. This method of construction
can be used for brush and commutator or brushless motors. The rotor can either be placed
inside the stator magnets or form a cylindrical basket shape outside the stator. Windings for
these rotors are often encapsulated in epoxy for physical stability. These types of motors are
also typically rather small. They also tend to generate quite a bit of heat since there is no
 metal to act as a heat sink; this often necessitates an additional cooling method, such as
forcing air over the rotor windings.

c) Linear Motors

Linear motors operate in a similar manner to standard electric motors except that the rotor and
stator are placed next to each other in a linear fashion, or “unrolled.” Generally linear motors are
classified as either low or high acceleration. AC linear induction motors (LIMs) are used for high
acceleration applications. Typically, they use a powered stator winding with a conducting plate as
the rotor carrying the load. Linear synchronous motors (LSMs) are used for larger motors
requiring high speed or high torque. They also use a powered stator winding but use an array of
alternating pole magnets mounted to the load-bearing frame as a rotor. These motors have a lower
acceleration than the LIM type.

d) Servomotors and Stepped Motors

Servomotors are specially designed and built for use in feedback control systems. This requires a
high speed of response; which servomotors achieve by having a low rotor inertia. Servomotors are
therefore smaller in diameter and longer than typical AC and DC motor form factors. They must
often operate at low or zero speed, which makes them typically larger than conventional motors
with a similar power rating. Peak torque values are often 3x continuous torque ratings, but may be
as high as 10x. Servo power ratings can range from a fraction of a watt to several hundred watts.
Within a specific power range, different inertias may also be specified by some motor
manufacturers. They are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, such as robots, machine
tools, positioning systems, and process control. Both AC and DC servomotors are used in
industry. Brushless servomotors often use sinusoidal commutation to produce smooth motion at
lower speeds. If the more traditional trapezoidal or “six-step” DC commutation method is used,
motors tend to “cog” or produce a jerky motion at low speed, partially because of the low inertia
of servomotors. Motors rotate because of the torque produced by the interacting magnetic fields
of the rotor and stator. The torque is proportional to the magnitudes of the fields multiplied by the
sine of the angle between them. Maximum torque is produced when the rotor and stator angles are
at 90°. Torque can then be controlled by varying the angle between the two waveforms. To detect
the relative positions of the rotor and stator, a commutation encoder can be used to find the phase
angles relative to each other. These are incremental encoders with additional tracks for regulating
motor commutation. Servomotors are driven by servo drives that provide precise velocity, torque,
and position control by using encoder, resolver, and/ or current signals that comprise the feedback
components of a servomechanism. Additional components of a servomechanism actuator are a
home switch to establish a reference position and overtravel switches to prevent actuator or
tooling damage.

A stepper motor is a DC motor that rotates a specific number of degrees based on its construction,
that is, number of poles. It converts digital pulse inputs to shaft rotation; a train of pulses is made
to turn the motor shaft by steps. This allows the position to be controlled precisely without a
feedback mechanism. Typical resolutions of commercially available stepper motors range from a
few steps per revolution to as many as 400. They can follow signals of up to 1200 pulses per
second and may be rated up to several horsepower. There are several different types of stepper
motors, including single and multiple stack variable reluctance motors and PM types. Variable
reluctance motors operate by exciting the poles of the stator, causing the rotor to align itself with
the magnetic field. The poles may be energized in combinations, allowing the rotor to line up
between stator poles as well as directly with them. Multiple stack versions arrange the poles in
several levels or “stacks,” allowing finer resolution positioning by phasing from stack to stack.
Brake Feedback Power FIGURE 3.46 AC servomotor. PM steppers use magnets for the rotor
 poles. They have a higher inertia than variable reluctance motors and therefore cannot accelerate
as fast; however, they produce more torque per ampere of stator current. Figure 3.47 shows a
four-pole stepper arrangement with PMs; the A, B, C, and D poles are energized in sequence in
one polarity after which the polarities are reversed to achieve eight positions per revolution.
Hybrid stepper motors use a combination of variable reluctance and PM motor techniques. This
provides maximum power in a small package size. Hybrid stepper motors are probably the most
commonly used type of stepper in industrial automation. Though steppers can be a lower-cost
alternative to servos for positioning applications since feedback is not required, stepper motors do
not provide nearly as much torque as servomotors, especially at higher speeds. Command signals
for stepper motors are usually low power logic circuits using TTL or CMOS transistors, power
amplification stages are placed between the pulse train generators and the motors.

