SIXTEEN MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Unit 1
1. Explain the necessity and scope of irrigation.
Necessity of irrigation: 8
1.Less rainfall :
 Total rainfall is less- artificial supply is necessary
2. Non uniform rainfall:
 Less yield or the crop may die
3. Commercial crops with additional water:
 More water may be necessary for raising commercial and cash crops
4. Controlled water supply:
 Proper distribution system, the yield of the crop may be increased.

Modern methods of irrigation -purposes:

It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for the plant.
It saves the crops from drying during droughts.
It cools soil and the atmosphere.
It dilutes salts in the soil.
It reduces soil piping.
Scope of irrigation: 8
 It deals with the design and construction of all works such as dams, weirs, and head regulators in connection
with the storage or diversion of water, as well as the problems of subsoil drainage and water-soil-crop
relationships.
 Two heads: (a) Engineering aspect. (b) Agricultural aspect.
(a)Engineering aspect:
1. Storage, Diversion, or Lifting of water:
o Constructing dam across the river
o Diversion works, such as weirs
2. Conveyance of water to the agricultural fields:
o Distribution system
o Design and construction of suitable canal system, along with regulatory works such as head regulators, cross
regulators, falls etc.
3. Application of water to agricultural fields:
o The water is applied to the by flooding, furrows, corrugations, subsoil irrigation or by sprinkling.
4. Drainage and relieving water logging:
o The sub-soil water is raised
o Design of surface and subsurface drainage system
(b) Agricultural aspects:
1. Proper depths of water necessary in single application
2. Distribution of water uniformly and periodically.
3. Capacities of different soils for irrigation water, and the flow of water in soils.
4. Reclamation of waste and alkaline lands, where this can be carried out through the agency of water.

2. Discuss in detail the benefits and ill-effects of irrigation. Any 6x2=12

Benefits of irrigation:

1. Increase in food production:

o Due to controlled and timely supply of water -the yield is increased.
o Assured supply - superior crops take the place of inferior crops, thus increase the crop value.

2. Protection from famine:

o Employment -relief against famine.
o Continuous water supply
3. Cultivation of cash crops: possible to grow cash crops such as sugarcane, cotton, etc.
4. Addition of the wealth of the country: country self-sufficient in food production-saves the foreign
exchange.
5. Increase in prosperity of people:
o The increase of crop yield -living standard is improved.
6. Generation of hydro-electric power:
o Hydro-Electric power together with irrigation and thus solving the problem of fuel
shortage.
7. Domestic and industrial water supply:
o Bathing, cattle watering, boating and other recreations.
8. Inland navigation:
o Large canals- inland navigation
9. Improvements of communication:
o Inspection roads and these are metalled.
10. Canal plantations:
o Trees are planted along the canal banks, water courses and field boundaries - increases the
timber wealth of the country and prevents soil erosion.
11. Improvement in ground water storage:
o Constant percolation and seepage of water, the ground water table is raised

Ill-effects of irrigation: any 2x2=4

1. Breeding places for mosquitoes: causes malaria.

2. Water logging:
o Saturates the crop root zone
o Causes efflorescence
3. Damp climate: The areas -become damper and colder due to irrigation.

3. Define duty and the factors affecting duty.

Definition 2
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the relation between the area of a crop irrigated
and the quantity of irrigation water required during the entire period of the growth of that crop.

Factors affecting duty: (any 7 x2 = 14 marks)

1. Methods and systems of irrigation:
 In the perennial irrigation system- initial saturation is less.
 Shallow depth of the water table- deep percolation losses are less.
 The flow irrigation system has lower duty due to the conveyance
 Lift irrigation system has higher duty because the commanded area of each well is very near to it.
 Tank irrigation has high duty due to rigid control.

2. Mode of applying water:

 The flood irrigation system has lesser duty than the furrow system.
 Sub-irrigation system gives still higher duty.
 The basin irrigation and uncontrolled flooding give less duty.

3. Method of cultivation:
 Ploughed -retention capacity-increasing the duty.
4. Time and frequency of tilling:
 evaporation losses from the surface of soil is less- properly aerated, and hence the yield of crop is also better

5. Type of crop: Duty varies from crop to crop.

6. Base period of the crop: If the base period of the crop is more, the amount of water required will be high,
hence duty will be low.

