Topik 7 Homeostasis-OUM PDF

Topic X Homeostasis
12
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of homeostasis and the negative feedback loop;
2. Summarise the regulation of blood sugar levels and the hormones
and mechanisms involved in this;
3. Describe the structure and mechanism of action of the human kidney
and discuss its role in osmoregulation;
4. Explain the mechanism of nerve impulse transmission;
5. Summarise the process of synaptic transmission;
6. Describe the reproductive systems of a human male and female; and
7. Explain the hormonal regulation of the human menstrual cycle.
X INTRODUCTION
The previous topic has introduced you to animal physiology. This topic covers
the second part of animal physiology which discusses the topic homeostasis,
including the urinary, nervous and reproductive systems.
170 X TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS
12.1 HOMEOSTASIS
We learnt in chemistry that matter tends to assume its lowest energy state. It
tends to change towards high entropy by changing from an ordered state to a
disordered state. The survival of organisms depends on the ability to overcome
this tendency to disorderliness by remaining stable. By bathing cells in a fluid
whose composition remains constant, the chemical reactions within these cells
can take place at a predictable rate. The cells will be able to survive and function
efficiently and the whole organisms can become more independent of its
environment. All living things are able to control their internal conditions so that
their cells have a constant chemical and physical environment in which they can
function effectively. This regulation and maintenance of a relatively constant set
of conditions within an organism is called homeostasis. It is a feature of all living
systems, from single cell to the whole biosphere.
12.1.1 Principles of Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Organisms
are open systems. That is why exchange of materials occur between organisms
and environment. In order to maintain themselves in a stable condition against
the natural tendency to disorder, organisms require a constant input of energy.
Control systems that are capable of detecting any deviation from the usual and
making the necessary adjustments to return it to its normal condition are
required in order to maintain this stability. In a control system as shown in
Figure 12.1, the basic components required are stated below.
1. Reference point - the set at which the system operates.
2. Detector - detects the extent of any deviation from the reference point.
3. Controller - coordinates the information received from various detectors
and sends out suitable instructions in order to correct the deviation.
4. Effector - brings about the changes that are needed in order to return to the
reference point.
5. Feedback loop - informs the detector of any change in the system as a result
of action taken by the effector.
Figure 12.1: Components of a control system

TOPIC 12 HOMEOSTASIS W 171
An example of this type of control system can be found in the regulation of a

central heating system in a home. In this system the different components
available are:
1. Reference point - the temperature that you determine in advance by choice
through your experience (e.g. 25ÀC is the temperature that you are
comfortable with and this temperature is then set on the thermostat);
2. Detector - the thermostat that detects and monitors the temperature of the
room;
3. Controller - the programmer that can be set to turn the heating on and off at
the required time.
4. Effector - the boiler, circulation pump, radiators and various pipe work that
are linked to them; and
5. Feedback loop - the air within the room that circulates constantly.
12.1.2 Temperature Regulation

Temperature regulation is an example of homeostasis. In order to ensure that
vital chemical reactions continue in a normal way, it is important to maintain a
constant body temperature even when the surrounding temperature changes. An
organism needs to balance its heat gain with its heat loss to maintain a stable
body temperature. This regulation of body temperature is called
thermoregulation.
Endothermic (warm-blooded) animals, like the birds and mammals, have

constantbody temperature. Therefore, they have an advantage over the
ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals, such as reptiles and insects, which have
variable body temperature.
Reptiles and insects can regulate their body temperature by basking in the sun or
seeking shade. However, they become sluggish if the temperature falls because
their vital chemistry slows down.
Our body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a small structure at the

base of the midbrain. It acts as the bodyÊs thermostat by monitoring the
temperature of the blood passing through it. The hypothalamus detects an
increase in the temperature of its blood supply and receives nerve impulses from
the skinÊs heat receptors when the environment is hot. It sends out nerve
impulses that bring about vasodilation of arterioles, which allow more blood to
reach the capillaries near the skin surface, so that more heat is lost by radiation.
Figure 12.2 shows the diagrams of vasodilation and vasoconstriction

mechanisms.
Figure 12.2: Vasodilation and vasoconstriction
Increase in sweating results in more sweat lying on the skin surface. The skin is
cooled when this sweat begins to evaporate. The hairs lie flat against the skin
when the erector muscles relax which reduces the stationary layer of insulating
air. Elevation and depression of hair in controlling heat loss is shown in Figure
12.3.
Figure 12.3: Elevation and depression of hair in controlling heat loss
Figure 12.4 summarises body temperature control by the hypothalamus.

Figure 12.4: Summary of body temperature control by hypothalamus
The hypothalamus detects a decrease in the temperature of its blood supply and
receives impulses from the skinÊs cold receptors when the surrounding
environment gets cold. It sends out nerve impulses and through vasoconstriction
of arterioles, diverts blood away from the skin surface so that less heat is lost
through radiation. Sweating then is very much reduced. By contraction of the
erector muscles, the hairs are raised and trap a stationery layer of insulating air
close to the skin surface. By the involuntary contraction and relaxation of
muscles, shivering is induced which results in increased heat production. Body
heat is conserved and more heat is produced.
SELF-CHECK 12.1
List down other animal biological systems that are being regulated.
12.1.3 The Pancreas System

