INTRODUCTION

Culture, as a complex topic, has met different definitions by scholars. As cited by Cohen (2009),
164 definitions of culture organized under several categories were presented by Kroeber and Kluckhohn in
1952. Other scholars who delved into explaining culture are: Chiu and Hong (2006) who presented OOO
its multiple constituents; and Levine (1984) spoke of it with regards to anthropology. Nevertheless,
similarities were found among the massive statements about it. Culture emerge from social interactions,
consists of shared elements, and transmitted across time periods or generations. It is the customary beliefs,
social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group as stated in the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary.

Additionally, it is not inherited through genes but learned over time through transmission from one
person to another, and one group to another group. A person’s social environment has an active role in a
cultural change (Hofstede 1994: 5–6). There is no such thing as culture of a hermit. An idea, thing or
behavior shared by a social group or society is to be considered cultural (Ferraro 1998: 16). Ferraro also
stressed that as culture is learned, it has several important implications to the conduct of international
business. Greater tolerance for cultural differences is acquired with such understanding which is known as
a necessary condition for effective intercultural communication.

In analyzing culture, we should take note of its three levels known as: lived culture, period culture
and the culture of selective tradition. Lived culture pertains to that only fully accessible by those living in
a specific time and place. The recorded culture from the arts to most everyday facts fall within period
culture. What connects these factors is the latter among the levels. The culture of selective tradition must
be fully understood as it further creates more such as a general human culture, historical record of a
particular society and a rejection of the considerable areas of a lived culture (Williams, 1961).

The only thing inevitable is change. During a period or generations of transmitting culture, some
part of what was once lived before cannot be fully carried out in the present. Furthermore, Williams
explained that the traditional culture of a society will always tend to correspond to its contemporary system
of interests and values. Selection and interpretation is not absolute but a continuous work. Likewise as it
should follow the lines of growth which is both ceaseless and complex, the relevance of the lived culture
in the future becomes unforeseeable.

With the contemporary changes – establishment of lines with the past, its fall, as well as its
recreation, high and low cultured groups are created in which the development of classes can also be
inferred. The culture of the elite, mostly pertaining to the arts, represents the first while the latter is to the
less educated and to the masses. Up to this day, this two types had occurring influence to what we call today
as popular culture.

Popular culture (also known as pop culture) is defined as “the products and forms of expression
and identity that are frequently encountered or widely accepted, commonly liked or approved, and
characteristic of a particular society at a given time” (Delaney, 2007). Examples of this are entertainment
from music to film, fashion, food, and sports.

It was widely believed that pop culture became prominent starting from the Industrial Revolution
and has since boomed after the World War II. With the innovations the media has encountered, in particular
mass media at that time and social media today, this “culture of the people” can expand its definition to
mass culture, hegemony, postmodernism and more. Storey (2015) has laid down six definitions of popular
culture which three are mentioned in the prior sentence.

How does pop culture received globalization? Globalization is known to be the idea of a global
village and the creation of borderless economies. In line with this, cultural differences are better tolerated
which then resulted to dominant countries of the world imposing their values, views, and mostly products
to those subordinate societies. Leading countries specifically United States of America, as well Japan and
Korea, not only pursue their culture to be in dominance but also boosts their economy by promoting and
imposing what they have to offer globally using the media. Most especially today with the innovations of
technology, mass media and social media has provided a bridge for this dominant players to establish a
global pop culture.

The succeeding parts of this paper will discuss about media and cultural imperialism in relation to
the idea of globalization. Cultural invasions headed by Japan, Korea, and the United States are given focus
to further understand how the establishment of a global village and interdependence of countries affect
culture as well as related concepts of production, religion, social norms and international standards.

MEDIA AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Nowadays, several advancements in technology have developed and with that, it is now possible
to make a worldwide movement toward economic, financial trade, and communication integration which
is often called as globalization. This paradigm started with a good purpose which was to unify the world
and to share and understand each other cultures. However, it turns out that globalization paradigm had its
flaws and one of which is described as cultural imperialism.

Historically, cultural imperialism did not emerge in scholarly or popular discourse until 1960s and
its practices have always been linked with military intervention and conquest. The rise and spread of the
Roman Empire provides some of the earliest examples of cultural imperialism in the history of Western
civilization and highlights both negative and positive aspects of the phenomenon. During a period known
as the Pax Romana, the Romans secured a fairly long period of relative peace and stability among previously
war-torn territories through a unified legal system, technological developments, and a well-established
infrastructure. However, this peace was secured, in part, by the forced acculturation of the culturally diverse
populations and Rome had conquered.

Later, cultural imperialism became one of the primary instruments of colonization which was
always initiated by some kind of military intervention and its full effects were achieved through practices
of cultural imperialism. Fueled by a belief in the superiority of their own way of life, colonizers used law,
education, and/or military force to impose various aspects of their own culture onto the target population.

Hence, cultural imperialism tackles about the struggle and shift of power and control that lead to
domination and erosion of local culture based on Herbert Schiller (1969) in his theory which was developed
in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Several authors defined cultural imperialism as a process by which one
country dominates other countries' media consumption and consequently dominates their values and
ideologies. It also occurs when a Western countries' influence on language, values and attitudes, including
religion, ways of organizing public life, styles of politics, clothing styles and other cultural habits affects
another country (Thussu).

According to Gray, using Beltran’s definition, he says, cultural imperialism is “a process of social
influence by which a nation imposes on other countries its set beliefs, values, knowledge and behavioral
norms as well as its overall style of life”. As he defines this term, he says cultural imperialism hasn’t died
out and that “American products were dominantly killing other cultures”. Also, George Ritzer says
“America will become everyone’s ‘second culture’, as we all become citizens of a ‘McDonaldized’ planet"
because McDonald is one of the world’s leading food service retailers with more than 36,000 restaurants
worldwide.

On the other hand, the study of global audiences starts largely in response to the ‘cultural
imperialism’ thesis that analyzes media as an instrument of cultural domination, reflecting uneven flows
and exchanges between the West and the rest of the world. Far from producing a homogeneous global
culture, audience studies have shown that media products moving across national boundaries are often
reinterpreted according to local cultural grids. By insisting that international audiences were neither
powerless nor uncritical to American television shows, this pioneering research further supports active
audience theory on a global scale. However, despite the fact that global audiences have agency to reinterpret
or reject what is offered, they have rather limited power to decide which programs are imported in the first
place. The United States is still the major media exporter to the global market, even though its relative
dominance is declining (Press & Wayne, 2015).

One of the major trends of the last decade has been the ‘regionalization’ of media productions and
reception within the multi-country markets linked by geography, language, and culture. For instance,
Japanese pop cultures and Korean TV dramas have been startlingly successful in the East Asian region
since the late 1990s. The regional media flows open up new possibilities to study non-Western audiences
in terms of their perceptions of colonial–postcolonial relationships, gender subjectivity constructions, and
nationalist responses to transnational media culture exchange.

