URDANETA CITY UNIVERSITY

San Vicente West, Urdaneta City, Pangasinan 2428

ECOLOGY

>Scientific study of the inter-relationship of plants and animals and

the environment.
>The branch of biology that deals with the relationship of
Living things to each other and to the environment.
 Comes from the Greek word ”oikos” meaning house. coined by German
Scientist Ernst Haeckel.
IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGY

1. It provides us with the knowledge that we have to deal effectively with

environmental considerations.
2. Human beings affect and are affected by the environment.

SUBDIVISION OF ECOLOGY

1. AUTECOLOGY > Deals with the study of individual organism. its life, history
,behaviour, characteristics and adaptation.

2. SYNECOLOGY > Deals with the study of groups of organisms which are
associated as a unit in relation to its environment.

From cell to organisms of species. Life ,except the simple forms, is organized
into different levels.

Atom-Smallest unit of matter.

Molecule-The basic Chemical unit that makes up he part of a cell.

Organelle –Part of a cell

Cell – smallest basic unit of living things.

Tissues-Group of similar cells

Organ- Group of differentiated cell doing the same work or function.

System-Group of different organs performing different functions

Organism-Individual living thing , either plant or animal.

Population-group of similar organisms occupying a definite area.

Community-Group of different populations inter acting with one another.

Ecosystem-Group of communities inter acting with their physical factors

Biosphere- All the ecosystems on earth with the physical environment. Thin layer
on the surface of the earth ,where all living things are able to exist.

Earth- The planetary environment of the earth.

 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Atom

Molecule

Organelle

Cell

Tissues

Organ

System

Organism

Population

Community

Ecosystem

Biosphere

Earth

ECOSYSTEM

 Various populations from communities a community with its physical

environment.

INTERACTION IN AN ECOSYSTEM/ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS

1. Abiotic-Abiotic>interaction relationship among physical factors

in the environment

2.Biotic-Biotic>interactions relationship among biotic factors in

the community

3.Biotic-Abiotic>factor relationship between living and non- living things

in a community

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Abiotic factors- refers to non living things

2. Biotic factors-refers to living things

ABIOTIC FACTORS

 WATER Inorganic substance which plays an important role in the

ecosystem.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER

1. Helps in the germination of seeds

2. Transports substances in the body of plants and animals
3. Aids in the erosion and breaking of rocks
 4. Is needed to support plant tissues
5. Comprises alarge percent of the body tissues of organism

Plant water Requirements

1. Hydrophytes- Those plants that survive in places where the amount

of water is abundant ex. lotus, water lettuce
2. Halophytes-Plants thriving in salty water. ex. mangrove, nipa
3. Mesophytes – flower and fruit bearing plants that need a moderate
supply of water.
4. Xerophytes- plants that can tolerate little amt. of water ex. cacti
5. Tropophytes-plants that can adapt itself year after year and can
adjust to availability of water.
 SOIL
The characteristics of soil determines largely the character of
vegetation and types of animals that maintains itself upon it.

TYPES OF SOIL ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS AND SIZE OF ITS

PARTICLES.
1. Sandy soil > inorganic soil particles that are larger than clay. plants
do not grow on this kind of soil ,water goes rapidly through the
spaces.
2. Clay soil>Smallest inorganic particle of soil retains water before
drying, it is sticky not suitable for plant growth.
3. Loam> Goof for agriculture and made up of particles of gravel sand
and clay with additional of organic materials.
4. Silt> made up of very fine particles of soil or clay, deposited as
sediments.
 SUNLIGHT
The main source of energy ,since the creation of the earth.
Forms of energy are released as heat and light.
Light is an important physical factor, without light, life on earth
would be impossible .The process of photosynthesis do not take
place except in the presence of light.
The light that falls on the surface of the earth is determined by two
factors:
1. The inclination of the earth
2. The distance from the sun
 TEMPERATURE

An increase in temperature increases vapour pressure by increasing

molecular motion Temperature influences animals in their selection
of habitat. The effects of temperature on the presence of animals in
different habitat varied .

