Chapter 11.
10
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
S UKUMAR B ANDOPADHYAY
11.10.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the past three decades, the role of the digital computer
has expanded in an unprecedented manner. As mainframes and
personal computers became cheaper and grew to astounding
size, and the FORTRAN programming language became more
sophisticated and less core bound, the general use of computers
spread to more mining companies and, more importantly, to
more engineers. Present-day utilization of computers in the min-
ing industry varies across a wide spectrum of activities: from
operations research techniques to aid mine management through
payroll processing to mine design and monitoring and control.
During the last years, efforts have been made with encourag-
ing results towards planning of ventilation systems with comput-
ers. Computers have played a greater role in evaluating ventila-
tion parameters and processes, largely because they can be used
conveniently to relieve the ventilation engineer of repetitive cal-
culations and to reduce voluminous ventilation data often col-
lected for analysis of trends and their statistical significance.
While these are basically data-reduction applications, the tre-
mendous advantage of the computer for more sophisticated utili-
zation is not fully realized. The great power of a computer lies
in its ability to store, recall, manipulate, and modify data for
analysis as well as generate copious information records, all in
a fraction of a second. The application of energy and mass trans-
port phenomena to the quantification of ventilation engineering
parameters for quality and quantity control is not new. However,
the solution of complex nonlinear systems of equations has taken
a great leap forward since the advent of digital computers that
permit complex ventilation problems to be solved numerically
(Stefanko and Ramani, 1977).
General mine ventilation theory and practice are discussed
in Chapters 11.6 and 11.7.
11.10.2 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN
VENTILATION PLANNING
Most ventilation problems associated with the mine planning
environment are essentially engineering problems and can be
scientifically analyzed. Ventilation requirements and system
structure can be defined only on the basis of a production plan.
However, the iterative and feedback nature of this process must
be noted since production planning must consider the services
required to support an operation. Thus all ventilation problems
are associated with the mine planning environment, and this in
turn is usually related to the determination of the ability of
existing ventilation plant to maintain certain legal standards.
Legal standards defined in the Federal Coal Mine Health and
Safety Act of 1969, which dictated major changes in mine venti-
lation with regards to both air quantity and quality requirements,
have also been placed on the ventilation of belt lines, gob, and
face areas. These and other similar requirements have not only
precipitated several modifications to existing ventilation systems
but also have greatly increased the complexities of ventilation
planning in new mines. It is apparent that the use of computers
in ventilation system analysis and design is a necessity.
1139
A computer-oriented approach to mine ventilation planning
began essentially in the late 1950s with the development of net-
work simulation programs. For this reason, major developments
in computer programming have taken place in the field of mine
ventilation planning.
In designing the future ventilation system of a mine that is
already in existence, two procedures are involved: (1) obtaining
the physical details and specifications of the existing layout by
means of ventilation surveys, and (2) the reduction and utiliza-
tion of these data to study the effect of changes in some parameter
on the characteristics of airflow in the existing layout, such as
ventilation network analysis. The computer can provide power-
ful assistance in both these stages.
11.10.2.1 Data Reduction In Pressure Survey
An altimeter measures the instantaneous static pressure at a
point underground in terms of the height of a theoretical air
column of 50°F (10°C) dry air at the existing station atmosphere
pressure. Assuming measurements were made simultaneously at
two locations or corrected to the same time frame through the
use of a stationary base instrument, corrections can be made for
difference in elevation, air density, and airstream velocity to give
the absolute pressure difference between two points. Calculation
methods used have been described in the literature by several
authors (Williamson, 1932; Krickovic, 1945–46; Mancha, 1946;
Hall, 1951; McElroy and Kingery, 1957; and Hartman, 1961).
The method developed at the US Bureau of Mines and described
by McElroy and Kingery (1957) is probably the most commonly
used method and has been adapted for use on a programable
desk calculator by Harris et al. (1973) and for a hand-held
calculator by Anderson and Nugent (1977). Several computer
programs for the treatment of pressure survey data using digital
computers have been described by Luxbacher et al. (1977). A
sample data input for a pressure survey calculation identical to
that used in McElroy and Kingery (1957) is listed in Table
11.10.1. The output of a program using this sample data is
reproduced in Table 11.10.2.
11.10.2.2 Mine Ventilation System Network
Analysis
A mine ventilation system is essentially a set of intercon-
nected airways. The system includes the fan(s), airways, and
regulatory devices. With added legal requirements placed on the
ventilation of belt lines, gob and face areas, and air velocities on
trolley haulage roads, the ventilation system can be quite com-
plex, and all but simple problems require computational aids to
ease and speed their solution.
The structural flow model constructed from a physical flow
system such as the mine ventilation system can be conceptualized