Lin and Tong (2008) conducted a comparative study of the viewing practices of female fans in
Hong Kong and Singapore and based on in-depth interviews with these fans, they found that female
audiences are adept in using Korean dramas to construct what they see as their distinctive ‘Asian’ modern
femininities. Although both groups appreciated the hybridization of traditional values and modern images
in Korean dramas, the female viewers in Singapore seemed to be more inclined toward traditional values
and Confucian ideals of femininities than the Hong Kong viewers. Through interviews with middle-aged
female fans in Japan, Mori (2008) found that the penetration of Korean TV dramas into actual Japanese
family life has political potential for understanding and reconstructing Korea–Japan relationship in new
ways. These studies demonstrate the emergence of regional media culture and offer new conceptual insights
into global audience studies, which cannot be ascertained through previous US-centric analyses.

However, many of the early debates around cultural imperialism and media imperialism actually
prefigure key strands of argument that were taken up by the rhetoric of globalization in the 1990s: the
recognition of the collapse of space and time through communications technologies; the commodification
of social life; the significance of cultural flows. But within the model of globalization is also a sense of
collapse of the older, single-centered hegemon into a more disorganized set of global production processes
(Lash and Urry, 1994). The interpenetration of the global and local actually produces multiple formations
of modernity (Sreberny, 2015).

Cultural imperialism, as pointed out by Tomlinson (1991), consists of the spread of modernity. It
is a process of cultural loss and not of cultural expansion. There never were groups of conspirators who
attempted to spread any particular culture. Instead, global, technological and economic progress and
integration reduced the importance of national culture. Also, it is a combination of two complicated
concepts into one, with a considerable ideological charge. It has tended to refer to a growing dominance of
western, and especially American media and consumer goods in other parts of the world. Coca-Cola,
McDonald’s, and Barbie dolls have become the predictable pieces of evidence in a genre of cultural critique.
Both the early form of modernization theory and the critique of cultural imperialism thus tend to offer
global homogenization scenarios; implying, forecasting, or warning of the end of cultural diversity. Thus,
media imperialism creates conditions of global homogeneity that are the basis of cultural imperialism.

Additionally, a recent attempt to rework the ‘media imperialism’ model suggested the need to
‘encompass neo-colonialisms of inter-ethnic, inter-cultural, inter-gender, inter-generational and inter-class
relations’ (Boyd-Barrett, 1998) but instead helps us to recognize that in the end, the model is simply about
power imbalances, which do not require the ‘imperial’ stamp to be of importance to examine. Indeed the
‘imperialism’ obscures the differentiated processes of economic inequality and complex power dynamics.
Access to cultural expression often involves complex internal struggles for power as well as pushes from
the outside. As Tomlinson has argued, cultural imperialism always consisted of many different discourses;
the on-going attempt to rewrap them into one through the trope of ‘media imperialism’ is an increasingly
forlorn task. The world has changed and so must our language and our theoretical frames.

DIFFERENT CULTURAL INVASIONS IN THE HISTORY

AMERICAN INVASION

After the Spanish colonizers sold the Philippines to America, American colonizers goal was to
teach us the ways of American-styled democracy. (Go, 1999) American colonization was premised, among
others, in the sense of responsibility to civilize the “primitive” people of the Philippines. In reaching out to
the Filipinos, there were many actions the Americans took to make the Filipinos believe that their purpose
was not to replace the Filipinos former colonizers (the Spaniards) but rather to assimilate them into the
American culture. (Torres, 2010) Education is their way of colonizing the Filipinos and they were
successful in taking over the minds of the people. They taught us how to speak their language and invade
our minds when it comes to culture.

Media has become the great spreader of culture and it made globalization possible. They introduced
Disneyfication which is the same as McDonaldisation. According to Go (1999), According to this trend,
the world resembles a Disneyland-style theme park more and more. It is a nice, sweet, entertaining world
without problems, a world without real life. Everything looks the same as if it was produced from a single
assembly line. It is similar for today’s mass culture. Also, Go discussed that some critics mention some
aspects of disneyfication which are: a) the concentration and growth of the power of Western popular
culture (the relevance of the regional and smaller cultures is decreasing); b) everything is stereotyped, looks
similar; c) exporting the Western perception of entertainment to the whole world and supporting
consumerism under the slogan “buy, buy, buy!”; d) it has implications not only in culture but in architecture
and society in general.
 McDonaldization, in the other hand, is defined by Go (1999) as a process of enterprise
rationalization in capitalistic societies that is driven by material and economic interest and that it also means
comparatively lower expense with higher gains. In Ritzer’s paper “The McDonaldization of Society,” he
stated that we have become a nation driven by concerns for rationality, speed and efficiency that are so well
illustrated by the McDonalds’ style of operation. It is very evident because there are so many fast food
chains in the Philippines such as the Jollibee, KFC and of course the McDonalds. According to Ritzer, this
has fostered the homogenization of American culture and life, streamlined along a set of rational, efficient
and impersonal principles.

Commercialization is also a product of globalization in which to Go’s definition is the adaptation

of media content to the wishes of the popular audience and to the wishes of advertisers. From the late
nineteenth century onwards, a new range of European and American technologies, powered by electricity
and gas, and intended for use on the body and in the home—especially appliances for the domestic
kitchen—began to appear in Manila. Multitude technologies for the domestic kitchen, from stoves and
water heaters to grills and refrigerators, electro-mechanical vibratory devices and steam-powered massagers
for the body, hair waving and curling machines were targeted largely at the affluent female consumer with
promises to improve her physical appearance and health or make her daily life more comfortable. Thus,
desires and aspirations, such as prestige, status, cosmopolitanism, modernity, urbanity, and pleasure were
manifested in the advertising of modern technologies for domestic setting. (Reyes, 2011)

As advertisements inject notions of elitism, modernity, and cosmopolitanism on American imports,

the possession of expensive appliance such as refrigerators or even the consumption of cold treats such as
ice cream meant more than just the purchase and consumption. They became status symbols since they
were available to those who have access to technology. America, in this sense, became more than just a
colonizer. To “Filipinos”, the “American” embodied a new lifestyle. Yoshimi and Buist (2010) said that
American propaganda obscured the violence of occupation; it made America a “model of lifestyle
consumption.” Thus, creating the American dream of the Filipinos. The American dream represents the
idea of personal success as an individual accomplishment resulting from hard work. Upward social mobility
is the main message of the American dream. If every citizen worked hard and stayed focused could expect
success within the environment of freedom and open opportunities for achievement.

