Study Guide for Gen.

Psychology 202 Midterm

Encoding Processing information into the memory system

storage Retaining information over time
3 steps in memory processing 1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
selective attention A way to process information by directing our
attention to things we consider important;
improves encoding
divided attention Interferes with encoding information; when we
are not focusing completely on the task at hand;
multi-tasking
short-term memory (STM) Second stage of memory processing that
temporarily stores information from sensory
memory until the brain decides whether to send it
on to the long-term memory (third stage);
Retains information for approximately 30 seconds
or less (unless renewed)
long-term memory (LTM) Third stage of memory processing that stores
information for long periods of time; its capacity
is virtually limitless and duration is relatively
permanent;
Provides relatively permanent storage
maintenance rehearsal Consciously and continuously repeating
information over and over again to maintain in the
short term memory (STM)
chunking Grouping separate pieces of information into a
single unit (or chunk) to help when memorizing
purpose of long-term memory To serve as a storehouse for information that must
be kept for long periods of time
2 major systems of long-term 1. Explicit (declarative)
memory 2. Implicit (non-declarative)
explicit/declarative memory Intentional learning/ conscious knowledge;
memory with awareness;
made up of semantic memory (memory for facts
and general knowledge) and episodic memory
(memory of our past experiences)
implicit/non-declarative memory Unintentional learning/ unconscious knowledge;
memory without awareness; procedural motor
skills (tying your shoes) and classically
conditioned responses (fears and taste aversions)
recall Retrieving a memory using a general cue
serial position effect When you learn something you remember the
beginning/start (primary effect) and the end
(recency effect) and you forget what you learned
in between/ the middle
retrieval cue Clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall;
recognition, recall, and priming
recognition A retrieval cue used when recognizing the correct
response or answer (a multiple choice quiz);
retrieving a memory using a specific cue
Priming exposure to a stimulus/ prime activates the
recovery; the phone rings and reminds you of
your promise to call your friend
mood congruent memory When a given mood evokes a memory that is
consistent with that mood;
you remember something from the last time you
were in a specific mood
state-dependent memory When you learn something while in a certain state
(like being under the influence of a drug) you will
remember it more easily when you’re in the same
state
context-dependent memory When you learn something in the certain context
(i.e. location, setting, time) you are more likely to
recall it easier in the same context
relearning Learning material a second time, which usually
takes less time than the original learning
encoding failure When we learn information and it is in the short
term memory we decide there is no need to
remember certain details so we don’t encode them
and they don’t get passed on to the long term
memory
retrieval failure Memories that are stored in long term memory
and a inaccessible for a moment (because of
faulty cues, interference, or emotional states)
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon The feeling that at any second a word or event
you are trying to remember will pop out from the
tip of your tongue
retroactive interference Backward-acting;
happens when new information interferes with old
information;
when you learn a new name you forget an old one
proactive interference Forward-acting;
Happens when old information interferes with
new information;
using your ex’s name with your new love interest
misinformation effect Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event
information;
when we are remembering something we tend to
add things that weren’t there if we felt they should
have been (flash card SLEEP wasn’t there but it
fit with the category)
source amnesia Forgetting the true source of a memory;
AKA source confusion or source misattribution
the sleeper effect Information from an unreliable source, which was
initially discounted, later gains credibility because
the source is forgotten (the campus gossiper)
massed practice Cramming; time spent learning something is
grouped/ massed into long, unbroken intervals
Alzheimer's disease (AD) Progressive mental deterioration characterized by
severe memory loss
mnemonic devices Memory improvement technique based on
encoding items in a special way;
Memory aids/ tricks
artificial or formal concepts Concepts created from logical rules or definitions;
rules for inclusion are sharply defined
mental image A mental representation of a previously stored
sensory experience which includes visual,
auditory, olfactory, tactile, motor, and gustatory
imagery (visualizing a train and hearing the horn)
a concept Mental representations of a group or category that
share similar characteristics;
the concept of a river groups together the Nile and
the Mississippi
 babbling Vowel/ constant combinations that infants begin
to produce at about 4-6 months of age
(i.e. “bahbahbah” and “dahdahdah”)
Chomsky’s Language acquisition Children are prewired with the ability to learn
theory languages;
Children are prewired with the language
acquisition device that allows them the ability to
analyze language and extract the basic rules of
grammar
Skinner’s Language acquisition We learn languages by the familiar principles of
theory association (of sights of things with sounds of
words);
imitation (of words and syntax modeled by
others);
reinforcement (with success, smiles and hugs after
saying something right)
phoneme The smallest distinctive sound units that make up
every language;
Smallest basic unit of speech or sound
morphemes The smallest meaningful units of language;
created by combining phonemes
estimated # of languages that exist 6,800
in the world today
Whorf's linguistic determinism Language determines thought;
language expresses thought
a mental set A habit;
persisting in using problem solving strategies that
have worked in the past rather than trying new
ones
Creative thinking Ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel
way (creativity);
thinking with originality, fluency, and flexibility
divergent thinking A type of thinking in which many possibilities are
developed from a single starting point;
A major element of creativity
syntax Grammatical rules for putting words and phrases
in correct order to convey meaning
semantics Set of rules for using words to create meaning;
The study of meaning
overgeneralize as it relates to
language acquisition
savants
When children (2-5 years old) apply the basic
rules of grammar even to cases that are exceptions
to the rule
(i.e. “I goed to the zoo” and “Two mans”
People that are mentally retarded but they exhibit
exceptional skill of brilliance in some limited field