The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon hormones into the blood in order to
regulate the blood sugar level. The pancreas plays a central role in the control of
blood glucose. There are groups of different cells present in the pancreas called
islets of Langerhans which are made of alpha-cells and beta-cells. Alpha-cells are
sensitive to low levels of glucose in the blood and secrete the hormone glucagon.
The smaller beta-cells detect increases in blood glucose levels above normal and
secrete a different hormone called insulin. Hence, glucagon and insulin
hormones act in opposite ways to maintain a constant glucose level.
12.1.4 Control of Blood Sugar

Blood glucose levels could rise due to the absorption of carbohydrates from the
alimentary canal and the conversion of amino acids and glycerol to glucose by a
process called gluconeogenesis. The conversion of stored glycogen to glucose is
called glycogenolysis. In order to meet the bodyÊs need, glycogen which is stored
in the liver and muscles can be quickly converted into glucose. A process called
deamination breaks down excess amino acids in the liver. Although the amino
part of the molecule is excreted, the remainder can be converted into glucose.
When a person is fasting, the conversion of stored lipid maintains the blood
glucose level. Since animals do not store proteins, starvation may lead to proteins
being used, which results in muscular wastage.
12.1.5 Glucagon
Too much lowering of the blood glucose level will be detected by the alpha-cells
of the islets of Langerhans. As a result, glucagon will be secreted. This hormone
fits into receptor sites on the cell membranes of liver cells. This leads to the
activation of enzymes inside the cell that convert glycogen to glucose and
increase the rate of gluconeogenesis.
12.1.6 Insulin
The beta-cells of the islets of Langerhans detect the change and secrete insulin if
the level of glucose in the blood is too high. This hormone circulates around the
body in the bloodstream and attaches to receptor sites on the cell membranes of
liver, muscle and adipose cells. Figure 12.5 shows the summary of the blood
sugar control by glucagon and insulin.
Figure 12.5: Summary of blood sugar control by glucagons and insulin
You can test your understanding by doing the exercises below.
EXERCISE 12.1
1. (a) What is homeostasis?
(b) What are control systems?
(c) Explain all the components of a control system and its
functions.
2. (a) Describe how mammalian blood glucose concentrations

are maintained at a relatively constant level.
(b) Explain the mechanism involved in the control of blood
glucose concentrations by insulin and glucagon.
12.2 URINARY SYSTEM

The mammalian kidneys play a central role in homeostasis. It helps to eliminate
waste from the blood and regulate the salt and water content of the body. The
kidneys function as vital filtration and purification organs. Every day blood
passes through it. Unwanted substances are eliminated from the blood and
essential ones are retained. The end result is the production of urine consisting of
variable amounts of water, urea, and other waste substances. The elimination of
metabolic waste is called excretion. The production of urine containing variable
amounts of water allows the kidney to control the water content of the body. This
process is called osmoregulation.
12.2.1 The Kidneys

In vertebrates, the main organ of nitrogenous excretion is the kidney. Figure 12.6
shows position of the kidneys in man.
Figure 12.6: The position of kidneys in man
In human, a branch of the aorta called the renal artery supplies each kidney with
its blood supply. Kidneys are composed of millions of basic filtering units called
nephrons. Blood enters the kidney under high pressure to make filtration
efficient and the filtered blood leaves the kidneys along the renal veins. Urine is
the filtered waste product that is excreted by the kidney and it passes down a
muscular tube called the ureter. One ureter connects each kidney to a muscular
sac called the bladder where urine is stored. In order for urination to occur, a ring
of muscle called the sphincter muscle relaxes and allow urine to pass out of the
body along the urethra. As the kidneys reabsorb most of the filtered fluid, only a
relatively small proportion of urine is produced each day.
12.2.2 Kidney Structure

Each kidney is surrounded by a layer of adipose tissue and a layer of fibrous
connective tissue. The layers keep the kidneys in position and protect them from
mechanical damage. A cross section of the kidney in Figure 12.7 shows three
main areas, namely the cortex, medulla and the pelvis.
Figure 12.7: A longitudinal section of a mammalian kidney to show the position of a

nephron
The cortex is the dark outer region. Filtration is carried out here by the nephrons.
A dense capillary network receives blood from the renal artery. The lighter inner
region is the medulla. Structures called renal pyramids are extensions of each
nephron across the medulla. The renal pyramids project into a central space
called the pelvis. Before urine can pass down the ureter, it has to pass out into the
pelvis.
12.2.3 Nephron Structure

The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. The structure of a nephron is
shown in Figure 12.8.
Figure 12.8: The structure of a nephron and its blood supply
The kidney tissue is made up of thousands of nephrons. At one end of the