Moreover, when the United States took over the Philippines, the people began to be free to join
whatever religion they wanted. Because of this new found religion freedom, there began to be many
different churches besides Catholicism. Today, it’s remarkable to see just how many different churches
there are in the Philippines—this religious diversity has become a big part of the culture. The politics of
Protestantism in the American Philippines were closely linked to the idea that the enemy was not only Spain
but also the Catholic Church, which had corrupted local peoples through a misguided sense of dogma and
superstition. Thus, the conviction was that Protestantism would bring forth the best of Christianity
combined with another type of civilizing process, one linked to Euro-American liberalism and democracy.
(Yengoyan)

JAPANESE INVASION

Long before the Spaniards rediscovered the Philippines, the Japanese assimilated into the local
population in the 15th century. In 1600, there were as many as 3000 Japanese in Manila. During the World
War II, the Japanese took the Philippines from the control of the United States. Japan had long prepared to
attack the Philippines. Before the invasion, thousands of Japanese spies came to the Philippines as “traders”
or even street sweepers but when war broke out, these Japanese spies immediately wore their military
uniforms to the great surprise of the Filipinos. Japan occupied the Philippines for over three years. But after
the United States take back possession of the country, United States relinquished its control, fulfilled the
promise of granting full independence to the Philippines. (Cal, 2018)

The Japanese was able to take control for over such a short period of time, they did not leave much
that was permanently adopted into the already-shaped Filipino culture. In spite of this, the Filipinos learned
few practices from the Japanese. Limos (2019) described the precolonial Filipinos were predominantly
barefoot, even the Filipino nobility in 1500s, they adorned themselves with fine clothing—silk doublets
with gold trimmings, gold bands and gold chains around their neck but has nothing to protect their feet. He
defined slippers or tsinelas as perceived by the young Filipinos in 70’s up to 90’s as not just a type of
footwear but a tool for corporal punishment and implement for playing tumbang preso. The use of slippers
were introduced to the Filipinos by the Japanese over 400 years ago. Japan is also seen as a very progressive,
powerful and influential country in Asia, like the bright sun that rises from the east and given the moniker
“Land of the Rising Sun”. (Funtecha, 2009) There were also many young Filipinos go to Japan to work
there as entertainers that have become popularly known as “Japayukis”. They are able to speak Nippongo
in a fluent manner. However, Jose (2007) explains that music has been really the occupation of most
Filipinos in Japan way back in the late nineteenth century. Indeed, they were called musicians and not
entertainers. Karaoke which originated from Japan becomes an integral part of the Philippine culture.
Filipinos are brought up with a love of singing, it becomes a normal pastime of everyday life. It used to be
said that whatever the family's financial status in life, every Filipino owned a TV. Now it would appear that
every Filipino family has a portable videoke player so they can sing whenever they want or use it to entertain
guests. (Mack, 2012)
 Funtecha (2009) futher explained the different Japanese influences that has touched many aspects
of the lives of contemporary Filipinos. From the fact that Filipinos prefer to drive Japanese-made cars like
Mitsubishi, Honda, Nissan, Suzuki and Toyota and like to use household items and personal items with
brand names like Canon, Casio, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sanyo, Seiko, and Sony and even the famous item in
one’s household, Ajinomoto. Japanese foods have also begun to be popular in the Philippines, including
Iloilo and the rest of Western Visayas.

Imported Japanese telenovelas have gained an increasing number of Filipino adult audiences. More
popular are the Japanese anime and manga, like Voltes V, Naruto, Dragon Ball Z, Doraemon, etc. which
have gained certifies “otakus” or addicts among Filipino teenagers. (Funtencha, 2009) Historically, anime
links directly to the Manga, the original Japanese comics popularize in Japan after World War II by Ozamu
Tezuka. (Okada et al., 2007). The continuing anime popularity in the country remains the strongest evidence
that present Filipino youths are truly attached to these Japanese anime series. Most anime series depict real
life situations. The distinctive characteristics of anime bring positive effects on the youth’s physical
appearance, mindset and social norms. (How Popular is the anime in the Philippines, 2017) According to
Pinili (2017) the sustained popularity of the Manga and its patronage reinforced through anime films and
series on television, episodes in the YouTube, online games, commercials, toys and merchandise of anime
characters. Young Filipinos are influenced by animes through cosplaying, wearing the costumes of their
favorite anime characters and others, in acquaintance parties, programs, street parades, and fashion shows.
The findings of her study “Animé and its Influence in the Shaping of Humanistic Values among Filipino
College Students” reveal that friendship, love of family, concern for health and well-being, are among the
values identified by the respondents as evident in the animes. Moreover, animes tend to reinforce the
relational nature of Filipinos. These findings offer a significant contribution to the study on the effects of
new non-native media on Filipino youth values.

KOREAN INVASION

Korean Wave or Hallyu

Korean Wave or also called as Hallyu (한류) is a popular culture that is rapidly spreading in the

Philippines. According to Yang (2012), definition of Hallyu is both the flow and popularity of Korean
popular cultural products, especially media contents, in other Asian countries and beyond, as well as
exported Korean popular cultural products themselves. When Korean culture is introduced in the
Philippines, the Filipinos become fond of their fashion style, products, television dramas which are very
popular in the Philippines and currently, the Korean pop which is also becoming more popular in the country
than before. Globalization made it more possible for this culture to invade our country. Researcher Sanchez
(2016) defined globalization as a process of across-borders interaction and integration. With this process
happening in the Philippines, the Korean culture gained support and became popular to the Filipinos.
Through different media, celebrities and broadcast programs are now more reachable for the fans. It is the
same way that even fans from one country can access media content from another country. The world has
become borderless, and media and fan activities are just two aspects of globalization that brought about the
openness of the world. (Alanzalon, 2011)

The culture of South Korea was brought to Filipinos through technology, one who has an access to
technology such as internet, television, and any other forms of media. Kim (2011) stated in his paper “The
Role of the Government in Cultural Industry: Some Observations from Korea’s Experience” that the term
Hallyu first mentioned in Chinese media and was used to refer to the popularity of Korean cultural products
abroad, which include dramas and music. Ever since 1990’s, the Korean Wave has been famous in China,
and other countries in East Asia including Japan and Taiwan. The popular culture was brought to the
Philippines in the early 2000’s and ever since, the said culture became popular especially the Korean
Dramas.

Korean Dramas

Different TV Channels in the Philippines such as GMA 7 and ABS-CBN aired Korean novelas in
its dubbed version and Filipinos loved the idea of love happy endings which usually can be seen in Korean
dramas. The Korean drama was also unique from Filipinos’ point of view. The first Korean novela was
aired in GMA 7 with “The Successful Story of a Bright Girl but it didn’t give impact to Filipino television
viewers. “Endless Love 1: Autumn in My Heart” in 2003 paved the way for the rest of the successful Korean
dramas in the Philippines. This drama was the first installment of the famous four seasons of Korea-inspired
drama entitled Endless Love. According to Cenidoza and Igno (2016), people say that aside from the good-
looking actors and actresses that brought charms of the series, the drama’s story line is quite different in
such a way that the lead characters both died in the end which is somewhat unusual for Filipinos who got
used to happy endings. This maybe is one of the reasons the Filipino people got struck by the Koreanovelas
and waited for the next drama to be shown in the country. After it was being a hit drama, there are many
Korean dramas that also became a hit like GMA 7’s Stairway to Heaven, Full House, which is a Romantic
Comedy aired in 2005 and Jewel in the Palace which was aired in 2006. After that Korean Novela became
a big source of entertainment of Filipinos in television.