as a connected-directed graph. The term network is commonly
used instead of graph, especially when quantitative characteris-
tics such as flow, capacity, and resistances are assigned to the
points and interconnections. A ventilation network consists of an
interconnected group of branches and nodes. Branches or air-
ways are the roadways, shafts, etc., through which the air flows
1140 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 11.10.1. Data Input for Pressure Survey Program
and in which the state of the air can be measured. A branch
begins and ends at a node, which is defined as a position at which
two or more branches meet. A mesh is defined as two or more
branches connected in series and forming a closed loop.
Basically, the solution of mine ventilation network problems
satisfies the well-known Kirchhoff’s laws. The techniques for
numerically calculating the conditions laid down by these laws
were established by Hardy Cross (1936). The procedure to be
followed for the manual application of the Hardy Cross (1936)
method can be summarized as follows:
1. Estimate the air quantity flowing through each branch of
the network and the pressures developed by the fans. The esti-
mated airflows should normally satisfy Kirchhoff’s first law at
each junction.
2. Examine the network and decide upon a pattern of closed
meshes. The minimum number of meshes is given by
number of branches – number of junctions + 1 (11.10.1)
3. For each mesh, evaluate the mesh correction factor from
the equation given below:
(11.10.2)
where Fm is pressure drop around the mth mesh, ∆Qm is the
correction for the mth mesh branches, and Ri and Qi are the
resistances and the quantities, respectively, in branches constitut-
ing the mth mesh.
4. Correct the flow in each branch.
Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all values of ∆Qm are below a
specified level. A satisfactory flow balance will then be reached.
Consider a simple example of a mine ventilation system, as
shown in Fig. 11.10.1, where the total quantity flowing and the
resistances in the branches are given. There are two meshes,
BCFEB and CDGFC, in the network. Fig. 11.10.2 represents a
simplified sketch of the meshes. Initially, let the quantities flow-
ing through the branches be estimated to satisfy Kirchhoff’s first
law, as shown in the Fig. 11.10.2. Kirchhoff’s second law now
can be applied to the two meshes, BCFB and CDFC. Identify
mesh BCFB as mesh I and CDFC as mesh II. In all the calcula-
tions, the clockwise flow has been considered as positive. Calcu-
lation is terminated whenever the value of corrections for all the
meshes is 100 cfm (0.047 m3/s) or lower. Calculations for the
first iteration are presented in Table 11.10.3, and the flow distri-
bution at the end of the iteration is shown in Fig. 11.10.3. Note
that the junction laws still remain satisfied (Ramani, 1980).
Because the correction quantities are greater than 100 cfm
(0.047 m3/s), the calculations are continued. Iteration 2 with its
associated correction quantities and flows is presented both in
Table 11.10.4 and Fig. 11.10.4. At this stage, both ∆Q I and ∆Q II
are greater than 100 cfm (0.047 m3/s) and therefore the iterations
are continued. The calculations of the third iteration are shown
in Table 11.10.5, and the flows are presented in Fig. 11.10.5.
Now the correction quantities ∆Q I and ∆QII are smaller than
100 cfm (0.047 m3/s) and therefore the iterations are terminated
since the desired accuracy has been reached. Note that in these
calculations, it has been assumed that the fan pressure remains
the same during the variations in Qi. Such an assumption will
hold only if the fan is operating on the flat portion of its charac-
teristics. However, Scott and Hinsley (1951) have considered the
changes in fan pressure due to quantity changes and have modi-
fied the iterative equation:
(11.10.3)
where is the slope of the fan characteristic at the
operating point With knowledge of iterative solu-
tions, attention can now be directed towards the solution of
multi-mesh networks.
Solutions to network problems required extensive time on
mechanical calculators, and even with modern electronic digital
calculators, they still can be very tedious and time consuming.
As a result, in the 1950s, there was a move to electrical analogue
computers. The normal square-law relationship between flow
and pressure was initially accommodated in the variable resist-
ance of electric light bulbs (Maas, 1950). The method has a
major advantage of onsite availability that was emphasized by
Kline and Suboleski (1972), but it is not very flexible when
several networks are to be solved simultaneously.
The situation has changed again with the increased use of
digital computers. Modern machines have high calculating speed
and adequate storage capacity for solving ventilation network
problems economically. The digital computer offers the best
available method for solution of mine ventilation networks, and
it can easily provide a high degree of accuracy for network
solutions.
11.10.2.3 Computer Solution for Mine Ventilation
Problems
The Hardy Cross method of network solution, explained
in detail in the earlier section, lends itself particularly well to
programming for digital computers. To illustrate the use of the
digital computer for mine ventilation analysis, a network of
moderate complexity solved previously by Trafton and Hartman
(1964) is used. The ventilation system shown in Figs. 11.10.6
and 11.10.7 is representative of a coal mine being worked from
two shafts and employing bleeders for methane drainage through
the gob. Although the network may appear to be an uncompli-
cated one, it consists of 42 airways, 32 junctions, and 11 loops.
Each junction in the network is numbered, and airways are
designated by these numbers. The loops comprised by the air-
ways are given letter-number combinations. The directions of
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1141
Table 11.10.2. Test Deck—Altimeter Survey Without Altimeter Temperature Correction