nephron in the cortex is the cup-shaped BowmanÊs capsule. Below the capsule is
a twisted region called the proximal convoluted tubule. This leads into the long
loop of Henle, which is shaped like a hairpin. The Henle loop runs deep into the
medulla and then back out to the cortex, where it forms another twisted region
called the distal convoluted tubule. This is joined to a collecting duct, which
carries urine through the medulla to the pelvis of the kidney.
Each nephron is richly supplied with blood. The renal artery brings blood to the
kidney, which branches many times to form arterioles. An afferent arteriole
supplies each BowmanÊs capsule with blood. The afferent arteriole branches
inside the BowmanÊs capsule to form a knot of capillaries called a glomerulus. An
efferent arteriole takes blood away from the BowmanÊs capsule. More blood by
volume is carried to the glomerulus than is carried away from it. That is why the
afferent arteriole is much wider than the efferent arteriole.
(a) Ultrafiltration
The function of the glomerulus is the production of a filtrate from blood by
a process called ultrafiltration. Figure 12.9 illustrates ultrafiltration in the
BowmanÊs capsule.
Figure 12.9: Ultrafiltration in the BowmanÊs capsule
It involves filtering under pressure of small molecules out of the blood and
into the BowmanÊs capsule. The blood entering the glomerulus is separated
from the space inside the BowmanÊs capsule by two cell layers and a
basement membrane. The microstructure of glomerulus and BowmanÊs
capsule are illustrated in Figure 12.10.
Figure 12.10: Microstructure of glomerulus and the BowmanÊs capsule
The first cell layer is the lining or endothelium of the capillary. This layer of
cells has thousands of gaps, much more than in other capillaries. The
basement membrane between the two cell layers is composed of a network
of glycoprotein and collagen fibres. Its mesh-like structure acts as a filter
during ultrafiltration. The second cell layer is formed from epithelial cells
and makes up the wall of the BowmanÊs capsule. They have many tiny
finger-like projections called podocytes. Like the cells of the capillary, they
do not fit tightly together, so there are gaps between them. Most molecules
be allowed to pass through the gaps in the capillary endothelium and in the
BowmanÊs capsule wall. However, large molecules such as proteins and

blood cells will be prevented from passing through the basement
membrane, therefore acting as a filter. Small molecules will be allowed to
pass through the basement membrane.
(b) Reabsorption
The fluid which has filtered through the renal capsule is almost identical to
the blood plasma except that it does not contain the large plasma protein
molecules which are too large to pass through the basement membrane.
Many useful substances such as amino acids and glucose needed by the
body are reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate flows along the nephron.
This process is called selective reabsorption because only certain molecules
are reabsorbed.
Most of the reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule. All
the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and many sodium and chloride ions are
actively transported out of the proximal convoluted tubule and back into
the blood. The structure of the cells making up the wall of the proximal
convoluted tubule has adaptations associated with active transport. Pumps
in the membrane reabsorb useful substances by active transport. The
microvilli provide a large surface area for absorption and the numerous
mitochondria provide ATP for active transport. The uptake of these
substances through active transport means that the blood in the capillaries
surrounding the nephron has a relatively high solute concentration. Hence,
a large amount of water passes out of the filtrate in the proximal
convoluted tubule and back into the blood through osmosis.
(c) The Loop of Henle

The loop of Henle is made up of two regions, the descending limb and the
ascending limb. Its function is to create a very high concentration of salts in
the tissue fluid deep in the medulla.
The ascending limb is more permeable to salts and less permeable to water.
The cells in the walls of this area actively transport sodium and chloride
ions out of the fluid in the tube, into the tissue fluid between the cells filling
the space between the two limbs. As the filtrate moves up, sodium and
chloride ions move out passively at first and are then actively pumped out
into the surrounding tissue. This causes water to pass out of the descending
limb by osmosis. This results in a more concentrated filtrate as it passes
down the descending limb of the loop. The net result is that the solute
concentration at any part of the loop is lower in the ascending limb than it
is in the descending limb.
(d) The Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct

The cells in the distal convoluted tubule are similar to those of the proximal
convoluted tubule. They have a brush border and numerous mitochondria.
These cells can actively pump sodium ions out of the nephron and into the
blood. Hydrogen carbonate ions dissociate from carbonic acid and then also
pass into the blood. This can raise the pH of the blood when required as the
distal convoluted tubule is able to control the acid/base balance of the
blood.
The second part of the distal convoluted tubule acts as the collecting duct.
Hormones affect the permeability of the walls of both the distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting duct, and so precise control of the salt and water
balance of the blood is possible. This regulates how much water passes out
into the medulla and the concentration of the urine.
12.2.4 Osmoregulation
The kidneys play an important role in homeostasis by regulating the
concentration of water in the body fluids. This is known as osmoregulation and
operates on a principle of negative feedback.
A receptor is needed to monitor whatever that is being controlled, while an

effector acts to bring it back to normal if it deviates too far. In this case, the
receptors which are responsible for detecting changes are located in the
hypothalamus of the brain. These osmoreceptors react to changes in the solute
concentration of the blood as it flows through the hypothalamus. Abstaining
from drinking for sometime will make the blood more concentrated because it
will have a low water potential. This is detected by the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus, which stimulates the pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone
(ADH). Figure 12.11 illustrates the ADH control of water reabsorption and by
negative feedback.
The release of ADH into the bloodstream makes the distal convoluted tubule and
the collecting duct more permeable to water. This allows more water to be
reabsorbed from the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct into the
region of high solute concentration in the medulla. As a result a smaller volume
of more concentrated urine is produced. Hence the action of ADH is to conserve
body water.
If you drink too much water, the blood will have a high water potential and
becomes more dilute. This is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
and results in a decrease in the amount of ADH secreted by the pituitary. This
decrease in the amount of ADH in the bloodstream makes the distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting duct less permeable to water. Less water is reabsorbed
into the medulla and larger volumes of dilute urine are produced.
Figure 12.11: ADH control of water reabsorption in the kidney and a summary of blood
sugar control by negative feedback
Find out the effect of drinking too much of beer at:

http://www.purchon.com/biology/osmoregulation.htm
EXERCISE 12.2
1. Define and explain the process of ultrafiltration.