7. Climatic conditions of the area:

 High temperature and wind, evaporation losses will be more- duty will be less. Rainfall will reduce the
irrigate-ion-water requirement-duty will be higher.

8. Quality of water:
 Salt-content and alkali - water have to be applied to leach off the salts - reduces the duty.
 More fertilizing matter -less consumption of water- increase duty.

9. Method of assessment: Volumetric method of assessment always leads to higher duty.

10. Canal conditions:

 Seepage and percolation losses- low duty.
 Losses will be less and the duty will be more.

11. Character of soil and sub-soil of the canal:

 If the canal is unlined- coarse grained- the seepage and percolation losses will be high.
 If the canal flows through fine grained soil- losses less - duty -high.

12. Character of soil and sub-soil of the irrigation field:

 Sub-soil -coarse grained, percolation losses will be high.
 Not level- the lower portions get more water-while higher portions may remain drier.
 Higher places -reduce the duty.

4. How can duty be improved? Any 8 points 16 marks

1. Suitable method of applying water to the crops should be used.

2. The land should be properly ploughed and levelled before sowing the crop. It should be given good tilth.
3. The land should be cultivated frequently, since frequent cultivation reduces loss of moisture especially
when the ground water is within capillary reach of ground surface.
4. The canals should be lined. This reduces seepage and percolation losses. Also, water can be conveyed
quickly, thus reducing evaporation losses.
5. Parallel canals should be constructed. If there are two canals running side by side, the F.S.L. will be lowered
and the losses will be reduced.
6. The length of the canal should be reduced.
7. The alignment of the canal either in sandy soil or in fissured rock should be avoided.
8. The canal should be so aligned that the areas to be cultivated are concentrated along it.
9. The source of supply should be such that it gives good quality of water.
10. The rotation of crops must be practiced.
11. Volumetric method of assessment should be used.
12. The farmers must be trained in the proper use of water, so that they apply correct quantity of water at
correct timing.
13. The land should be redistributed to the farmers so that they get only as much land as they are capable of
managing it.
14. Research stations should be established in various localities to study the soil, the seed and conservation of
moisture. The problems concerning the economic use of water should be studied at research stations.
 15. The canal administrative staff should be efficient, responsible and honest. The operation of the canal
system should be such that the farmers both at the head of the canal as well as at the tail end get water as and
when they need it.

5. Enumerate the various irrigation efficiencies.

Definition 4
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is usually expressed as percentage. Input
minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if losses are more, output is less and, therefore, efficiency is
less. Hence, efficiency is inversely proportional to the losses.
Types any 4x3=12
 Efficiency of water-conveyance. It is the ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the outlet point of
the channel, to the water entering into the channel at its starting point. It may be represented by ηc. It takes
the conveyance or transit losses into consideration.
water delivered into the fields from the outlet point of the channel
ηc= water entering into the channel at its starting point
 Efficiency of water-application. It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of the crops
to the quantity of water actually delivered into the field. It may be represented by ηa. It may also be called on
farm efficiency, as it takes into consideration the water lost in the farm.
quantity of water stored into the root zone of the crops
ηa= quantity of water actually delivered into the field

 Efficiency of water-storage. It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the water
needed in the root zone prior to irrigation (i.e. field capacity existing moisture content). It may be
represented by ηs
water stored in the root zone during irrigation
ηs= water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation

 Efficiency of water use. It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including leaching water, to the quantity
of water delivered. It may be represented by η u.
water beneficially used,including leaching water
ηu= quantity of water delivered
 Uniformity coefficient or Water distribution efficiency. The effectiveness of irrigation may also be
measured by its water distribution efficiency ηd which is defined below where ηd= Water distribution
efficiency.
𝑑
ηd= (1- 𝐷)
D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation. d= Average of the absolute values of deviations from the
mean.

6. A water course has culturable commanded area of 2600 hectares, out of which the intensities of
irrigation for perennial sugar-cane and rice crops are 20% and 40% respectively. The duty for these
crops at the head of water course is 750 hectares/cumec and 1800 hectares/cumec respectively. Find the
discharge required at the head of water course if the peak demand is 20% of the average requirement.

Solution:
Given: CCA = 2600 hectares.
Area under sugar cane = (20/100) * 2600 = 520 hectares. 2

Area under rice = (40/100) * 2600 = 1040 hectares. 2

Duty for sugarcane and rice = 750 & 1800 hec/cumec.