.
.
.
.
1142 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 11.10.2. Test Deck—Altimeter Survey Without Altimeter Temperature Correction (cont.)

Table 11.10.3. First Iteration (11.10.2.2)

Fig. 11.10.1. Ventilation network of mine A without fan. Conversion

factors: 1 cfm = 0.472 × 10–3 m3/s, 1 in. water = 249 Pa.

Fig. 11.10.2. Simplified network with initial quantities. Conversion

factors: 1 cfm = 0.472 × 10–3 m3/s, 1 in. water = 249 Pa.

flow indicated by arrows were assumed initially and are not

necessarily the correct directions. The input data necessary in
the problem, in the form in which they are read to the computer,
appear in Tables 11.10.6 and 11.10.7.
The assumed flows that appear in Table 11.10.8 are those
flows in each airway if 100,000 cfm (47.2 m3/s) quantity of air
is assumed to be entering the mine. This is demonstrated in Table
11.10.8 by the flow in airway 1-2. This assumed air input could
be any, but some assumed amount of air must be going into the
mine in order to solve the network problem. A quantity of
100,000 cfm (47.2 m3/s) was chosen since this shows what per- Fig. 11.10.3. Flows at the end of the first iteration. Conversion factor:
centage of the total amount of air input is distributed to the 1 cfm = 0.472 × 10–3 m3/s.
 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Table 11.10.4. Second Iteration (11.10.2.2)
Fig. 11.10.4. Flows at the end of the second iteration. Conversion
factor: 1 cfm = 0.472 × 10–3 m3/s.
various airways within the mine system. As an example, 40.3%
of the total air input passes through airway 3–6, while 19.8%
passes through airway 6–7. Of course, each mine air input varies,
with the l00,000-cfm (47.2-m3/s) value an input parameter, and
a computer program is usually designed to allow any value to
be used.
The adjusted values are those values of airflow through each
airway that have been computed if a fan with the given character-
istics had been installed externally to the mine ventilation net-
work. In order to clarify this, airway 1–2 in Table 11.10.8, which
as shown in Fig. 11.10.7, has 100,000 cfm (47.2 m3/s) flowing
within it if 100,000 cfm (47.2 m3/s) is assumed to be entering
the mine. However, if a fan of those given characteristics (Table
11.10.9) was installed, the fan H–Q characteristic curve and the
mine characteristic curve is found by the computer to intersect at
265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s). This means that this fan is generating
265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s), which would be the mine air intake.
1143
Table 11.10.5. Third Iteration (11.10.2.2)
Fig. 11.10.5. Final flows in the network. Conversion factor: 1 cfm =
0.472 × 10–3 m3/s.
Therefore, airway 1–2 has 265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s) of air flow-
ing through it since 100% of the air input has to pass through
this airway. Thus the value 265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s) is given as
the adjusted flow with the fan in Table 11.10.8. Since airway 3–
6 only has 40.3% of the air passing through it, then with a mine
input of 265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s), only 106,995 cfm (50.5 m3/
s) will pass though airway 3–6.
From an original assumed mine quantity of 100,000 cfm
(47.2 m3/s) and a flow route 1–2–3–4–15–17–21–22–28–29–30–
31–32, iterations were performed to correct the airway quantities
until the cumulative error was reduced to 210 cfm (0.099 m3/s).
The total number of iterations required were 107. Then pressure
losses were computed; values of H and Q, based on the assumed
mine quantity, are given in Table 11.10.8. Direction of flow is
indicated by the sequence of numbers designating each airway.
The corresponding overall mine pressure loss is 0.37493 in. water
(93.3 Pa). At the intersection point of the system curves, the
1144 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 11.10.6. Plan of room and pillar coal mine being worked with continuous equipment (Trafton and Hartman, 1964).
Fig. 11.10.7. Ventilation schematic of coal mine in Fig. 11.10.6.
Complex network employing natural splitting with loops, airways,
and junctions labeled and directions of flow indicated (Trafton and
Hartman, 1964).
Table 11.10.6. Characteristics of Airways
actual mine quantity was read as 265,608 cfm (125.4 m3/s) and
the mine pressure loss as 2.645 in. water (658 Pa). Using the
proportion 265,608/100,000, new values of airway flows were
computed. From the square of this proportion (since H = RQ2),
new values of airway head losses were likewise computed. These
also appear in Table 11.10.8 and are the actual airway quantities
and pressure losses that result when the given fan is installed in
this mine. The computer program can be adapted to perform all
calculations without intervention.
As expected, leakage through the gob is small (e.g., from
2081 cfm [0.98 m3/s] in 7–9 to 6536 cfm [3.08 m3/s] in 25–27).
To increase the exhaust flow through the bleeders, room entries
could be maintained open rather than caved; this may be desir-
able and would also serve to reduce the mine head somewhat.
The practical application of such a solution to the problem
of natural splitting in a network may not be great, since practi-
cally every coal mine today employs controlled splitting. How-
ever, a rapid, simple means of obtaining accurate solutions by
digital computer means that limits can be determined easily and
a wide range of design variables can be explored readily.
11.10.2.4 Computer Programs For Solution Of
Mine Ventilation Networks
Several computer programs have been developed in the
United States (Hartman and Trafton, 1963; Wang and Hartman,
1967; Greurer, 1977; Hall et al., 1977; Stefanko and Ramani,
1972) and abroad (Hashimoto, 1961; Hitchcock and Hoover,
1976; McPherson, 1966) with the capabilities to solve complex
ventilation networks and have been successfully used by many
mining companies (Tien and Bjork, 1976; Mishra, 1973; Press
and Johnston, 1976) and government organizations for analysis
of complex ventilation systems. The use of ventilation network
programs enables many more future situations to be investigated
than would otherwise be practicable. It should perhaps be em-
phasized that the utilization of these programs does not require
knowledge of their mode of operation. The ventilation engineer
is intimately concerned with the preparation of his/her input
data and analysis of the simulated results, but not with the
mathematical and programming aspects of the network program.
With these simulators, the mine ventilation engineer is provided
with maximum information retrieval from the simulated net-
work. In short, each possible ventilation alternative or situation
can be easily tried on paper and evaluated before a final decision
is taken. The general aspects of the information flow and logical
structure of the mine ventilation simulator are shown in Fig.
11.10.8. For a detailed discussion of network solutions, see Wang
(1982).
 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1145
Table 11.10.7. Input Data (11.10.2.3)