Korean Music and Videos

Korean music and videos were not that popular that time compared to Korean Dramas since people
are only limited to K-drama original soundtracks. Language barrier is also one of the reasons why K-music
is not famous than Korean novelas since Filipinos would have difficulty in understanding the language.
MYX, a music chart show in the Philippines, aired some of the Korean music videos and that is how K-pop
was introduced in the country. K-pop trend heightens up in the country during 2009 when a celebrity in
the Philippines named Sandara Park became a member of an idol group called 2ne1. Numerous KPOP
groups and artists were also introduced like Shinee, TVXQ, Super Junior, Rain, Girls’ Generation and
others who also visited Philippines to perform. Filipinos started supporting K-pop. But still, there are a lot
of people who don’t understand why it became popular and that resulted to haters and bashers of the said
form of Hallyu. But despite of the hate and bash, the K-pop community still continued to support their idols
and their music. New generation of Korean artists and groups, such as BTS, Blackpink, EXO and
Momoland keep the craze and trend in the country which increased the number of Korean pop fans in the
Philippines. Nowadays, the Korean influence in Philippine pop is very evident as SB19, a five-member all
Filipino group who trained in South Korea, started to become known and recognized.

Korean Fashion and Beauty Products

As K-pop and K-drama started to become a trend in the Philippines, the fashion and products
especially the clothing and beauty products are also became widely popular in the country. Koreans are
known to have a very smooth and flawless skin which is admired by a lot of Filipinos resulting to the
presence of Korean stores such as Nature Republic, The Face Shop, Innisfree, Etude Shop and more in the
country. These stores offer a lot of skincare products such as moisturizers, masks and serum and also
cosmetic products such as lipstick and eyeshadows. Koreans are very passionate when it comes to
maintaining their skin condition and it is evident when we see Korean artists in the television. Filipinos
well-liked the idea of flawless skin and they started using those products too. As the K-pop groups started
to become popular, Filipinos also started trying to use clothing lines and merchandise from Korea such as
Cotton On, Uniqlo and Giordano.

Korean Food

Korean cuisines are not really known in the Philippines not until the Hallyu wave started to become
a trend especially when the famous drama Jewel of the Palace was aired in the country. Korean food is all
about “spices.” Some of the famous dishes of Koreans are the Kimchi, which is a fermented vegetable, and
samgyupsal which is a grilled pork. It is evident with all these Korean restaurants in the Philippines
especially the samgyupsal restaurants which are loved by many Filipinos. According to Joven (2014), while
Korean cuisines created an “othering” exoticization of Korean culture, it created at least two divergent
attitudes among Filipino consumers: (1) dilution, or the search for toned down or Filipinized version of
Korean cuisine, and (2) authenticity or the desire for ―authentic Korean cooking. From these attitudes can
be derived the opening that Korean culture can be understood through by Filipinos through a sustained
fascination towards this foreign culture.

We can see how Korean culture becomes a trend in the Philippines, in music, drama, food and
fashion. It is not just a phenomenon that will suddenly disappear. Hallyu might be famous but criticisms
are still present. These can have significant contributions to Filipino cultures and values.

EFFECTS OR IMPACTS OF CULTURAL INVASIONS

The Philippines has a very unique culture formed from various influences. Its culture has been
characterized as hybrid in nature being a mixture of elements from different sources such as the Philippines’
colonial experiences; and, the culture is still continuously changing as an effect of other countries’ cultural
invasions. Undergoing these events described the usual pattern of cultural disregard within the Philippines
by the continuous destruction and substitution of old practices evoked by the new dominant cultures as
trendsetter of lifestyle (Cruz, 2019). Regardless of the massive colonial impacts making diversified culture
for the Filipinos, there were still communities within the country that managed to preserve their historic
past and give tall esteem to culture. Philippine culture is so diverse that Filipinos, wherever they are in the
world, have grown flexible and can effortlessly adapt to their condition and survive.

What happens when two countries of different cultural orientation are combined together? When
things go well, having different cultures in one place seem interesting, adding spice and variety to the
society, which lead to a good relationship within each other. But when stress is introduced, like culture
indifferences occur, one culture may be superior to the other, causing the other culture to be left behind or
worse, forgotten.

A. Positive Effects or Impacts

Like many Asian countries, the English language arrived and was introduced to the Philippines
during the colonial period. Based on the historical developments, English was once enforced by Americans
and consequently became the dominant language (Chureson, 2013). There is a great need of a common,
shared language that can be used as an effective means of communication. English was, therefore, chosen
for the purpose.

Due to globalization, societal expectations for English competency for receiving higher status and
better recognition have caused non-English speaking people to strive harder in learning English
(Kumaravadivelu, 2008). One of the reasons is that English is substantially the language most utilized in
the Internet (Gupta,1997). With this favor alone, it makes an immense impact on globalization due to its
capability for reaching out to the whole world. With the widespread use of English, the world has become
smaller, more negotiable, more understandable, and more beneficial notwithstanding diversity in dialects
and cultural patterns. It is evident that English has taken up a very significant role by enabling effective
communication among different races, and dialects.

Cultural invasions have also made their way into the Filipino food culture. There are things the
colonizers taught us that created a big impact to our culture. To start with, before they invade us, Filipinos
commonly used their hands to eat, and used leaves as their plate. But when they came, they introduced us
utensils such as spoons, forks, knives, etc. In that way, the Filipinos became more decent when it comes to
eating and up to now, we are known to be one of the countries who showcase a proper eating etiquette. But
still, we don’t forget how we used to eat back then, and that is using our bare hands. (Filipino Food, 2010)

Fast food establishments are common and a major hit in almost all parts of the country. Canned
goods were first introduced in the Philippines by American soldiers who brought these non-perishable food
items with them during the Filipino-American War to sustain them during battle (Cruz, 2019). Nowadays,
canned goods are ever-present in every Filipino home as great alternatives for cooking instantaneous food
especially for emergencies. Also, with the trend of Korean Pop Music (K-Pop Music) and Korean TV
Series, we have also been introduced to their Korean Barbecue or Samgyeopsal— which restaurants are
mostly everywhere (Pacis, 2012).