BIOTIC FACTORS
Biotic factors are living components of the ecosystem which includes
Plants, animals, and microorganisms.
BIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
1. Intraspecific relationship>mating ,assistance gregariousness, and
Competition. Organisms with the species must compete with one
another for space ,food and mates.
2. Interspecific relationship> are also biological factors of great
importance .Different species must stuggle with each other for
space and food. ex. commensalism, symbiosis, and parasitism
 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

CYCLES OF THE BIOSPHERE

Our biosphere contains all of the minerals, water, oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon, and other chemicals necessary for life.

biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a pathway by which a

chemical substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic
(lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. A cycle is a
series of change which comes back to the starting point and which can be
repeated.Water, for example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as
shown in the diagram. The water undergoes evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation, falling back to Earth. Elements, chemical compounds, and other
forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the
biosphere to another through biogeochemical cycles.

The term "biogeochemical" tells us that biological, geological and chemical factors
are all involved. The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water etc. through the biological and physical
world are known as biogeochemical cycles. In effect, the element is recycled,
although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the
element is accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake
for water)

WATER CYCLE
Life on earth began in water and at present wherever liquid water is
found, life in any form present.
Processes

Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water

Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface . Most precipitation
occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as
precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.
The rain on land contains 107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and
a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi). 78% of global precipitation occurs
over the ocean.
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage, eventually evaporates
back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes
both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into
the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or
be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated,
the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.[5] A recent global study
using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is
equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration. [6]
Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface
water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or
eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower
elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity
induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished
slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the
ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.The source of
energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often
implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are
specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual
evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi)
of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the
oceans. 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.
Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.

Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection
The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states — through the
atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans
could not precipitate over land.[9]
Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air,
creating clouds and fog.[10]
Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a
gas that cannot be seen.
Percolation
Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of
gravity
Plate tectonics
Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to
the surface via volcanism.
 The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the H2O cycle, describes
the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.
The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning
of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and
atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The
water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from
the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so,
the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature
changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its
surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy
and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land
with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the
globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through
processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential
for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.

CARBON CYCLE

The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among
the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.
Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a
sequence of events that are key to making the Earth capable of sustaining life; it
describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the
biosphere, including carbon sinks.

The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of
carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g.,
atmosphere <-> biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon
budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or
reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle
was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized
by Humphry Davy.

he geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the

other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important
determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global
temperatures.
Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere.Much of the
carbon stored in the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed.Some
of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere.Of the carbon
stored in the geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its derivatives, which form
from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine
organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the
sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure.
Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years. [15]

Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during
the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's
mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean
through volcanoes and hotspots.[16] It can also be removed by humans through the
direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil
fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the
atmosphere.

OXYGEN CYCLE

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen within its three main
reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the
biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the Earth's crust. Failures in the
oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on,
under, and over the surface of planet Earth) can result in the development of
hypoxic zones. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis,
which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on earth (see the
Great Oxygenation Event).

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen within its three main
reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the
biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the Earth's crust. Failures in the
oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on,
under, and over the surface of planet Earth) can result in the development of
hypoxic zones. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis,
which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on earth (see the
Great Oxygenation Event).

NITROGEN CYCLE
 The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted
between its various chemical forms. This transformation can be
carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important
processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification,
nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere
(78%) is nitrogen,making it the largest pool of nitrogen. However,
atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use,
leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.
The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because
nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes,
including primary production and decomposition. Human activities
such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers,
and release of nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the
global nitrogen cycle.

Ecological function

Nitrogen is necessary for all known forms of life on Earth. It is a component in all
amino acids, as it is incorporated into proteins, and is present in the bases that
make up nucleic acids such as RNA and DNA.[3] Nitrogen gas (N2) is the largest
constituent of the Earth's atmosphere,[4] but this form is relatively nonreactive
and unusable by plants.[5] Chemical processing or natural fixation (through
processes such as bacterial conversion—see rhizobium) are necessary to convert
gaseous nitrogen into compounds such as nitrate or ammonia which can be used
by plants. The abundance or scarcity of this "fixed" nitrogen (also known as
reactive nitrogen) frequently limits plant growth in both managed and wild
environments. The nitrogen cycle, like the carbon cycle, is an important part of
every ecosystem.