Table 11.10.8. Corrected Quantities and Head Losses for Airways Assumed and Adjusted Values (11.10.2.3)

Number of Iterations = 107 Cumulative Error = 210 cfm

(for Assumed Flow Values)

11.10.3 COMPUTER APPLICATION TO FLOW
PROBLEMS IN MINE VENTILATION
Most mine air pollutants, such as respirable dust, methane,
diesel exhaust, and blasting fumes, are produced in face areas
and haulageways. Their dispersal in mine airways contribute to
interesting flow or transfer problems. Knowledge about sources,
emission, and transport of these pollutants is essential for ventila-
tion planning and design to ensure good engineering control
over air quality, quantity, and environmental conditions. These
physical phenomena in mine ventilation involve transient heat
1146 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 11.10.9. Fan Characteristics (11.10.2.3)
and mass transfer and can be described by parabolic differential
equations (PDEs). Solution of these equations in the past was
normally attempted using analytic approaches such as Laplace
transforms. Even for simple problems, when account is taken of
only one of the variable factors such as harmonic oscillations,
stepwise changes, etc., calculations become complex. The advent
of digital computers and advances in applied mathematics has
made it possible to describe emission, dilution, and dispersion of
contaminants into the mine atmosphere. The theoretical investi-
gations into pollutant flow and diesel exhaust to be presented
here are examples of ventilation problems that are completely
computer-dependent. The computer is programmed to solve
mathematical models, thereby enabling the flow phenomena to
be simulated by varying parameters such as the characteristics
of the gas source, boundary conditions, and air velocities (see
Chapters 11.2, 11.3, and 11.5 for general coverage of contami-
nants).
Fig. 11.10.8. Information and logical structure of the mine ventilation simulator (Didyk et al., 1979).
11.10.3.1 Simulation Of Gas Emission And
Transport
The major classifications of gases that enter a mine ventila-
tion system are (1) flow through airways (herein, fully developed
laminar or turbulent transfer of air, gas, and dust takes place in
the airways, the geometry and surface properties of which are
well defined); (2) flow through caved workings (flow through
caved working can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the
degree of consolidation of the broken strata and the pressure
difference across the area); and (3) flow through porous media
(an example is the seepage of methane from coal beds and adja-
cent strata in situ). The transport of dust, methane, and diesel
exhaust in mine airways is but a variant of a diffusion-dilution
problems relevant to underground mining practice.
Modeling of mass transfer phenomena in mine ventilation is
largely based on extensive studies of turbulent dispersion in wind
tunnels and the lower atmosphere of the earth. The general
approach in the formulation of models lies in the recognition
that these mass transfer phenomena can be conceptualized as a
flow problem that can be solved by the general application of
Taylor’s theory (1954) of turbulent flow and diffusion with modi-
fication appropriate to the relevant static and dynamic parame-
ters. If the face zone is initially contaminated by a pollutant
over a long section (e.g., instantaneous exposure of large gas
accumulations, rapid methane release, etc.), the process of de-
contaminating the mine workings can be regarded as displace-
ment and diffusion of the trailing edge of the cloud of contami-
 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
nants in the form of a semi-infinite gas body, for which a one-
dimensional mass transfer equation is represented by:
(11.10.4)
In Eq. 11.10.4, the term δC/δt is the rate of growth of the
concentration in the differential element, while u(δC/δx) is the
net gain of material due to convective transfer. The two terms
balance the total loss of material due to turbulent dispersion that
is represented by Ex and f(x,t), the source term for the
pollutant in the roadway.
The approach in modeling is to use the above partial differen-
tial equation to predict the concentration growth in an airway.
Equations containing first-order spatial derivatives, such as
the equation shown above, are known as “convection-diffusion”
equations because of the physical processes that they describe.
Typically, a suspended material (such as diesel exhaust pollut-
ant) is carried along (convected) by a fluid at the same time as
its concentration is being attenuated (diffused) within the flow.
Numerically, more interesting problems arise when the first-
order (convection) spatial derivatives are large in relation to the
second-order (diffusion) derivative; that is, the solution behaves
like the solution to the limiting hyperbolic (purely convective)
case. In the converse situation, when diffusion is dominant, ordi-
nary methods of parabolic equations can be used.
By employing numerical methods of solving partial differen-
tial equations for turbulent dispersal, the concentration of pollu-
tants can be determined for any given source configuration, mine
geometry, and air distribution (Bandopadhyay and Ramani,
1988). The option of various numerical solution techniques that
are available to an analyst to the convection-diffusion equation
for cases in which convection is dominant include
space discretization finite difference
finite element
(consistent)
finite element (lumped)
time discretization implicit
explicit
“tricks” slope continuity
elements
upwinding
penalty functions
dispersion correction
higher-order time
scheme
11.10.3.2 Simulation of Diesel Exhaust Dispersion
and Transport
The application of Taylor’s theory (1954) to the study of
diesel exhaust dispersion in mine airways appears to be an exten-
sion of the Russian work on dispersal of methane, blasting fumes,
and dust. Skobunov (1970) recognized that ventilation calcula-
tions based on traditional dilution formulas did not adequately
explain observed conditions. One reason was that multiple con-
taminations of the mine air could conceivably occur as a result
of several vehicles operating in the same or parallel-connected
entries. In addition, Holtz and Dalzell (l968) developed an effec-
tive ventilation concept for explaining the changes in concentra-
tion due to differential vehicle and air movement in mine entries.
Models developed by Skobunov (1970) calculated the growth of
contaminants in mine airways for single or multiple diesel vehi-
1147
cles. These models allowed consideration of the absorption of
gases and air losses due to leakage. In later work, Skobunov
(1974) examined the concept of turbulent flow across a mine
entry cross section and developed a series of models based on
transverse turbulent diffusion. These later models are applicable
to moving axisymetric sources such as diesel vehicles, and linear
sources such as a longwall plough.
Other Russian researchers (Osipov and Grekov, 1968) sug-
gested the use of a convection-diffusion transport model to de-
scribe the transport of a gaseous pollutant in confined ventilation
currents. Later, Grekov and Kalyusskii (1972) examined the
concept of convection-diffusion transport of pollutants in which
the current velocity varies with distance owing to air leakage.
The interest in increasing use of diesel-powered equipment
in US coal mines has led to the development of mathematical
models for the emission, dilution, and dispersion of gaseous
pollutants from diesels. Stefanko et al. (1974, 1977) developed
and evaluated diesel dispersion models through a grant from the
US Bureau of Mines.
Diesel Exhaust Flow Models. When a diesel engine is travel-
ing in an airway, load and speed change with time as a function
of the engine duty cycle. The engine exhaust volume and compo-
sition are a function of engine speed and power, making it neces-
sary to estimate the change in the pollutant volumes with time
and location as a function of engine speed and load. To estimate
the source function, it is necessary to know the engine speed,
engine load, and vehicle speed at frequent intervals to account
for variation in the pollutant flow rate. It would not be practical,
however, to instrument every teletram or similar diesel-powered
vehicle to acquire those data. It is possible, however, to generate
the engine duty cycle and exhaust volumes and analyses on the
basis of the simulation of a given production system (Ramani
and Kenzy, 1978). One advantage of this approach is that several
diesel-powered equipment deployments can be analyzed to gen-
erate values for the parameter of interest.
Generally, diesel engines move faster than air currents in the
face areas and, consequently, the air that flows through the
haulage road is contaminated several times before it is finally
discharged into the return airways. This leads to a progressive
rise in concentration in both the spatial and time axes owing to
the superposition of contaminants. The concentration profile
does not reach a steady-state situation because the velocity vector
is not uniform. The concentration profile will not be fully devel-
oped in the face area because, when a moving plane source is
used, the distance required to obtain adequate mixing to reach
a steady-state situation is often greater than that found in the face
area. The concentration gradient in the return airway, however,
reaches steady-state. Air velocity affects the concentration
growth in the return. The total contamination in the air at any
point is the sum of the incremental contaminants from diesel
engine(s) passed by the air. When the engine and the air are
traveling in opposite directions, the predominant feature in the
mass flow is the convective transfer, which causes deformation
of both the front and rear profiles of the contaminant clouds. As
the source moves further away from the face, the role of convec-
tive transfer gradually decreases along the length of the airway.
In effect, the contaminant concentration front is an increasing
function of distance and time from the face. Utilizing the conser-
vative volume element methods, convection-diffusion mathemat-
ical models were developed for analyzing the growth of pollutant
concentration for each of the following situations:
1. A single engine moving in an airway with or without
considerable leakage.
2. Multiple engines in a single airway.
3. Multiple engines in a network of roadways.
1148 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
The physical situation for the model in case 1 is operation
of a diesel engine for face haulage. Operation of diesel engines
for secondary and primary track haulage can be studied with the
models for the other cases. Bandopadhyay and Ramani (1983,
1984, 1985) have detailed the finite difference approximation of
the convective-diffusion equations and the boundary conditions
used for the above model solutions.