More recently, Japan has influenced the Philippines by bringing similar cultural additions to the
country, similar to its influence on the rest of the world. Karaoke is a past time practiced in parts of the
Philippines, in fact, many of our renowned singers used karaoke as their way of practice. If you think of it,
it is just an ordinary past time which can be done by any person with just a piece of confidence in their
pockets, but this culture has a big impact to us since this practice occurs in many occasions such as
baptismal, birthdays, weddings, fiesta, and so much more. It gives so much memories to the people who
uses karaoke and it will definitely be passed to other generations since Filipinos are known to be great
singers. (Reference*, 2019)

Japan has always been one of the pioneers when it comes to automobiles. And the Philippines, is
one of its customers. According to DTI, The Philippine automotive manufacturing industry covers the
assembly, importation/distribution, rebuilding of motor vehicles, and the manufacturing of automotive parts
and components. It consists of highly diverse sectors such as metal, electrical, plastic, rubber, and composite
materials. It is also characterized by heterogeneous firms with a few large, foreign-owned and modern firms
such as Toyota, Mitsubishi, Honda, Nissan and Isuzu operating side by side with many small
underdeveloped firms.

As of now, there are fifteen vehicle manufacturers with operating plants in the country. The industry
has an annual capacity of 250,000 units, all vehicle types which complies with global standards and certified
by the International Standards Organization (ISO). During 2013, the industry of automobile gave the
Filipinos some jobs wherein there are 8,000 workers are hired for automotive manufacturing, while there
are approximately 68,000 workers for auto parts manufacturing. It is evident that these helped us, especially
the middle class to have a certain job for their family. The inventions brought by the Japanese gave
thousands of Filipinos opportunities to rise up from poverty caused by huge number of unemployment in
the Philippines.

Filipino culture may have features from various other cultures, but the fusion of foreign influences
and indigenous civilization is what makes the country distinct from the rest of the world.

B. Negative Effects or Impacts

Although there are positive impacts brought to us by these colonizers, there are still negative
impacts rose up. Today, English is the second national language of the Philippines, and many words have
been incorporated in the Tagalog language. “Taglish,” or a mixture of Tagalog and English, has become
part of the country’s culture. Based on the current practice, the linguistic trend has slowly shifted from the
time of colonialism when Filipinos were competent in both or either English or Tagalog to mastery in
neither language (Bautista, 2014). Although the benefits of using English as the dominant language in the
global scale are considerable, as stated by Kumaravadivelu (2008), there are also concerns raised against
English as the dominant language. Some of them are the suppression, degradation, and even extinction of
other languages.

According to Bautista (2014), another way culture is transmitted among generations is through
educational institutions, where culture is primarily taught through educational means, and other ways such
as the school systems and in home teachings. Language is a means of transport of culture to other cultural
groups. Likewise, cultural change is expected as learning a language also involves learning their cultures.
One’s cultural identity is reflected through words, phrases, and norms of the particular group of people who
own the language (Chureson, 2013).

America became too influential to us especially in aesthetics. According to Norberg-Hodge (2013),

globalization tends to create what she called “cultural inferiority complex” whereby entire peoples come to
see their way of life as backward and shameful compared to the glamorous media depictions of affluent-
consumerist lifestyles. Because of the idea of beauty that huge companies bring to different cultures, there
are people who think that they are inferior compare to the stereotype culture they have. Just like in our
country, when it comes to clothing, we are known for being too conservative that we don’t usually wear
too revealing clothes back then. But since American culture introduced us the t-shirts, jeans, crop tops,
ripped jeans, short shorts, skirts, and more, we tend to think that it is already the latest fashion. That is the
reason why many Filipinos are being judged for wearing those types of clothes since it is not the typical
one we used to wear every day. America seems to be a liberated country, and we are not.

On top of the admiration on Korea’s K-pop music and K-drama, Korean businesses and
corporations have capitalized on the Korean Wave to penetrate into foreign markets. In the Philippines, for
instance, another trend that came along is the introduction of Korean skin products. Today, Korean cosmetic
companies are already household names in the beauty section (Pacis, 2012). Also, Korean skin care and
cosmetics brands are patronized more by the Filipinos than the local brands as claimed by Capistrano
(2018). In addition to that, in terms of complexion, since most of their skin tone is naturally lighter than
what Filipinos have, Filipinos think of it as the color of beauty. As a result, others tend to buy skin lightening
products or even take glutathione just to make their complexions lighter. Many artists and influencers also
endorse these types of products, that is why most Filipinos are even more persuaded to buy the product,
which makes the huge companies be successful on their plan.

As the trend goes digital, the expansion provided by technology and development contributed in
making it harder for Filipino millennial to pay more attention to such Filipino practices and behaviors as
everyone is busy catching up with the latest fads that gradually consume human interaction and socialization
(Cruz, 2019). Thus, the development of heritage and nationalism from generation to another has been
slowly fading. As stated by Fallows (1987), when a country with extreme geographic, tribal, and social-
class differences, like the Philippines, has only a weak sense of national unity, its public life does become
the war of every man against every man.

WAYS OF PRESERVATION AMONG COUNTRIES

JAPAN

Cultural Heritage

Cultural heritage is the symbolic presence that integrates the history, traditions and culture of a
country, region, or community, and while it is an irreplaceable source of pride for the people who belong
to such groups, it also possesses a value that can touch all people around the world. Through such diverse
causes as wars, natural disasters and poverty, there are numerous properties of precious tangible and
intangible cultural heritage currently placed at risk. International cooperation to ensure that such cultural
heritage is passed on to future generations as a precious legacy shared by all mankind, one that not only
demonstrates a position of approval and respect for the cultures of others, but also creates a stable
foundation for the international community. Accordingly, Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been
concentrating its efforts on international cooperation for cultural heritage as one of the pillars of its
diplomatic policy.

For tangible cultural heritage, Japan is taking part in the international system of protection
established through the World Heritage Convention. It has also been supporting the protection of the
historic ruins and buildings in various countries through the Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Preservation
of the World Cultural Heritage that was set up through UNESCO, and by utilizing the exceptional
preservation and repair skills developed in Japan for cultural heritage.

Cultural diplomacy may take a long time to yield results. Nevertheless, Japan believes that support
for the cultural heritage that is the pride of people in a nation touches the hearts of people directly. This
kind of aid does not stop with just material support but also conveys Japan's knowledge, skills and heart.
Cherishing culture can bring about a great long-term benefit.

Japan has a broad range of cultural heritage that have been preserved and handed down over the
generations. Of these, there are cultural heritage that are handed down on a national scale and those that are
preserved within localities. All such heritage emerged and developed within Japan’s historical and cultural
setting and are important factors in understanding the history and cultural of our country and also for people
to confirm their cultural identity. Moreover, the preservation of and mutual respect for cultural heritage are
vital in adding scope and richness in Japanese culture in the future.