2. Describe the structure, function and processes occurring in the:
(a) Loop of Henle; and
(b) Distal convoluted tubule.
12.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM

A fundamental characteristic of living organisms is the ability to respond to
stimuli. The nervous system controls and coordinates our actions by detecting
changes and collecting information about the internal and external environment.
The nervous system processes and integrates information, often as a result of
previous experience. The nervous system acts upon information by initiating
responses to the information by coordinating the bodyÊs activities. In contrast to
the endocrine system, the nervous system responds instantaneously to a
stimulus.
The collection of information from our internal and external environment is done
by receptors. Together with the neurones which transmit this information, the
receptors form the sensory system. Processing and integration of this sensory
information is done by the central nervous system (CNS). The final function
whereby information is transmitted to effectors which act upon it, is carried out
by the motor system. The sensory and motor neurones are sometimes called the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). Sensory neurones which carry information
towards the CNS are called afferent neurones, while the motor neurones, which
carry information away from the CNS are termed efferent neurones.
12.3.1 Nerve Impulse Transmission

Neurones transmit impulse as a series of electrical signals. These electrical signals
pass rapidly along the cell surface membrane surrounding the axon as a nerve
impulse. Nerve conduction is a specialised development of the excitability that is
common to all animal cells. This mechanism is the same throughout the animal
kingdom. Figure 12.12 shows a motor neurone.
Figure 12.12: A motor neurone
Neurones are capable of transmitting electrical impulses. The electrical impulses

pass from receptors along the sensory neurones to the central nervous system.
Relay neurones found in the CNS connect with motor neurones along which
impulses are transmitted to the effector. Neurones have a cell body containing
the nucleus. This cell body has a number of processes called dendrites, which
transmit impulses to the cell body. Impulses leave via the axon, which may be
several metres in length. Some axons are covered by a fatty myelin sheath
formed by Schwann cells. Nerve fibres may be bundled together and wrapped in
connective tissue to form nerves. Nerves may be sensory, or mixed. The structure
of a sensory neurone as shown in Figure 12.13 is similar to a motor neurone.
Figure 12.13: A sensory neurone
The main difference is that a motor neurone has long dendrite bringing
information to the cell body rather than long axon taking information away. The
sensory neurone carries impulses from receptor cells towards the brain or spinal
cord.
Find out about the six steps involved in the transmission of an impulse
along a neurone at:
http://www.dummies.com/WileyCDA/DummiesArticle/id-1210.html
(a) Resting Potential

In a resting axon as shown in Figure 12.14, the inside of the membrane is
negatively charged with respect to the outside.
Figure 12.14: The axon of a resting neurone
The difference between the two potentials is called the resting potential and
is about ă 70 mV. The electrical potential on the inside of the axon is 70 mV
lower than that on the outside. In this resting state, the condition of the
membrane is said to be in polarised state.
The neurone in most cells can maintain an internal composition, which is

different from the outside. In the case of neurones, through active transport,
sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions are transported across the
membrane against their concentration gradients. Figure 12.15 shows the
maintenance of the resting potential.
Figure 12.15: The maintenance of the resting potential
Na+ ions are picked up by carrier proteins and transported to the outside.
At the same time, K+ ions are picked up from the outside and brought
across the membrane into the cytoplasm of the axon. This is known as the
sodium-potassium pump and requires ATP. The Na+ ions are passed out
faster than K+ ions are brought in. Approximately, three Na+ ions leave for
every two K+ ions that enter. The membrane is more permeable to K+ ions
and these are able to diffuse back out more rapidly than Na+ ions can
diffuse back in. As more K+ ions move out, the rate at which they leave
decreases. After sometime, equilibrium is reached whereby the rate at
which they leave is exactly balanced by the rate of entry. So the net result is
that the outside of the membrane is positively charged compared to the

inside. The resting potential is established and the axon is polarised.
(b) The Action Potential

By appropriate stimulation, a nerve impulse can be initiated in a neurone
and the charge on the neurone can be reversed. When a small electrical
current is applied to the axon, the resting potential changes and the
negative charge inside the membrane switches from ă70 mV to +40 mV.
This is known as the action potential and in this condition the membrane is
said to be in a depolarised state. The graph of membrane potential
difference (mV) versus time (ms) in Figure 12.16, illustrates the action
potential.
Figure 12.16: The action potential
For a very brief period, the inside of the axon becomes positive and the
outside negative. It returns to resting potential and lasts about 3
milliseconds. This is known as re-polarisation.
(c) Depolarisation
Changes occur in the permeability of the axon membrane to both Na+ ions
and K+ ions when the membrane becomes depolarised. Channels open in
its cell surface membrane, which allows Na+ ions to pass through when the
axon is stimulated. Since there is a higher concentration of Na+ ions outside
the axon membrane they flood in by diffusion. The Na+ ions create a
positive charge of +40 mV inside the membrane, reversing the resting
potential and causing the action potential. This is shown in Figure 12.17.
Figure 12.17: The movement of ions during an action potential
Re-polarisation starts when potassium channels open in the membrane and

K+ ions diffuse out along a concentration gradient. At the same time,
sodium channels in the membrane close, preventing any further influx of
Na+ ions. This re-establishes the resting potential, since compared with the
inside, the outside of the membrane will become positively charged again.
In this condition the membrane is said to be in a re-polarised state.
When too many ions leave, the charge on the inside of the membrane
becomes more negative than before. The potassium channels close and the
sodium-potassium pump starts again, restoring the normal concentration of
sodium and potassium ions on either side of the membrane. This re-
establishes the resting potential.
(d) The All or Nothing Law