11.10.3.3 Simulation of Methane Flow in Mine

Airways
Much of the early work on the use of computers to simulate
methane flow rates in mine airways was carried out during the
1960s, and only two are claimed to have been used with any
success (Lidin, 1964; Airey, 1968).
Lidin’s model is an empirical equation based on extensive
research and compilation of actual gas emission data. Airey’s
model, on the other hand, was developed on the basis of the
Darcian equation of gas migration through homogenous, perme-
able solids and can be solved numerically or analytically.
The quantity of methane emitted into the mine atmosphere
and the movement of gas through solid coal and the adjoining
country rock are dependent on the physical properties of the
medium, boundary conditions, the initial gas pressure distribu-
tion, and the combination of natural and mining factors. Func-
tional relationships among the factors are not yet known (Ra-
mani and Owili-Eger, 1974). Consequently, the development of
rigorous mathematical models to predict methane flow into mine
air is difficult, and to date no model has been reported that is
capable of such a function. The mathematical model that Ra-
mani and Owili-Eger used is given in Eqs. 11.10.5 and 11.10.6,
which are further attempts in presenting practical models for
predicting the quantity of methane emission into the mine envi-
ronment. Eq. 11.10.5 is the steady-state model and Eq. 11.10.6
is the unsteady state model:

(11.10.5)

Fig. 11.10.9. Methane simulator flow diagram (Ramani and Owili-

Eger, 1974).