We know, discharge = area / duty
Discharge for sugarcane = 520 / 750 = 0.694 cumec. 2
Discharge for rice = 1040 / 1800 = 0.577 cumec.
 Discharge at head of canal = 0.693 +0.577 = 1.27 cumec. 2
Since sugarcane is a perennial crop, it requires water throughout the year.
Hence, the water course must carry a total discharge of (0.694 + 0.577) = 1.271 cumecs. 3

The peak requirements may be taken to be equal to 20% to 25% higher than the average requirement.
Therefore the design discharge = 1.271 + [1.271*(20/100)]
= 1.52 cumecs. 3

UNIT 2
1. Write a note on sprinkler method of irrigation and condition favoring the adoption of this method.
Definition 2
Water is applied to the soil in the form of a spray through a network of pipes and pumps.
It can be used for all types of soils and for widely different topographies and slopes.
It fulfills the normal requirement of uniform distribution of water.
Types of sprinkler systems. 6
A sprinkler system can be classified under three heads, as :
1. Permanent system ;
2. Semi-permanent system and
3. Portable system
In permanent system, pipes are permanently buried in such a way that they do not interfere with the farming
operations.
In the semi permanent system, the main lines are buried in the ground, while the laterals are portable.
In the portable system, the mains as well as laterals are portable. These portable networks can be moved from
farm to farm.
In the sprinkler irrigation network, we have the mains and the sub-mains, through which water under
pressure is made to flow. Revolving sprinkler heads are then usually mounted on rising pipes attached to the
laterals. The water jet comes out through the revolving sprinkler heads, with, force. When sprinkler heads are
not provided, perforations are made in the pipes, and they are provided with nozzles, through which water jets
out and falls on the ground. Generally, such a perforated pipe system operates at low heads; whereas, the
revolving head sprinklers operate on high as well as low heads, depending upon the type of rotary head used.

Fig. Perforated Lateral Pipe

Fig: Fixed Nozzles

 Fig Rotary Sprinklers

The condition favouring the adoption of this method any 4x2=8

 When the land topography is irregular, and hence unsuitable for surface irrigation.
 When the land gradient is steeper and soil is easily erodible.
 When the land soil is excessively permeable, so as not to permit good water distribution by surface
irrigation; or when the soil is highly impermeable.
 When the watertable is high.
 When the area is such that the seasonal water requirement is low, such as near the coasts.
 When the crops to be grown are such
 as to require humidity control, as in tobacco ;
 crops having shallow roots ; or
 Crops requiring high and frequent irrigation.
 When the water is available with difficulty and is scarce.

2. Enumerate advantages of sprinkler irrigation and limitations of sprinkler irrigation.

Advantages of sprinkler irrigation. Any 4x2=8

 Seepage losses are completely eliminated. Only optimum quantity of water is used in this method.
 Land levelling is not required and thus avoiding removal of top fertile soil.
 No cultivation area is lost for making ditches.
 In sprinkler system, the water is to be applied at a rate lesser than the infiltration capacity of the soil, and
thus avoiding surface run off, and its bad effects, such as loss of water, washing of top soil, etc.
 Fertilisers can be uniformly applied, because they are mixed with irrigation water itself.
 This method leaches down salts and prevents water-logging or salinity.
 It is less labour oriented, and hence useful where labour is costly and,scarce.
 Upto 80% efficiency can be achieved, i.e. upto 80% of applied water can be stored in the root zone of
plants.

Limitations of sprinkler irrigation: Any 4x2=8

 High winds may distort sprinkler pattern, causing non-uniform spreading of water on the crops.
 In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation losses of water may take
place.
 They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depths of irrigation, such as paddy.
 Initial cost of the system is very high, and the system requires a high technical skill.
 Only sand and silt free water can be used, as otherwise pump impellers lifting such waters will get
damaged.
 It requires larger electrical power.
 Heavy soil with poor intake cannot be irrigated efficiently.