An action potential can only be generated if the stimulus reaches a certain
threshold intensity in the neurones. Below this threshold intensity, no
action potential can be created. Figure 12.18 illustrates the impulse
frequency.
Figure 12.18: The impulse frequency
When this threshold is reached, the size of an impulse is independent of the

intensity of the stimulus. Even if the stimulus is more intense, it will not
give a greater action potential. However, a strong stimulus produces a
greater frequency of action potentials. As the intensity of stimulation
increases, more action potentials are generated. If the stimulus was weak,
fewer action potentials would be generated.
(e) The Refractory Period

After an action potential has been generated, further action potential cannot
be generated for about a few milliseconds. This is called the refractory
period. The sodium channels in the membrane are closed during this time,
thus preventing the inward movement of Na+ ions. This is known as the
absolute refractory period and another impulse cannot be conducted, no
matter how intense the stimulus. Figure 12.19 shows neurone excitability
before and after a nerve impulse.
The absolute refractory period lasts about 1 millisecond. The membrane

starts to recover as potassium channels open. Even though it is not fully re-
polarised, an action potential can occur if the stimulus is more intense than
the usual threshold level. This time of reduced excitability can last a further
5 milliseconds ndi s known as the relative refractory period. The
importance of the refractory period is that it ensures that impulses flow in
one direction along an axon. The region of axon behind the impulse cannot
be depolarised. It also limits the frequency at which successive impulses
can pass along a neurone.
Figure 12.19: Neurone excitability before and after a nerve impulse
12.3.2 Transmission Speed of an Impulse

The speed of transmission of an impulse depends upon the axon diameter and
the myelin sheath.
(a) Axon Diameter

The rate of transmission of an impulse depends on the diameter of the
axon. The greater the diameter the faster will be the speed of transmission.
This is due to the greater surface area of axon membrane over which
exchange of ions can occur.
(b) The Myelin Sheath

The myelin sheath is produced by the Schwann cells. It is not continuous
along the axon, but is absent at points called nodes of Ranvier which arise
every millimeter or so along the neuroneÊs length. Because the fatty myelin
acts as an electrical insulator, an action potential cannot be generated in the
part of the axon covered by myelin. However it can be generated at the
nodes of Ranvier. So, in myelinated axons, the action potential jumps from
one node to the next and in the process increasing the speed at which they
are transmitted. The transmission of an impulse along a myelinated
neurone is shown in Figure 12.20.
Figure 12.20: The transmission of an impulse along a myelinated neurone
12.3.3 The Synapse

A synapse is the point where the axon of one neurone meets another neurone.
Although they meet, they do not touch each other. There is a small gap between
them called the synaptic cleft. When an impulse arrives at a synapse, it releases a
tiny amount of chemical substances (a neurotransmitter) which sets off an
impulse in the next neurone.
(a) Synapse Structure

The axons of the neurones end in swellings called axon terminals or
synaptic bulbs. The structure of a synapse is shown in Figure 12.21.
Figure 12.21: The structure of a synapse
The surface of the synaptic bulb is called the pre-synaptic membrane. It is

separated by the synaptic cleft from the post-synaptic membrane of the cell
body or dendrite of the next neurone. The post-synaptic membrane
contains many channels through which specific ions can pass. The post-
synaptic membrane has a number of large protein molecules on its surface,
which act as receptor sites for the transmitter substances. A number of
mitochondria are present in the synaptic bulb. This indicates that active
transport is involved in synaptic transmission. Also present in the synaptic
bulb are a number of synaptic vesicles that contain the neurotransmitter
substance, which is released into the synaptic cleft on the arrival of an
impulse. A number of neurotransmitters are produced by the nervous
system.
(b) Synaptic Transmission

When a nerve impulse arrives at the synaptic bulb, it alters the permeability
of the pre-synaptic membrane to calcium. Calcium ions enter because the
concentration of calcium ions is many times greater in the synaptic cleft
than inside the synaptic bulb. This causes the synaptic vesicles containing
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to move towards the pre-synaptic
membrane. Refer to Figure 12.22.
Figure 12.22: The mechanism of synaptic transmission by acetylcholine
The synaptic vesicles fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane and discharge
the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The released acetylcholine
diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to specific receptor sites on
the post-synaptic membrane.
These protein receptor sites have a complementary shape to that of

acetylcholine. However the binding is only temporary. Due to the binding
of the neurotransmitter to the receptor sites, sodium channels opens up in
the post-synaptic membrane. When sodium ions flood in, the membrane is
depolarised and an action potential is created.
If acetylcholine stays bound to the receptor sites on the post-synaptic

membrane, then the sodium channels would remain open, continually
producing action potentials. To prevent this happening, the
acetylcholinesterase enzyme is present in the synaptic cleft. This splits
acetylcholine into acetate and choline. The choline is taken up by the pre-
synaptic cell and combined with acetyl coenzyme A to reform

acetylcholine. The energy required for this is provided by the
mitonchondria in the synaptic bulb.
SELF-CHECK 12.2
Explain the transmission of an impulse to the brain.
(c) Functions of the Synapse