The processes of the nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms

including organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2−), nitrate (NO3−),
nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic
nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate
products of organic matter decomposition. The processes of the nitrogen cycle
transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried
out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen
in a form needed for their growth. The diagram above shows how these processes
fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen fixation

Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", in a usable form to be taken

up by plants. Between 10x1012 and 5x1012 g are fixed by lightning strikes, but
most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs.
These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with
hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other
organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-
nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-
nitrogenase is a complex two component enzyme that has multiple metal-
containing prosthetic groups.[6] An example of the free-living bacteria is
Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live in
the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they
form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for
carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the
nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such
symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially
using the Haber-Bosch process,[7] which uses high temperatures and pressures to
convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into
ammonia.

Assimilation

Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots as amino
acids, nitrate ions, nitrite ions, or ammonium ions. Most nitrogen obtained by
terrestrial animals can be traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the
food chain.

Ammonification

When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen
is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back
into ammonium (NH4+), a process called ammonification or mineralization.
Enzymes involved are:

 GS: Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic & Plastic)

 GOGAT: Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferredoxin & NADH
dependent)
 GDH: Glu Dehydrogenase:
o Minor Role in ammonium assimilation.
o Important in amino acid catabolism.

Nitrification
Main article: Nitrification

The conversion of ammonia to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria

and other nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of
ammonium (NH4+) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species,
which converts ammonia to nitrites (NO2−). Other bacterial species such as
Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites into nitrates (NO 3−).[3]
It is important for the ammonia to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because
ammonia gas is toxic to plants..

Denitrification

Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into the largely inert nitrogen gas
(N2), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species
such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in anaerobic conditions.[3] They use the
nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These
facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification
happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria
use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen
gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.

Anaerobic ammonia oxidation

In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into
molecular nitrogen (N2) gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen
conversion in the oceans. The balanced formula for this "anammox" chemical
reaction is: NH4+ + NO2- => N2 + 2H2O (ΔG° = -357 kJ mol-1).[11]

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

he phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of

phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many
other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the
movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds
are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on
Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs only in specialized, local conditions.

On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to

plants over thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low
concentration of P in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth -
as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms act as both
sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical cycle.Locally,
transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major long-
term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in
geologic time.

Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of P
minerals, and use of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to cities,
where it is lost as effluent.

Ecological function

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a

limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-
sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not
enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals.
Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers. Phosphates
from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams.
Overenrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to
massive algae blooms which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of
fresh waters only. An example of this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area.
These freshwater algal blooms should not be confused with those in saltwater
environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant
responsible for algal blooms in salt water estuaries and coastal marine habitats is
Nitrogen.

Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion

(PO4)3−, consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is
found in rocks and minerals. Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in
the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments
to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form
where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The
plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either
incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant
decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the
phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a small
part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of
years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression. [4]

Biological function

The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides,

which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form
the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible
because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making
biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian
teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of
Hydroxylapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids
(found in all biological membranes).[5] It also functions as a buffering agent in
maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.[6]

Process of the cycle

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that
move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle
overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.

Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral
being apatite. Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching
and erosion, through the action of rain. In soil, phosphate is absorbed on iron
oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic matter particles, and
becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can also be active
in making P soluble.[citation needed Unlike other cycles, P is not normally found in the
air as a gas;

SULFUR CYCLE
The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and from
minerals (including the waterways)[clarification needed] and living systems. Such
biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many
minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an
essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors.

The Sulfur cycle (in general)

Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

 Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen

sulfide (H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
 Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate
(SO42−).
 Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
 Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives).

Structure of 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate, a key intermediate in the

sulfur cycle.

These are often termed as follows:

Assimilative sulfate reduction (see also sulfur assimilation) in which sulfate

(SO42−) is reduced by plants, fungi and various prokaryotes. The oxidation
states of sulfur are +6 in sulfate and –2 in R–SH.
Desulfurization in which organic molecules containing sulfur can be
desulfurized, producing hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S, oxidation state = –2). An
analogous process for organic nitrogen compounds is deamination.
Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide produces elemental sulfur (S8), oxidation
state = 0. This reaction occurs in the photosynthetic green and purple sulfur
bacteria and some chemolithotrophs. Often the elemental sulfur is stored as
polysulfides.
Oxidation of elemental sulfur by sulfur oxidizers produces sulfate.
Dissimilative sulfur reduction in which elemental sulfur can be reduced to
hydrogen sulfide.
Dissimilative sulfate reduction in which sulfate reducers generate hydrogen
sulfide from sulfate.