3. Write a note on drip irrigation.

Definition 4
Drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, is the latest field irrigation technique, and is meant for adoption at
places where there exists acute scarcity of irrigation water and other salt problems. In this method, water is
slowly and directly applied to the root zone of the plants, thereby minimising the losses by evaporation and
percolation.
 Parts 4
This system involves laying of a system of head, mains, sub-mains, laterals, and drop nozzles. Water oozes
out of these small drip nozzzles uniformly and at a very small rate, directly into the plant roots area.
Explanation 8
The head consists of a pump to lift water, so as to produce the desired pressure of about 2.5 atmospheres, for
ensuring proper flow of water through the system. The lifted irrigation water is passed through a fertiliser tank,
so as to mix the fertiliser directly in the irrigation water, and then through a filter, so as to remove the
suspended particles, from the water, to avoid- clogging_of_drip_nozzles._
The mains and sub-mains are the specially designed small sized pipes, made of flexible material like black
PVC. These are generally buried. or laid on the ground. Their sizes should be sufficient to carry the design
discharge of the system.
The laterals are very small sized (usually 1 to 1.25 cm dia.), specially designed, black PVC pipes, taking off
from the mains or sub-mains, Laterals can usually be up to 50 m long, and one lateral line is laid for each row
of crop.
The drip nozzles, also called emitters, or valves, are fixed on laterals, at regular intervals of- about 0.5 to1 m
or so, discharging water at very small rates of the order of 2 to 10 litres per hour.
This method, being used for small nurseries, orchards, or gardens.

4. Write about the advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation system.

ADVANTAGES: any 6x2=12

(1) Less requirement of irrigation water:

The evaporation and percolation losses, commonly associated with surface irrigation method are reduced.
(2) Water supply at optimum level:
An optimum water level, equal to the field capacity can always be maintained, by the water flow controls
available in this method. Soil is maintained in most congenial form.
(3) Water logging avoided:
Because of check over deep percolation losses, the chances of water logging are all together removed.
(4) High yield:
Because of proper control over the factors governing soil-water crop relationships, higher yield is obtained.
(5) Cultivation of cash crops:
The method is specially suited to cash crops such as vegetables, cotton, tobacco and orchard products.
(6) No over irrigation:
In surface methods of water application, over-irrigation is some times done to provide sufficient moisture at
deficient area. This is avoided in this method since water is supplied to the root zone directly for each
crop.
(7) Variation in application rate:
It is possible to vary the application rate, throughout the crop period. When the crop is infant, application rates
can be easily increased.
(8) Weed control:
The nuisance of weeds commonly associated with surface application methods, is avoided. This will, in turn,
result in increase in crop production, and saving in farm application.
(9) Increase in net irrigable area:
In surface application, a lot of area is wasted in the construction of field channels etc. As water is carried through
small diameter pipes, there is considerable saving in land.
(10) Nutrients preservation:
Soil nutrients are preserved because of reduction in deep percolation losses. Moreover, feeding of water enriched
with fertilizers results in proper maintenance and preservation of nutrients at optimum level.
(11) Effective pest control:
Insect and pest combating chemicals can be directly conducted in to the root zone.
(12) Reduced labour cost:
The labour cost, otherwise associated with the maintenance of field channels, furrows etc., is reduced.
(13) No soil erosion:
The problems of surface soil erosion, associated with surface application methods, are practically absent in this
method.
(14) Suitable for saline soils:
The saline, alkaline or brakish soils otherwise unsuitable can be utilized by cultivation by the drip irrigation
method.
(15) Maintenance of high surface temperature:
In surface application method, soil temperature is lowered because of water spread over the entire area. However,
in this method, entire soil surface is not wetted. Hence high soil temperature is maintained which will be
useful in hastening the ripening or maturity of the crop.
(16) Suitability for any topography:
No land leveling is required, and is suitable even for slopping and undulating terrain.

DISADVANTAGES: any 2x2=4

(1) High initial cost:

The initial cost of various components such as pumping unit, filter units, pipelines, nozzles etc, is very high.
(2) Danger of blockade of nozzles:
The nozzle holes are very small in size (0.5 – 1 mm dia). Hence they are frequently clogged, if the water has high
degree of total dissolved salts which cannot be removed by filtration.
(3) Change in spacing of nozzles due to change in the crops may result in frequent replacement of trickle line.
(4) Shallow root depth of the crops, especially for fruit trees etc., may result in instability of the crop or tree
which may topple during high winds.