Synapses perform many functions. One of which is to transmit information
between neurones. They also pass impulses in one direction only. Because
the neurotransmitter can only be released from only one side of a synapse,
nerve impulses have to pass in only one direction along a route. They also
act as junctions. Since neurones could converge at a synapse, a number of
impulses passing along different neurones due to the additive effect may
release sufficient transmitter to generate a new action potential in a single
post-synaptic neurone. This is called spatial summation and responses to a
single stimulus are coordinated. Synapses also act to filter out low-level
stimuli, which are insufficient to create a new impulse in the post-synaptic
neurone, and thus stop at the synapse. Synapses also allow adaptation to
intense stimulation.
A powerful stimulus could result in a high frequency of impulses and in

turn could cause considerable release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft. It will result in the rate at which it is released to exceed the rate at
which it can be reformed. In this condition, the release of neurotransmitter
ceases. The synapse is fatigued and the reason for such a response is to
prevent over stimulation, which could damage an effector.
EXERCISE 12.3
1. Explain and illustrate what is meant by the following:
(a) Resting potential;
(b) Refractory period.
2. (a) Describe the structure of a synapse.
(b) How does synaptic transmission occur?
12.4 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction is the process of producing offspring. Animals have diploid body
cells and haploid sex cells, or gametes. In male animals, the sex cells are called
sperms (or spermatozoa), which are made in sex organs called testes. In females,
the sex cells are called eggs or ova and are made in the ovaries.
Mitosis determines the full chromosomes number of body cells (diploid), while
meiosis determines the half chromosomes number of gamete cells (haploid).
During sexual reproduction, a sperm and an egg are fused together in a process
called fertilisation. This fusion of a haploid sperm with a haploid egg will
produce a diploid fertilised egg called a zygote. The zygote then divides many
times by mitosis to eventually grow into a new individual.
12.4.1 Male Reproductive System

In the human male, the gonads are the testes. The structure of human male
reproductive system is shown in Figures 12.23 and 12.24.
Figure 12.23: Front and side view of the human male reproductive system
Figure 12.24: Cross section of a human testis
The testes produce the male gametes, the spermatozoa. The male hormone
testosterone is also made in the testes. The testes develop inside the abdomen
and descend into a sac of skin called the scrotum just before birth. The
temperature in the scrotum is about 3ÀC lower than the temperature within the
body, which is the optimum condition for the production of sperm. Each testis is
an oval structure, about five centimetres long. It is divided up into many
compartments called lobules, which contain a number of tightly coiled tubes
called seminiferous tubules.
The seminiferous tubules are lined by the germinal epithelium, which is made up
of cells called spermatogonia, which are the cells that divide to form the sperm.
The seminiferous tubules merge to form small ducts called the vasa efferentia,
which in turn join up to form a six metres long coiled tube called the epididymis.
The epididymis leads into the vas deferens, a tube that carries the sperm out of
the testis into the urethra. Sperm is stored in both the epididymis and the vas
deferens.
The seminal vesicles, Cowper Ês glands and the prostrate gland secrete a sticky
fluid into the urethra. It is alkaline and neutralises any acidic urine present in the
urethra.The resulting mixture of sperm and these secretions is called semen.
During copulation, the semen passes along the urethra and out of the penis into
the vagina of the female partner.
12.4.2 Female Reproductive System

In the reproductive system of a human female, the gonads are called the ovaries,
which produce the female gametes called ova or eggs. Figures 12.25 and 12.26
illustrate the structure of female reproductive system.
Figure 12.25: Front and side view of the human female reproductive system
Figure 12.26: Cross section of a human secondary oocyte
Each ovary is an oval structure about four centimetres long, attached to the
inside of the abdomen just below the kidney. Eggs are formed from the germinal
epithelium on the outside of the ovary, which is made up of actively dividing
cells called oogonia. Leading away from each ovaries are the oviducts or
Fallopian tube. The funnel-like opening of this tube has a fringe of finger-like
fimbriae. This feathery fringe is lined with cilia, which collect the secondary
oocytes when they are released from the ovary.
An egg is released about every 28 days. The oviducts are two muscular tubes
lined with cilia. The egg is swept along the oviduct by a combination of ciliary
action and muscular contractions of the wall. This is called ovulation. If sperms
are present in the oviduct, the egg will be fertilised. If not, it will die after about a
day. The oviducts open into the uterus (womb), which is pear-shaped and is
about five centimetres wide and eight centimetres long. Most of the uterus wall is
composed of smooth muscle, called myometrium. The lining of the womb is
called endometrium. It is well-supplied with blood and is the part of the womb
into which the embryo implants during pregnancy and which is shed during
menstruation.
At the base of the uterus is a narrow opening guarded by a ring of muscle called
the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube, which opens to the outside through the
vulva (a collective name for the external genital organs). These consist of two
outer folds of skin, the labia majora, which covers two inner, more delicate folds,
the labia minora. Enclosed within the labia is a small body of erectile tissue called
the clitoris, which is homologous to the penis of a male. It is very sensitive and
when sexually stimulated, swells with blood. Between the vaginal opening and
the clitoris is the urethra.
12.4.3 Spermatogenesis
This is the process in which sperms are produced in the densely-coiled
seminiferous tubules. Figure 12.27 shows the stages in the development of
human sperm.
Figure 12.27: Stages in the development of human sperm

The germinal epithelium produces diploid spermatogonia and through mitosis

divide many times to produce primary spermatocytes. These then undergo
meiosis to form haploid secondary spermatocytes. The secondary spermatocytes
develop into spermatids, which eventually form mature sperm in the space
inside the seminiferous tubule. Large Sertoli cells, present in the wall of the
seminiferous tubule, secrete fluid, which ensures that the spermatids have
adequate nourishment. Groups of interstitial cells, present around each
seminiferous tubule, secrete testosterone, the male sex hormone that controls the
development of secondary sexual characteristics in a male.
12.4.4 Oogenesis
This is the process by which eggs are produced in the ovary and starts in the
foetus when the oogonia lining the germinal epithelium divide to form primary
oocytes. Figure 12.28 shows the stages in the development of a follicle in a
human ovary.
Figure 12.28: Stages in the development of a follicle in a human ovary
The germinal epithelium also divides to form follicle cells, which surrounds the
primary oocytes forming primary follicles. At birth, a baby girl will already have
about a million primary follicles. The primary oocytes will have started to divide
by meiosis, but the process stops at prophase 1.
SELF-CHECK 12.3
What are the phases involved in meiosis?