(11.10.6)
where P is gas pressure; W(X,Y ) is the source term for the steady-
state model; x and y are the coordinate axes; Kx and KY are the
directional permeabilites; Ax and Ay are the cross-sectional areas
of the medium or block in the x direction and y direction, respec-
tively; x and y are the dimensions of the block in the x direction
and y direction, respectively; M is fluid viscosity; Z is gas devia-
tion factor; q is gas flow rate; T is absolute temperature (in °R) ;
is medium porosity; C is the gas compressibility coefficient;
and Vb is volume of the block or medium. The variable t is the
time. The source term is expressed as
(11.10.7)
A finite difference analysis is used for solution of the above
equations, each node being allocated initial rock properties and
gas pressure. The model reacts to the changes that take place
with respect to time. The flow of methane from block to block
towards the ventilated airways is thus simulated. The simulation
program provides output information on pressure distribution
and methane flow rate at each block. The flow diagram for the
methane generator program is shown in Fig. 11.10.9.
In the United Kingdom, a method is being developed for
prediction of methane emission into longwall workings. The
method is based on the theoretical treatment of gas emission
from coal seams (Airey, 1968; Dunmore, 1980). The method
permits calculation of the emission rate from knowledge of the
depth of the working, the sequence of gas-bearing coal seams in
the disturbed strata, the initial gas content of these strata, and
the proposed dimensions and the advance of the face. The Na-
tional Coal Board’s Mining Research and Development Estab-
lishment (MRDE) has developed a computer program to enable
the emission rate to be calculated as a function of time (Curl,
1978). The program considers the shift-by-shift changes in the
face advance, gives the required airflow to dilute methane con-
centrations to acceptable levels, and allows for the peaking of
methane emission during the production periods. The program
also enables the amount of gas liberated to be calculated at
various positions in the gate roadways.
 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MINE VENTILATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
11.10.4 COMPUTER-AIDED MONITORING AND
CONTROL SYSTEM
Recent advances and changes in requirements and philoso-
phy have led to added emphasis being placed on remote control
and monitoring in mines, particularly in relation to the under-
ground environmental quality in mines worldwide. Hitherto,
methods of monitoring the mine environment have been based
on periodic spot observations by hand-held instruments. Such
methods are labor-intensive, are expensive, provide only limited
amounts of information, and sometimes suffer from the disad-
vantage that a comparatively long time may elapse between
measurements and availability of results. The changing and vary-
ing characteristics of some hazards and the recent successful
development of suitable sensors and transducers and monitoring
systems have emphasized the need for, and benefits to be derived
from, monitoring environments mine-wide.
Computer-based mine monitoring and control systems are
the mining industry’s state-of-the art use of specialized computer
technology—both hardware and software—to “automate” a
mine. It is a computerized data acquisition and analysis facility
with the capability of controlling underground electrically pow-
ered equipment. These systems lend themselves readily to remote
monitoring of the mine environment for continuous indication
of state and early warning of abnormal conditions and adverse
environmental trends. In addition, such systems can be applied
to monitor and control machinery forming part of a mine envi-
ronmental system, such as booster, auxiliary, and surface mine
fans. Characteristics that can be sensed by the system include
temperature, pressure, velocity flow rate, vibrations, and essen-
tially any other parameters that can be measured and presented
as electrical signals to the monitoring and control system. Envi-
ronmental factors such as methane concentrations, carbon mon-
oxide, diesel exhaust, oxygen, smoke, air velocity, and dust are
sensed using available instruments.
For a general discussion of monitoring and control, see
Chapter 12.6.
11.10.4.1 Monitoring System
Remote environmental monitoring enables continuous inter-
rogation of selected parameters at one or more strategic positions
to be made so that current values can be determined, variations
detected and evaluated, and early warning given of abnormalities
and adverse trends. Action can then be considered and, if neces-
sary, taken more quickly than at present to correct the effects of
an abnormal condition. Situations prior to, during and after
abnormal events such as spontaneous methane emission, can be
evaluated and factual information provided on trends, analysis,
and potential remedies. Continuous monitoring of the under-
ground environment involves interrogation and overall surveil-
lance of certain parameters at strategic environmental positions
at predetermined time intervals. A large number of on-off (digital
or binary) signals are now available (Table 11.10.10) through
two-state switches, relay instruments, instrument alarms, and
the like. Analog functions, on the other hand, vary continuously
to provide precise measurements of gas concentrations, pres-
sures, velocities, flows, temperatures, etc.