5. Describe check flooding and basin flooding.

CHECK FLOODING:
Figure 4

Fig. Check Flooding

Explanation 4
Check flooding is similar to ordinary flooding except that the water is controlled by surrounding the check
area with low and flat levees. Levees are generally constructed along the contours, having vertical interval of
about 5 to 10 cm. These levees are connected with cross-levees at convenient places. The confined plot area
varies from 0.2 to 0.8 hectare.
In check flooding, the check is filled with water at a fairly high rate and allowed to stand until the water
infiltrates.
This method is suitable for more permeable soils as well as for less permeable soils. The water can be
quickly spread in case of high permeable soils, thus reducing the percolation loses. The water can also be held
on the surface for &longer time in case of less permeable soils, for
assuring adequate penetration. These checks, are sometimes
used to absorb water, where the stream-flow is diverted during
periods of high run off.
Basin flooding. Figure 4
 Fig. Basin Flooding
Explanation 4
This method is a special type of check flooding and is adopted specially for orchard trees. One or more trees
are generally placed in the basin, and the surface is flooded as in check method, by ditch water.

6. Describe furrow method of irrigation and its advantages.

In the furrow irrigation, only 1/5 to 1/2 of the land surface is wetted with water, thereby reducing pudding of
soil and permits cultivation soon after irrigation. Evaporation losses are also reduced.
Figure 6

Explanation 6
Excessive long furrows may result in too much percolation near the upper end, and too little water near the
down-slope end. Deep furrows are widely used for row crops. Small shallow furrows called corrugations,
are particularly suitable for relatively irregular topography and close growing crops, such as meadows and
small grains.
Water may be diverted into the furrows by an opening in the bank of the supply ditch or preferably by using
rubber hose tubing, which can be primed by immersion in the ditch. The use of hose prevents the necessity of
breaking the ditch bank and provides a uniform flow into the furrow

Fig. Furrow Method

ADVANTAGES OF FURROW IRRIGATION: 4

 Reduces pudding and crusting of the soil. Evaporation losses are also reduced.
 Earlier cultivation is possible in heavy soil and may be adapted to use without erosion on a wide range of
natural slope by carrying furrows across a sloping field rather than the slope.
 Labour requirements in land preparation and irrigation are very much reduced.
 No wastage of land in field ditches.
 UNIT III

1. Write in detail about the component parts of diversion works.

The main components of diversion works are, (any four 4 marks)
1. Weir or barrage,
2. Divide wall,
3. Scouring sluices or under sluices.
4. Fish ladder.
5. Canal head regulator.
6. Silt excluder,
7. Guide bank.
8. Marginal embankment or Dyke.

Figure 4 marks

Fig. Diversion head Works

Explanation any twox4 =8

Weir:

 Raise its water level and divert the water in to the canal
 Provided with crest shutters..
 Stores water
 The water supply for a short period.
Barrage or Regulator:
 Raised to different level
 Arrangement of adjustable gates
Divide Wall or Divide Groyne:
  Long wall constructed at right angles to the weir or barrage
 Stone masonry or cement concrete.
 Still water pocket
 Suspended silt can be settled down
 Controls the eddy current.
 Straight approach in front of the canal head.
 Resists the overturning effect on the weir and barrage
Scouring Sluices or Under Sluices
 Openings provided at the base
 Adjustable Gates
 Deposited silt is loosened with an agitator mounting on boat
Fish Ladder
 Provided just by the side of the divide wall for the free movement of fishes.
 The tendency of fish is to move from upstream to downstream.
 Zig-zag manner -velocity of flow within the ladder does not exceed 3m/sec

Fig. Fish Ladder

Head Sluice or Canal Head Regulator:
 To regulate flow of water
 Number of piers
 Number of spans which are known as bays.
 Operated- mechanical device

Fig. Head Sluice or Canal Head Regulator

Silt Excluder
 Eliminate the suspended heavy silt, the silt excluder is provided
 A series of tunnels starting from the side of the head regulator up to the divide wall

Fig Silt Excluder

Marginal Embankment or Dyke

Constructed parallel to the river bank on one or both the river.

To resist the effect erosion on the embankment, wooden piles.
It prevents the flood water or storage water from entering the surrounding area
It retains the flood water. It protects the towns and villages from devastation during the heavy flood.
It protects valuable agricultural lands.
Guide Bank
 Both the approaches to protect the structure from erosion.
 It is an earthen embankment with curved heads on both the ends slope.
 On the river side is river side slope is protected by boulder pitching.
 And the country side slope is protected by turfing.