Administration System for Protection of Intangible Cultural Assets

For protection of intangible cultural heritage, experts in the traditional performing arts, crafts and
techniques, and folk-cultural properties are assigned to the Cultural Properties Department for designation
and subsidization for Important Intangible Cultural Properties and Important Intangible Folk-Cultural
Properties. The designations in these categories are reviewed by the expert panels of the Council for
Cultural Affairs that consist of experts in cultural properties. Independent Administrative Institution
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo has a Department of Performing Arts as a
research body responsible for protecting intangible cultural heritage to engage in research in relevant areas
and to produce records and documents.
 The following are examples of performing and craft techniques designated as important intangible
cultural properties. Performing Arts – Collective Recognition:

(a) “Gagaku” developed in Japan from music and dance that came to the country from China and Korea
around the Nara Period (710-793 AD). As ancient music of Japan, it has been performed chiefly at courts
and shrines at important events.

(b) “Nohgaku” flourished in Muromachi Period (1392-1573). It consists of “Noh” that express dramatic
content in highly condensed and formalized movements to the accompaniment of flutes and drums,
combined with the humorous, non-musical “Kyogen.”

(c) “Ningyo-joruri bunraku” is based on older traditions in puppet plays and reaches it zenith in the 18th
century. Backed by Gidayu songs to the shamisen (a stringed instrument), each puppet is manipulated by
three persons to produce delicate, sensitive expressions of emotions.

(d) “Kabuki” dates back to the early Edo Period (1603-1868), when various forms of music and performing
arts that existed earlier were combined. It is designated by “onna-gata” (male impersonators performing
female roles), formalized movements, and aesthetic form of stage choreography and it became immensely
popular during the Edo Period.

(e) “Kumi-odori” was established as a performing art in Okinawa during the reign of Ryukyu dynasty in
the early 18th century. It adapts dances of Japan and China, with speech, song and dance performed as the
play unfolds, to the accompaniment of Okinawa’s distinctive traditional music. Asia-Pacific Database on
Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) by Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) - 8 –

(f) In shamisen music, “gidayu-bushi,” “tokiwazu-bushi,” and “itshu-bushi” have been designated as
Important Intangible Cultural Properties, and holders of such properties are recognized collectively

Cultural Property Conservation Techniques

Since most of the work of art and architectural structures in Japan are made of relatively weak
materials such as wood, paper lacquer, etc., they have been preserved through regular and ad hoc repairs.
For this reason, the preservation of tangible cultural properties requires highly competent craftsmen to
perform routine repairs. Moreover, there are special implements and materials necessary for repair, and
hence techniques for producing such tools and materials are needed. For intangible cultural properties, skills
to produce and repair musical instruments, costumes, and stage props are needed for exhibition and
preservation of the performing arts. Similarly, techniques for waking tools used in the production of works
of applied arts and production of raw materials are necessary.
 Traditional skills and techniques vital for the preservation of cultural properties are easily lost due
to social and economic changes, decline in demand, changes in industrial structure, and changes in social
concepts. Hence, the national government has selected techniques and skills necessary for preservation, and
recognizes individual who have acquired the correct skills and are versed in the art as the holders of such
skills and organizations that are dedicated to preserving such selected techniques and which can organize
suitable programs to promote preservation of techniques, etc.

Regarding implements and materials that support properties cultural properties, protection is not
necessary adequate. Tools and raw materials are also being endangered and the number of workers involved
in their protection is declining, and proactive measures to secure the supply of tools and raw materials are
necessary. For this objective, the Agency for Cultural Affairs commenced studies on such implements and
materials in 1997 to study methods of securing their supply.

The following are examples of selected techniques. Traditional architectural technologies include
“structural woodwork craftsmanship,” “structural coloring” skill, “roof tile production” for forging tiles to
cover roof of traditional structures, “measurement” skills for producing hinges and joints of traditional
structures, and “Hinoki and Kaki roofing” on traditional structures. Selected techniques include skills for
repairing paintings and works of calligraphy that are leading cultural properties of Japan, “washi” paper
production for traditional interior furnishings, ancient method of producing furnishings, production of
traditional interior furnishings, “karakami” production, and skills in producing furnishing repair paper tools,
as well as skills in replacing traditional sculptures and works of applied arts (woodwork, lacquerware,
armor, etc.) and production wood boxes for storing works of fine art. In the area of performing arts, skills
for producing musical instruments, such as gagaku instrument repair, flute production and repair, and string
production, as well as skills in repairing Nohgaku masks essential for Nohgaku performances have been
selected. In applied arts, many skills are identical to those employed for tangible cultural properties but also
include the production of “makie” brushes and lacquer brushes used in lacqurwork; traditional lacquer
production and refining, and tools needed to gather lacquer. Others include production of handmade paper
making tools and “tamahagane” production for production of manufacturing for Japanese swords.

KOREA

Koreans have been influenced by western cultures, especially American culture. Early childhood
educators have become concerned about the prevalence of Disney Characters and other elements of
American practice in Korea, especially since the emphasis on learning English has become a critical part
of Korean education. In response, Korean early childhood education programs have stressed preserving
Korean heritage that is being lost in a global environment. Korea’s early childhood education is focusing
on holistic development, including appreciation of traditional culture. The authors discuss the structure of
early childhood education in Korea, the emphasis on learning English in kindergarten, the influence of
Confucianism in Korean tradition, the emphasis of cultural heritage in early childhood curriculum, cultural
heritage instruction using traditional games and literature, and teaching materials used to preserve an
appreciation of more traditional practices.

Close or Open-door Policy Towards Japanese Culture

Since the liberation of 1945, the recovery of cultural identity by removing the legacy of Japanese
colonialism has been an essential part of cultural policy (The Ministry of Culture and CULTURAL
IDENTITY AND CULTURAL POLICY 41 Information, 1979, 248). The government has sought to rebuild
in effect, the eroded national culture by re-evaluating traditional culture and intensifying research and
education on Japanese colonialism. In addition, before 1998, the government prohibited the performance
or exhibition of Japanese culture and arts in Korea. This closed-door policy towards Japanese culture and
arts was largely caused by a negative attitude towards Japan as a whole, due to the Japanese occupation. In
addition, the illegally distributed Japanese cultural products, generally thought to contain violent and
pornographic materials, have reinforced this negative attitude. On the other hand, there was a fear that the
Japanese cultural industries, with their substantial capital and technology, could threaten the domestic
market share of Korean cultural industries. Nonetheless, Kim Dae Jung’s government began to perceive
Japanese culture in a more positive way, in contrast to the negative stance of former governments. He stated
that the promotion of cultural exchange with other nations, including Japan, was necessary for the
development of national culture and the globalization of national culture (Dae Jung Kim, 1998). In practice,
the current government started to open the door to Japanese film, video and publishing in 1998. The
performing industry of Japan was subsequently permitted in 1999. After this, in 2000, animation, pop
music, music recordings, games and broadcast programs from Japan were given approval (Ministry of
Culture and Tourism, 2000b, 3–59). It might be said that this shift in cultural policy is a positive response
to increasing cultural globalization.