At puberty, hormones produced by the pituitary stimulate the follicles to develop

further. Each month, several follicles start to develop but usually only one
matures into a fully developed Graafian follicle. The primary oocytes complete
its meiotic division to form a secondary oocyte and a small polar body.
The follicle cells around the secondary oocyte grow and a number of fluid-filled
spaces form. The mature Graafian follicle migrates to the surface of the ovary.
Eventually the follicle bursts and the secondary oocyte surrounded by some
follicle cells is released, a process known as ovulation. The second division of
meiosis to form a mature ovum will only occur if a sperm penetrates the
secondary oocyte. After ovulation, the remaining follicle cells develop into a
corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is important
in secreting the hormone progesterone.
12.4.5 The Menstrual Cycle

From the start of puberty (around twelve years old), human females usually
produce one mature egg each month. The menstrual cycle which lasts for about
twenty-eight days, continues until menopause at the age of forty-five to fifty
years old. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones and involves the
production and release of an egg (ovulation) and the preparation of the uterus to
receive the egg if it becomes fertilised (implantation).
Figure 12.29 illustrates the human menstrual cycle.
Figure 12.29: Changes occurring during human menstrual cycle

The start of the cycle is taken to be the initial discharge of blood through the
vagina and is known as menstruation. This involved the breakdown of the lining
of the uterus (the endometrium). The menstrual cycle involves the interaction of
four hormones. The anterior pituitary gland in the brain secretes follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), which causes the Graafian follicles to develop in the
ovary. It also stimulates the ovary to produce the hormone oestrogen.
Oestrogen causes the repair and thickening of the lining of the uterus following
menstruation. It also inhibits the production of FSH by the anterior pituitary
gland, and stimulates it to secrete a second hormone, luteinising hormone (LH).
LH causes ovulation to take place, which causes the release of a secondary oocyte
from the Graafian follicle at about fourteen days into the cycle. LH also
stimulates the remaining follicle cells in the ovary to form the corpus luteum,
which secretes the hormone progesterone.
Progesterone, along with oestrogen, inhibits the production of both FSH and LH
by the anterior pituitary. Progesterone and oestrogen stimulate the further
growth and blood supply of the endometrium in preparation for implantation of
the fertilised egg. If pregnancy occurs, these two hormones continue to be
produced. If there is no pregnancy, then the corpus luteum starts to degenerate
and the levels of progesterone and oestrogen fall. FSH is no longer inhibited and
starts to be secreted by the pituitary. The endometrium breaks down, resulting in
menstruation, and the cycle starts again.
12.4.6 Fertilisation
For fertilisation to take place, the sperm has to travel from the seminiferous
tubule of the male to the oviduct of the female. Sexual arousal results in the penis
of the male becoming erect. This is the result of an increase in the blood supply to
the spongy tissue of the penis. In this condition the penis can be inserted into the
femaleÊs vagina.
Sexual stimulation may eventually result in waves of intense pleasure for both
partners, known as an orgasm. In the male, the semen is forced out of the penis
by powerful rhythmic contractions of the urethra. This is called ejaculation. The
force of ejaculation of the semen from the penis is sufficient to propel some
sperm through the cervix into the uterus, while the remainder is deposited at the
top of the vagina. About 2 to 6 cm3 of semen is ejaculated and deposited at the
top of the vagina near the cervix of the female during copulation.
Sperms swim using their tails up through the cervix, through the uterus and into
the oviducts. The speed with which they reach the top of the oviducts indicates
that muscular contractions of the uterus and oviduct are also involved. Sperm
can only swim at a rate of about 4 mm mină1. The sperm can remain viable for up
to 2 days. If a sperm does not fertilise the egg within 8 to 24 hours after
ovulation, it will die. This is because the egg released from the Graafian follicle of
the ovary is metabolically inactive and dies within 24 hours.
By this time it has only travelled a short way along the oviduct. So a sperm must
reach an egg while it is quite near the top of the oviduct if fertilisation is to be
successful. The alkaline semen helps to neutralise the acid fluid in the vagina and
uterus. Out of the millions of sperm in one ejaculation, only a few hundred will
finally reach the oviducts. If ovulation has recently occurred, then there will be a
secondary oocyte in the oviduct.
The male nucleus of the sperm fuses with the egg nucleus, producing a diploid
zygote or fertilised egg, which will develop into a foetus.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within a

living organism.
• In mammals, the hypothalamus monitors body temperature and switches on

a number of corrective mechanisms if the body temperature rises or falls too
much.
• The pancreas secretes glucagons to raise the blood glucose level, and secretes
insulin to reduce the blood glucose level.
• The kidneys are the main organs of the urinary system and are composed of
numerous nephrons.
• The BowmanÊs capsule of each nephron is well adapted for ultrafiltration of

the blood.
• The loop of Henle creates a region of high solute concentration deep in the
medulla by the counter current multiplier mechanism. This enables water to
be reabsorbed back into the blood.
• The secretion of ADH by the pituitary increases the reabsorption of water