The Guide bank serves the following purposes,

 It protects -scouring and erosion.
 Straight approach
 It controls the tendency of changing the course of the river.
 It controls the velocity of flow near the structure
2. Write about the types of weirs on permeable foundation.
Types of weirs
4
 Masonry weir
 Rockfill weir
 Concrete weir
a. Masonry weir 3
 Constructed on impervious floor
 Cutoff walls-end of floors
 Sheet piles –below the cutoff walls
 Crest shutter- raise the water level
 Masonry weir walls- vertical on both sides or sloping

3
b. Rockfill weir 3
Masonry breast wall-adjustable crust shutters
Upstream rock fill portion – boulders -1 in 4
The boulders are grouted with cement mortar
Downstream sloping apron consists of core walls
The intermediate spaces between the core walls are filled up with boulders maintaining a slope of 1 in 20

Figure 3

C. Concrete weir 3
Now-a-days, the weir is constructed with reinforced cement concrete.
The impervious floor and the weir are made monolithic.
The cut off walls are provided at the upstream and downstream end of the floor and the toe of the weir .
Sheet piles are provided below the cut-off walls.
The crest shutters are also provided which are dropped down during the flood
Figure 3

3. Explain the component parts of weir.

Fig. Component parts of weir 6

The following are the functions of each component: any 5x2=10
(1)Weir Breast:
Main body
Masonry work or concrete.
The function - to raise the water level on the upstream side so that the water can be diverted to the irrigation
canal through the head regulator
(2) Crest Shutters:
These are adjustable gates or shutters provided on the crest of the weir.
The shutters may be raised or dropped by a mechanical device.
Struts - downstream side of the shutters to resist the thrust of the water.
Shutters -raise the water level on the upstream side
(3)Upstream Impervious Floor or Apron
Impervious floor or apron -protect the main body of the weir -scouring effect.
The floor -reinforced cement concrete.
Masonry weir- floor covers the total designed length of upstream and downstream apron, lt acts as a base plate
of the weir but in case of concrete weir, the floor is made monolithic with the main body by providing
reinforcement.
The floor is made sloping on both sides. So, it is also known as sloping glacis.
(4) Cut-off and Toe Walls:
The cut-off walls- upstream end and the downstream end of the impervious floor.
Provide proper anchorage
Sufficient bearing to the sheet piles
(5) Upstream Block Protection
This block protects -from the effect of scouring.
concrete blocks or dressed stone blocks over a bed of loose stone packing.
The joints are finished with cement mortar.
(6) Upstream Launching Apron
Boulders of stones arranged in layers without any joint.
It protects from-the scour holes which may develop and proceed towards the weir.
(7) Sheet Piles.
The function - lengthen the path of the seepage flow.
Thus the uplift pressure - is reduced
The scouring effect on the exit gradient is also reduced.
(8) Downstream Impervious Floor or Apron
To protect the weir from the scouring effect -formation of hydraulic jump.
It protects - from the effect of piping or
(9) Downstream Block Protection
Cement concrete blocks or dressed stones - open joints .
The joints - small gravels or bajri.
The seepage water can escape through the joints.
Below these concrete or stone blocks, the inverted filter is provided
(10) Inverted Filler
It consists of layers of materials having the increasing grade or permeability from the bottom towards the top for
example, medium sand-coarse sand-bajri-gravels-ballast are arranged from the bottom to the top layer by layer.
Thus, it is similar to a filter, but in inverted position. The function on this filter is to allow the seepage water to
escape without dislocating the soil particles.
(11) Downstream Launching Apron
This apron is constructed with packed stones or boulders (weight not less than 30kg).
It covers completely zone of exit gradient. This apron protects the weir from the effect of piping undermining
which may occur due to seepage of water.