3) Electro-pneumatic and Electro-hydraulic System Design

Electro-hydraulic (electro-pneumatic) term is defined from words of electro, which mean
electrical and hydraulic (pneumatic) which mean hydro/liquid (air) pressure. The electro-
hydraulic (electropneumatic) equipment and system is an integration of electrical and mechanical
components with compressed liquid (air) source.

Components
Electro-hydraulic (electro-pneumatic) controllers have a hydraulic (pneumatic) power section. In
an electro-hydraulic (electro-pneumatic) control, the signal control section is made up of electrical
components, for example, the proximity switches, and relays. The directional control valves
behaves as a medium between the electrical signal control section and the hydraulic (pneumatic)
power section in the controller.

 Switch
There are 3 types of electrical switches used in the design of electro-hydraulic (electro-pneumatic)
circuit.
i) Normally-opened (NO) contact switch
ii) Normally-closed (NC) contact switch
iii) Changeover contact switch
 Relay
Relay is an electrical device that contains a coil and a contactor switch. Relay also can consist of a
coil and multiple contactors. Figure shows a coil (K) with 4 contactor switches. If the coil is
activated, the Changeover Contact will change its state. A NO switch will change its state from
ON to OFF state.
 Solenoid Valve
Solenoid valve is an electro-mechanical device that built-in with a coil (solenoid) and a
hydraulic/pneumatic directional control valve (DCV). There are many types of built-in solenoid
directional control valve. A few of them are:

 4/2 Way DCV single solenoid with spring return

 4/3 Way DCV double solenoid with spring return

 2/2 Way DCV single solenoid with spring return

 5/2 Way DCV double solenoid

 Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensors are commonly used to monitor a process condition in a machine. For instance,
sensor is used to ensure the raw part was placed on a fixture, height of raw material within
control, etc. There are three types of proximity sensors:
 Inductive sensor – able to detect metal, especially mild steel
 Capacitive sensor – able to detect most parts except low-density product
 Optical sensor – able to detect bright surface reflectively except black / rough surface

4) Relay Logic Circuit

Relay logic basically consists of relays wired up in a particular fashion to perform the desired
switching operations. The circuit incorporates relays along with other components such as
switches, motors, timers, actuators, contactors etc. The relay logic control works efficiently to
perform basic ON/OFF operations by opening or closing the relay contacts but it involves a
humongous wiring
Working of a Relay
Relay act as switch which is operated by a small amount of current. The relay has two contacts-

1. Normally open (NO)

2. Normally Close (NC)
In the figure given below, you can see there are two sides of a Relay. One is primary coil which acts
as an electromagnet on passing current through it and other one is secondary side having NO and NC
contacts.

When the contact position is Normally Open, the switch is Open and hence the circuit is Open and no
current flows through the circuit. When the contact position is Normally Close, the switch is closed
and the circuit is completed and hence current flows through the circuit.

This change of state in the contacts occur whenever a small electrical signal is applied i.e. whenever a
small amount of current flows through the relay, the contact changes.

This is explained through the figures below-

Above figure shows the switch in NO contact position. In this figure, primary circuit (coil) is not
completed and hence no current flows through the electromagnetic coil in that circuit. Therefore, the
connected bulb remains off as the relay contact remains open.
 Now the above figure shows the switch in NC contact position. In this figure, primary circuit
(coil) is closed, so there is some current through the coil connected in that circuit. Due to the
current flowing in this electromagnetic coil, a magnetic field is created in its vicinity and due this
magnetic field, the relay is energised and hence closes its contacts. Therefore, the connected bulb
turns ON.

Relay Logic Circuits

A relay logic circuit is a schematic diagram which shows various components, their connections,
inputs as well as outputs in a particular fashion. In relay logic circuits, the contacts NO and NC are
used to indicate Normally Open or Normally Close relay circuit. It contains two vertical lines, one on
the extreme left and the other on the extreme right. These vertical lines are called rails. The extreme
left rail is at the supply voltage potential and is used as an input rail. The extreme right rail is at zero
potential and is used as the output rail.

Particular symbols are used in relay logic circuits to represent different circuit components. Some of
the most common and widely used symbols are given below-

1. NO contact

The given symbol indicates a Normally Open contact. If the contact is

Normally open, it would not allow any current to pass through it and
hence there will be an Open circuit at this contact.