Cultural Policy for Anti-communism and Reunification

Following their division, both Koreas sought to identify the historic roots of their legitimacy by
emphasizing national culture. In doing so, the issue of cultural identity had been mobilized in the process
of legitimacy competition between South and North Korea. On the other hand, anti-communism has been
emphasized as a governing ideology of the state, in particular, during the period from first republic to the
fifth. This emphasis on anti-communism became a rationale for the restriction on the freedom of artistic
expression. As a result, until the late 1980s, cultural products based on communism were strictly regulated
by the government.

The cultural products which legitimated the regime in operation in North Korea, and produced in
North Korea, were prohibited from being distributed in South Korea. Furthermore, there were inevitably
few cultural exchanges between South and North Korea until the late 1980s. Meanwhile, in contrast to the
former republic, the sixth republic headed by the government of Rho Tae Woo gradually launched an open-
door policy towards North Korean culture. The so-called “7.7 special declaration for unification” initialed
by the government of Rho Tau Woo in 1988 was a watershed in the history of cultural policy for Northern
Culture. The “7.7 special declaration” was based on the recognition that it was necessary to promote an
exchange between the two Koreas in order for a Korean national community to be defined (The Ministry
of Unification, 1997, 30).

AMERICA

Multiculturalism is a term that is used to describe societies that are home to many different racial,
ethnic, cultural, or religious groups. Multicultural societies are seen as valuing the presence of cultural
difference and diversity. Rather than expecting groups to adopt the practices of the dominant society,
proponents of multiculturalism see value in the coexistence of multiple cultural groups.

In some ways, the United States has always been a multicultural society. Immigrants from countries
all over the world have come and settled in the U.S. You've probably heard the term melting pot in
describing the U.S. and is used because of the number of different cultural groups who find their home in
the United States. But scholars have noted that globalization has increased this circulation of diverse
peoples and cultures. Globalization has facilitated the near instantaneous transfer of goods and ideas. As a
result, Americans encounter more cultural diversity than ever before.

One facet of globalization involves the circulation and exchange of cultural goods. This can be
everything from music to clothing to films. The art world has experienced many changes due in part to
globalization. Scholars have suggested that one way that this works is through shifts in the way that we
think about geographic boundaries in the age of globalization. Some scholars have pointed to the way that
globalization has made the boundaries of nation states seem more fluid.

This has involved a greater degree of cultural exchange that impacts the art world. Art theorists
have suggested this openness can create space for being more appreciative of difference. Artistic influences
can travel across different contexts and impact the work that artists do in different places. Music, films, and
art have all been impacted by globalization and technology like the internet allows us to access a wealth of
diverse cultural goods easily.

American Values

Independence. Americans strongly believe in the concept of individualism. They consider

themselves to be separate individuals who are in control of their own lives, rather than members of a close-
knit, interdependent family, religious group, tribe, nation, or other group.

Equality. The American Declaration of Independence states that “all [people] are created equal,”
and this belief is deeply embedded in their cultural values. Americans believe that all people are of equal
standing, and are therefore uncomfortable with overt displays of respect such as being bowed to.

Informality. This belief in equality causes Americans to be rather informal in their behavior towards
other people. Don’t be surprised if store clerks and waiters introduce themselves by their first names. Many
people visiting the US are surprised by the informality of American speech, dress, and posture. Don’t
mistake this for rudeness or irreverence; it’s just a part of their culture!

Directness. Americans tend to value, frankness and openness in their dealings with other people.
They believe that conflicts and disagreements are best solved by means of forthright discussion among the
people involved. Americans believe that if someone has a problem with someone else, they should tell the
person clearly and directly in order to come up with a solution to the problem.

Globalization of Culture

A majority of Americans has a favorable view of American popular culture, though a large minority
of the public is pessimistic about the quality of US movies and television. Americans are divided about the
spread of American culture, but only a small minority considers the dominance of US culture a threat to
other cultures. When it comes to globalization bringing greater cultural influences into the US, Americans
express a positive attitude.

One of the most controversial aspects of globalization is the worldwide spread and dominance of
American culture. Just as US goods flooded world markets in the post-Word War II era, US culture is now
penetrating every continent through the dramatic growth of mass communications such as music, television,
films and the Internet, as well as through the penetration of American corporations into foreign countries.
From China to France to the Middle East, foreign leaders and activists have expressed fear that global
culture may become too Americanized, destroying their own cultural, economic, and religious traditions.
 Globalization of markets also means globalization of culture and Americanization. An example can
be seen in the music industry. Since the development of hip-hop in the 1980’s, rap music has continued to
spread to other cultures around the globe. From South Africa to Japan, hip hop has made a worldwide
impact. Many American rap artists admit that a significant proportion of CD’s are purchased overseas. So
much so that, it overseas purchases often exceed the amount of CD’s purchased domestically. This
stimulates World Tours, touring places like Germany, Puerto Rico, and Australia. Around the world,
various nationalities are also rapping to beats that reflect their culture. Punjabi MC is a DJ out of London
of Indian descent who creates beats with a cultural twist. His music often contains instruments and sounds
reflective of India and Bollywood and has mixed with famous American rappers such as Jay Z. Not only
do American rappers try to make it big in the music industry, talented men in Nigeria, Cuba, and Brazil
have done so as well. “American hip hop music coursed the cultural corridors of the globe and has been
absorbed and reinvented around the world”, (Nawotka, 2004).

Some argue that hip hop has become popular on a global scale because many people identify with
the music. Blacks in New York created rap, using it as a way to express their disenfranchisement. Often
rappers express their hardships, challenges, and struggles with poverty. Rappers also oust their feelings
about corruption, the government, and racial inequality. As a culturally oppressed people, other societies
identify with these feelings of oppression expressed by African Americans. “Hip hop is something
Americans take for granted…not so elsewhere, especially in the developing world, where it has come to
represent the empowerment of the disenfranchisement of the American dream”, (Nawotka, 2004). As a
result, globalization and Americanization has impacted other nations across the world. Globalizing markets
means that different cultures and societies will be oppressed and disenfranchised. Rappers in Nigeria also
rap about their struggles with poverty. Through American hip hop, artist around the world use music as a
way to express themselves, identifying with the want for liberty and social equality.

Americanization is an affect that is currently spreading throughout the developed world. It is

especially seen in music where most developed countries are moved and affected by the hip hop
phenomenon. Although rap was created in America by Americans, many people around the globe have
picked up on this art and changed the music to reflect their culture, or rap to an American beat in their
native tongue. However, Americanization can also be seen in other ways as well. McDonalds and other fast
food industries is another way nations have become Americanized. This can be seen as American fast-food
restaurants have transformed the food industry. Whereas before most restaurants accommodated people to
dine-in or order take-out, McDonalds and other industries created the “fast food” market. This encouraged
the need to have your food now and prepared for you to have on the go. McDonalds created what is called
“McDonadization” and is an industry that operates in the global market and introduced to nations around
the world. Processed and precooked food is economic and beneficial in this industry. As a result, many
nations have become dependent on processed and preordered food in the same way Americans have. Use
to the accessibility and convenience of the fast food market, it can account for the rise in obesity found
throughout developed countries of the world.