from the nephron.
• Neurones are the basic functional units of the nervous system.
• At rest, the nerve axon is polarised. The sodium-potassium pump makes the
outside of the axon positive and the inside of the axon negative. An action
potential results in the inside of the axon becoming positive and the outside
negative.
• Changes in the permeability of the axon membrane result in an influx of

sodium ions and depolarisation before the sodium-potassium pump is re-
established and the axon is re-polarised.
• An action potential can only be generated if the stimulus reaches certain

threshold intensity.
• Following the passage of an impulse, there is a time delay, or refractory

period, before another action potential can be created.
• A synapse is where two neurones functionally meet.
• The transfer of information from one neurone to the next relies on the
secretion of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine.
• Sexual reproduction involves the production of haploid gametes, which fuse

at fertilisation to produce a diploid zygote.
• In human males, the testes produce spermatozoa. In the female, ovaries

produce eggs.
• Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm, and oogenesis is the production

of eggs. These processes involve meiosis to form haploid gametes.
• The menstrual cycle involves the production and release of eggs (ovulation)
and the preparation of the uterus to receive the egg if it is fertilised
(implantation).
1. The following examples of homeostasis occur in human body EXCEPT:

A. Temperature regulation
B. Blood sugar regulation
C. Meiosis system
D. Urinary system
2. The following are some incidents when humans sweat EXCEPT:

A. Increased metabolic rate
B. Vasodilation of arterioles
C. Hair erector muscles relax
D. None of the above
3. Which of the following is a hormone that regulates the blood sugar level in
human body?
I. Insulin
II. Glucagon
III. Islets of Langerhans
A. I only
B. I and II only
C. II and III only.
D. I, II and III.
4. The followings are functions of the synapse EXCEPT:

A. They transmit information between neurons.
B. They allow impulses to be passed in one direction.
C. They filter low-level stimuli.
D. They can only be found in-between sensory neurons.
5. Both human male and female contain the followings EXCEPT:

A. Ureter
B. Urethra
C. Bladder
D. Vas deferens
1. (a) Explain the role of hypothalamus in the control of body temperature.

(b) How do glucagon and insulin control blood sugar? Explain with a
diagram.
2. (a) Describe briefly the functions of glomerulus and BowmanÊs capsule in

ultra-filtration of blood in the kidney.
(b) How does Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) control reabsorption of
water in the kidney? Explain this phenomenon of absorption with a
diagram.
3. (a) Discuss synapse structure and synaptic transcription mechanism.

(b) Compare the stages in the development of human sperm and human
ovary.

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Topic X Homeostasis

12.1.1 Principles of Homeostasis

Figure 12.1: Components of a control system

An example of this type of control system can be found in the regulation of a

12.1.2 Temperature Regulation

Endothermic (warm-blooded) animals, like the birds and mammals, have

Our body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a small structure at the

Figure 12.2 shows the diagrams of vasodilation and vasoconstriction

Figure 12.2: Vasodilation and vasoconstriction

Figure 12.3: Elevation and depression of hair in controlling heat loss

Figure 12.4 summarises body temperature control by the hypothalamus.

Figure 12.4: Summary of body temperature control by hypothalamus

12.1.3 The Pancreas System

12.1.4 Control of Blood Sugar

Figure 12.5: Summary of blood sugar control by glucagons and insulin

You can test your understanding by doing the exercises below.

2. (a) Describe how mammalian blood glucose concentrations

12.2 URINARY SYSTEM

12.2.1 The Kidneys

Figure 12.6: The position of kidneys in man

12.2.2 Kidney Structure

Figure 12.7: A longitudinal section of a mammalian kidney to show the position of a

12.2.3 Nephron Structure

Figure 12.8: The structure of a nephron and its blood supply

The kidney tissue is made up of thousands of nephrons. At one end of the

Figure 12.9: Ultrafiltration in the BowmanÊs capsule

Figure 12.10: Microstructure of glomerulus and the BowmanÊs capsule

BowmanÊs capsule wall. However, large molecules such as proteins and

(c) The Loop of Henle

(d) The Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct

A receptor is needed to monitor whatever that is being controlled, while an

Find out the effect of drinking too much of beer at:

1. Define and explain the process of ultrafiltration.

12.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM

12.3.1 Nerve Impulse Transmission

Figure 12.12: A motor neurone

Neurones are capable of transmitting electrical impulses. The electrical impulses

Figure 12.13: A sensory neurone

(a) Resting Potential

Figure 12.14: The axon of a resting neurone

The neurone in most cells can maintain an internal composition, which is

Figure 12.15: The maintenance of the resting potential

that the outside of the membrane is positively charged compared to the

(b) The Action Potential

Figure 12.16: The action potential

Figure 12.17: The movement of ions during an action potential

Re-polarisation starts when potassium channels open in the membrane and

(d) The All or Nothing Law

Figure 12.18: The impulse frequency

When this threshold is reached, the size of an impulse is independent of the

(e) The Refractory Period

The absolute refractory period lasts about 1 millisecond. The membrane

Figure 12.19: Neurone excitability before and after a nerve impulse

12.3.2 Transmission Speed of an Impulse

(a) Axon Diameter

(b) The Myelin Sheath

Figure 12.20: The transmission of an impulse along a myelinated neurone

12.3.3 The Synapse

(a) Synapse Structure

Figure 12.21: The structure of a synapse

The surface of the synaptic bulb is called the pre-synaptic membrane. It is

(b) Synaptic Transmission

Figure 12.22: The mechanism of synaptic transmission by acetylcholine