2. NC contact

This symbol is used to indicate Normally Close contact. This allows the
current to pass through it and acts as a short circuit.

3. Push Button (ON)

This push button allows current to flow through it to the rest of the circuit
as long as it is pressed. If we release the push button, it becomes OFF and
no longer allows the current to flow. This means in order to carry the
current the push button has to remain in the pressed state.

4. Push Button (OFF)

The OFF push button indicates an open circuit i.e. it does not allow the
flow of current through it. If the push button is not pressed, it stays in
OFF state. It can transit into ON state to carry the current through it once
it is pressed.

5. Relay coil
 The relay coil symbol is used to indicate control relay or motor starter and
sometimes even contactor or timer.

6. Pilot Lamp

The given symbol denotes Pilot Lamp or simply a bulb. They

indicate the machine operation.

Working
The working of a relay logic circuit can be explained through the given figures-

This figure shows a basic relay logic circuit. In this circuit,

Rung 1 contains one Push button (initially OFF) and one control relay.

Rung 2 contains one Push button (initially ON) and one Pilot lamp.

Rung 3 contains one NO contact and one Pilot lamp.

Rung 4 contains one NC contact and one pilot lamp.

Rung 5 contains one NO contact, one pilot lamp and a sub-rung with one NC contact.

To understand the working of the given relay logic circuit, consider below figure

In rung 1, the push button is Off and hence it does not allow the current to pass through it. Therefore,
there is no output through rung 1.

In rung 2, the push button is On and therefore, current passes from the high voltage rail to the low
voltage rail and the Pilot Lamp 1 glows.

In rung 3, the contact is Normally Open, therefore Pilot lamp 2 remains Off and there is no flow of
current or output through the rung.

In rung 4, the contact is normally Close, thereby allowing the current to pass through it and giving an
output to the low voltage rung.

In rung 5, no current flows through the main rung as the contact is normally Open but due to the
presence of the sub-rung, which contains a normally close contact, there is a flow of current and hence
the pilot lamp 4 glows.

5) Feedback Control System

 A feedback control system is a system whose output is controlled using its measurement as a
feedback signal. This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to generate an error
signal which is filtered by a controller to produce the system's control input.
Feedback is needed for three reasons,
I. To counteract disturbance signals affecting the output.
II. To improve system performance in the presence of model uncertainty
III. To stabilize an unstable plant
Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators, process control
systems as well as other types of electronic systems. But for feedback to be an effective tool it must
be controlled as an uncontrolled system will either oscillate or fail to function. The basic model of a
feedback system is given as:

Types of feedback control systems,

I. Positive Feedback System
II. Negative Feedback System
In a “positive feedback control system”, the set point and output values are added together by the
controller as the feedback is “in-phase” with the input. The effect of positive (or regenerative)
feedback is to “increase” the systems gain, i.e., the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be
greater than the gain without feedback. For example, if someone praises you or gives you positive
feedback about something, you feel happy about yourself and are full of energy, you feel more
positive.
However, in electronic and control systems to much praise and positive feedback can increase the
systems gain far too much which would give rise to oscillatory circuit responses as it increases the
magnitude of the effective input signal.
An example of a positive feedback systems could be an electronic amplifier based on an operational
amplifier, or op-amp as shown.
In a “negative feedback control system”, the set point and output values are subtracted from each
other as the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the original input. The effect of negative (or
degenerative) feedback is to “reduce” the gain. For example, if someone criticises you or gives you
negative feedback about something, you feel unhappy about yourself and therefore lack energy, you
feel less positive.
Because negative feedback produces stable circuit responses, improves stability and increases the
operating bandwidth of a given system, the majority of all control and feedback systems is
degenerative reducing the effects of the gain.
An example of a negative feedback system is an electronic amplifier based on an operational amplifier
as shown.

The use of negative feedback in amplifier and process control systems is widespread because as a rule
negative feedback system are more stable than positive feedback systems, and a negative feedback
system is said to be stable if it does not oscillate by itself at any frequency except for a given circuit
condition.
Another advantage is that negative feedback also makes control systems more immune to random
variations in component values and inputs. Of course, nothing is for free, so it must be used with
caution as negative feedback significantly modifies the operating characteristics of a given system.