Available environmental monitoring equipment includes
1. Methane monitors.
2. Smoke monitors.
3. Air velocity monitors.
4. Carbon monoxide monitors.
5. Carbon dioxide monitors.
6. Oxides of nitrogen monitors.
1149
7. Relative humidity monitors.
8. Pressure monitors.
9. Temperature monitors.
10. Vibration monitors.
These digital and/or analog sensors are connected to “cen-
tral station” input circuits. The central station contains electron-
ics to perform processing of sensor signals, and reduce the data
to digital form. The total number of sensors employed under-
ground can range from one to hundreds, depending on the size
of the system and layout philosophy of the mining operation.
Various aspects of data collection and processing information
are discussed with reference to Fig. 11.10.10, shows the physical
configuration of the Conspec mine-wide monitoring and control
system.
11.10.4.2 Conspec Senturion System
Specially designed accessor cards are the backbone of the
Conspec system. The accessor is a single-point data transmittor/
receiver processor and “intelligent,” allowing the central com-
puter to monitor and control all the connected equipment. The
major advantage of the accessor is that it reduces the installation
wiring cost and increases system reliability. The central micro-
computer station communicates over four accessor trunks. The
accessors have specially designed chips that multiplex the data
for communication to the central station. The accessors are in
the form of printed circuit cards upon which all the necessary
logic circuitry is mounted. Reprogrammable rocker switches on
the accessor allow address selection and point-data transmission.
Accessors are available that control equipment from simple
start/stop functions to linear devices requiring proper feedback
for control.
The primary means of displaying information is a CRT
screen. The screen and its keyboard are the link from the system
to the operator. Through this, the operator programs the system,
receives a visual description of device status, and transmits sig-
nals to required accessors.
To set up the system, it is a simple matter of knowing what
code each individual accessor was assigned and on which trunk-
line it is communicating. From here, the processor prompts
the operator into entering information such as identification
number, type of accessor and device being monitored, limits of
operation and scaling factors, and a description of the device.
Once a device is coded and entered in the system, it is ready to
transmit information.
The central station can also be equipped with a variety of
CRTs and printers. The use of two printers allows regular alarm
and status change events to be printed simultaneously.
The CRT and printers can interact in a variety of ways.
When a point is assigned to the system, it is given a code which
dictates which way it appears on the screen and printers, and
whether or not an alarm is sounded. In this way, repetitious
events such as opening and closing of a ventilation door can be
coded not to appear on the CRT or printer but to sound an
alarm if opened too long. In all cases, an alarm will sound if a
problem arises in the hardware of the system.
Environmental monitoring with a mine-wide monitoring and
control system has provided specific benefits in US mines in
relation to existing and potential hazards. Specific problems, for
example, floor and roof methane emissions, high emission rates,
etc., have been assessed and countered.
Mine-wide monitoring systems offer considerable potential
and scope for continuous, essential, and factual information on
particular aspects of the environment in relation to other param-
eters such as the incidence of methane peak flows or significant
changes in methane emission rates. Computer programs are be-
1150 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 11.10.10. Selected Remote Environmental Monitors Used In British Mines
Parameter Monitor and/or Switch States
General body firedamp concentration in airways BM.1 Single-head methane Analog and/or ON/OFF
General body mine gases Tube bundle Analog and/or ON/OFF
Carbon monoxide Tube bundle Analog and/or ON/OFF
Air velocity in roadways BA.1 Single-headed air velocity monitor Analog and/or ON/OFF
Smoke Trolex mine smoke detector ON/OFF
Vacuum in firedamp drainage pipes Vacuum switch and indicating unit Analog and/or ON/OFF
Combined vacuum and flow in firedamp drainage Combined vacuum differential switch and indicating Analog and/or ON/OFF
pipes units
Purity of drained firedamp Acoustic methanometer Analog and/or ON/OFF
Tube bundle Analog and/or ON/OFF
Vibration levels in operating fans and firedamp Vibration monitor Analog and/or ON/OFF
extractors
Ventilation system pressures Pressure switch and/or recorder Analog and/or ON/OFF
Temperature of fan or extractor motor carcases or Surface or probe type temperature monitors ON/OFF
water
Auxiliary fan or multi-unit booster fan clusters ducts IS or flameproof air flow switch Analog and/or ON/OFF
air velocities
Multi-unit booster fan clusters isolation doors’ Proximity switches ON/OFF
position
Auxiliary ventilating duct air pressures (suction or Pressure or vacuum switches or recorder Analog and/or ON/OFF
pressure)
Firedamp concentration in auxiliary fan ducts BM.1 Single-head methane monitor Analog and/or ON/OFF
(exhaust systems), or at auxiliary fan site
Auxiliary fan running condition Vibration monitor ON/OFF
Source: Dunn and Swift, 1977.