Ultimately, companies push for globalization and freer trade. They do what makes the most sense
from a financial standpoint. When outsourcing, companies are allowed to pay employees less money all the
while saving cost. Industries are able to save in cost, because they do not have to maintain conditions and
standards present in the United States. As a result, outsourcing and company global expansion has continued
to persist in recent years. Especially when participating in company absorption or global expansion,
Americans are moving their services and products to other nations, thus contributing to global
Americanization. Cheeseburgers and reality TV are considered American. They were created in America
by Americans and today is embedded in American culture and society. Taking cheeseburgers and reality
TV across the corners of the world is, in effect, americanizing global society. It encourages other nations
to adapt and utilize American ideals and practices. As globalization continues to transcend, more
civilizations will be rapping, eating cheeseburgers, and watching reality TV.

To date, companies have and will continue to reap the greater benefit of globalization.
Globalization has a worldwide impact on societies and cultures that can be both good and bad. There isn’t
anything necessarily wrong with reality TV, cheeseburgers, and rap music. However, McDonald’s
cheeseburgers have been accused for causing America’s rate of high obesity and the first lady herself has
encouraged American children to watch less TV and exercise more. Why should companies continue to
globalize a market that has already resulted in negative consequences for Americans? Nonetheless,
American corporations and industries should first address the concerns of their market at home. Outsourcing
has cost American jobs while companies like Comcast hire associates for telemarketing overseas. If
industries cannot create jobs for American’s at home, how can Americans continue to consume the
outsourced products and services?

SYNTHESIS

Culture emerge from social interactions, consists of shared elements, and transmitted across time
periods or generations. As it is also learned, greater tolerance for cultural differences are acquired. An
effective intercultural communication began to exists resulting to having an open mind with the
establishment of a global village.

Cultural imperialism became a flaw of the globalization paradigm. With the technological
advancements, colonizers motivated by their belief of superiority has continued to impose their own culture
to an inferior population of their target. Dominant players has commanding influence over subordinate
societies media consumption, as well as their culture. Their beliefs, values, knowledge and norms are
transmitted to the other nation. This idea of domination analyzes the use of media in the integration and
dynamism of a global culture.

It is widely believed that with cultural imperialism, the known leading nation attempts to only
spread its culture to others. But it is not the case since hidden to this, it results to loss of culture while
progress and integration of technology and economy are of focus. Diversity in culture may be ending some
time in the future as global homogeneity is upheld by media.

A prominent example of this is the influence of the United States (Americanization) to the world.
The creation of the terms Disneyfication and McDonaldization very much summarize the power of
America. Though distinct, these actually are similar on how it relay the decline of the smaller cultures
versus of that to US by emphasizing what the country have to drive others in its interest. For example, the
popularity of fast food restaurants due to McDonalds has taken over other nations which result to not only
the opening of its branches abroad but a creation of a somewhat similar brand to it (e.g. Jollibee in the
Philippines).

Other than media and cultural imperialisms, regionalization has also took an active role in the
shaping of a global culture today. As per the case of Japan and Korea, both has contributed to each other’s
culture and to other Asian countries. The popularity of anime, manga, K-dramas and K-pop can prove how
non-Western audiences respond to cultural exchange. In this case, people respond well and their cultures
has taken its dominance.

These cultural invasions truly implicate how dominant players of the world become the trendsetters
of lifestyle with the help of commercialization and again, media. Not only with regards to how they change
people’s beliefs, values, and views but also what role they play in the global production and economy. The
rise of Protestantism gave birth to different religions other than Catholicism which is powerful for a long
time. Advanced technologies as well as the Images portrayed in televisions, social media and other mediums
from the West and the East Asia has shaped the desires and aspirations of consumers. Accordingly, these
influential nations continue to benefit from great profitability of their popular culture’s materiality.

It is evident that Japan, Korea, and US has worked hard to preserve and strengthen their culture to
be able to competitively participate in the creation of borderless economies and the growing cultural
globalization. They have taken various policies to ensure that their domestic market will not be threatened
by the foreign competitors. Thus, it resulted to their countries being in dominance and lead players in the
global culture and economy.
 Globalization paved a way for a modern world where technology made life easier, where interacting
with one another requires the knowledge of using a gadget, when imported products are more patronized
than the local ones and where English was given more importance than our native languages.

In sum, globalization of culture has created both positive and negative effects on culture. In our
own culture, globalization has improved our way of living and created an impetus for us to strive for a
better life. But in the process, it has changed some of our traditional ways of life, practices, beliefs and
ideologies. Hence, globalization is neither good nor bad. Rather, certain aspects of the complex and multi-
faceted process of globalization have effects that can be viewed in different ways depending on the values
at stake.
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Lee, S. J. (2011). The Korean Wave: The Seoul of Asia. Retrieved from https://www.elon.edu/docs/e-
web/academics/communications/research/vol2no1/09suejin.pdf
Oh, I. G. (2014). The Globalization of K-pop: Korea‟s Place in the Global Industry. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296774877_The_Globalization_of_K-
pop_Korea's_Place_in_the_Global_Music_Industry

Sanchez, C. J. (2017). K-fashion and Technology-driven Globalization in the Philippine Setting. Retrieved
from https://journals.ateneo.edu/ojs/index.php/aiks/article/view/2733

Sanchez, L. J. (2014, February). Koreanovelas, Teleseryes and the “Diasporization‟ of the Filipino/The
Philippines. Retrieved from http://www.plarideljournal.org/article/koreanovelas-teleseryes-and-
the-diasporization-of-the-filipinothe-philippines/

Tuk, W. (2012). The Korean Wave: Who are behind the success of Korean popular culture? Retrieved from
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Yang, J. (2012). The Korean Wave (Hallyu) in East Asia: A Comparison of Chinese, Japanese and
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Effects and Impacts:

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GMA News. (2019, September 18). Retrieved from GMA News Online:
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pose-safety-issues-mmda-traffic-chief/story/

Norberg-Hodge, H., Steven, G., & John, P. (Directors). (2013). The Economic of Happiness [Motion
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https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-
02.pdf

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e5a0/1b9bd977c9e343a58f0f70395ecb4f811890.pdf

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=U6wgt0Beb-AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

https://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellibst/poco/paper6.html

http://iskwiki.upd.edu.ph/images/4/4a/PoppingTheK-popBubble.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327075328_Hallyu_and_corporate_performance_The_case_of_
South_Korean_skin_care_companies_in_the_Philippines

Ways of Preservation:

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007-4972-6_7
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