ing developed to analyze such situations and determine interrela-
tionships of variables. The results of such analysis are bound to
lead to improved and safer working conditions.
11.10.5 EXPERT SYSTEMS IN MINE VENTILATION
Much has been discussed on the suggested use of on-line
computer systems for monitoring and control of the under-
ground environment (Chapter 22.2). The next logical step in the
development of these systems is to add predictive capabilities to
simple reporting functions, such as alerting the operator that
signs of spontaneous combustion are beginning to show in a
district. Also in the sensor technology, development of “intelli-
gent” sensors capable of acting independently is also a possible
step in the future. In an emergency, intelligent sensors would
not wait for a command from the central computer but would
act independently to shut down electrical power, sound alarm,
etc., thus speeding up response time.
Work is in progress in several countries on software systems,
commonly known as “expert systems,” that would combine in
a real-time basis (1) the expert knowledge and response in a
decision situation; (2) the existing knowledge based on laws
and regulations, mine layout, etc.; and (3) real-time information
gathered by the mine monitoring systems. Ramani and Prasad
(1987) reported on the essential elements of such a system (Fig.
11.10.11) that can be used for mine ventilation system design.
Three major elements identified in the system are
1. The knowledge base and its input-output interfaces to the
design and analysis program (DAP).
2. The design and analysis programs, consisting of a ventila-
tion database and ventilation programs.
3. The actual mine system which is operated on by natural
factors and from which data can be collected on a real-time basis.
Much of the internal knowledge in the knowledge base is
experience-dependent and can be acquired from experienced
mine ventilation practitioners and from public domain sources.
An integration of the expert system and traditional algorithmic
programs would yield a superior decision support system for
mine ventilation design. Development of such system is possible
with the current state of system technology.
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