4. Illustrate the Drop Spillway, Ogee Spillway, Saddle Siphon Spillway.

Drop Spill Way 5

 Water falls freely and almost vertically

 Suitable for weirs or low dams.
 The crest - nose so that the water jet may not strike the downstream base of the structure.
 To protect - scouring -horizontal impervious apron should be provided on the downstream side
 A small artificial pool - Water cushion- energy dissipater

Ogee Spill Way 5

5
  Shape of the lower nappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested weir.
 The shape of the lower nappe -the parabolic path
 Shape of the letter S. –ogee spillway
 Curved profile of the spill way - no gap between the water and the spill way surface and the discharge is
maximum.
 The lower nappe does not follow the ogee profile and gets separated from the spill way surface. Thus a
negative pressure develops at the point of separation.
 Due to the negative pressure, air bubbles are formed within the flowing water. These air bubbles are
responsible for the frictional force which causes much damage to spill way surface
Saddle Siphon Spill Way 6

 The inlet mouth - control the entryof floating debris

 The mouth -submerged - stop the entry of
The functioning of the spillway
 Water is just on the full reservoir level - no flow of water.
 As the water starts rising above the F.S.L - flow of water also starts over the crest.
 Inlet of the deprimer gets submerged, the entry of air -stopped.
 The entrapped air in the top - sucked
 Thus the inside pressure is dropped below outside atmospheric pressure-suction pull is created which draws
more and more water over the crest of the siphon.
 Due to the gradual increase of suction pull, a time comes when the siphonic action starts and the siphon duct
goes on running full. This phenomen is known as priming.
5. Illusrate Volute Siphon Spill Way, Shaft Spill Way, Chute or Trough Spill Way.
Volute Siphon Spill Way 6

 Vertical shaft having a funnel at the top end -horizontal pipe

 The funnel consists of several volutes. (curved vanes or blades). Thus the water has a spiral motion.
 Water rises above the full reservoir level- vortex is formed in the vertical shaft. - induces a suction
pull and a vacuum is created inside the drum. - siphonic action is started and the shaft starts running
full.
 When the water comes back to the full reservoir level, the air enters the drum through the space between
the drum and deprimer and the siphonic action is stopped automatically.
Chute or Trough Spill Way 5
 Rectangular open channel or trough
 The spill way may be provided along the abutment of the dam or along the edge -pre-cast R.C.C. channels
Shaft Spill Way 5

 Vertical shaft -inlet mouth - conical shaped

 The horizontal shaft again may be taken through the body of the dam,
 When the water rises above the N.P.L. it enters the shaft from all directions and flows out through the shaft- a
net protection is provided on the inlet mouth.
6. Describe the forces acting on a gravity dam. Explain any three .
The forces acting on a gravity dam 4
1. Weight of dam
2. Water pressure
3. Uplift pressure
4. Pressure due to earthquake
5. Silt pressure
6. Wave pressure
7. Ice pressure
8. Wind Pressure

Explanation (3x4=12)
1. Weight of the Dam
 The weight of the dam -counters balances all the external forces acting on the darn.
 Heavy materials of high specific gravity.
 Specific weight of concrete and stone masonry should not be less than 2400 kg/m3 and 2300 kg/m3 respectively.
2. Water pressure
Major external force acting on a dam. When the upstream face of the dam is vertical, the water pressure acts
horizontally. The intensity of pressures varies triangular with a zero intensity at the water surface, to a value
WH at any depth H below water surface. When the upstream face is partly vertical and partly inclined, the
resultant water pressure can be resolved into component.(i) Horizontal component P
Horizontal force P= WH2 / 2, Where H = height of water (F.R.L.)
 This force acts at a height H/3 from the base of the dam.

3. Uplift pressure:

The stored water - tendency to seep through the soil below the foundation. -exerts uplift pressure on the
base of the dam which depends on the head of water,
This uplift pressure reduces the self weight of the dam. If the depth of water on the upstream side be H and that
on the downstream side be H1, then the intensity of pressure on U/S base is WH and on the D/S, base is WH1.
4. Seismic Force:
 The seismic zone - earthquake waves – account
 The vertical and horizontal components of the earthquake waves are considered for the design of a dam -
recorded by seismic recorder.
 The acceleration of earthquake waves consist of two components vertical acceleration and horizontal
acceleration
(a) Effect of vertical component: The vertical component may act upwards or downwards
 Earthquake wave act upwards the foundation of the dam will be lifted up and thus the stress on the dam -the
dam may fail by crushing.
 Act downwards the foundation of the dam has a tendency to move downwards and thus a gap may be formed -
dam to settle down and cracks may be formed within foundation or on the body of the dam. The vertical
acceleration exerts a downward force on the dam which is given by
W/g x fv
This force reduces the effective weight of the dam. So, the net effective weight of dam,
Wf = W-W/g fv
=W(1- Cv)
Cv is the coefficient of vertical acceleration. It varies from 0.1g to 0.3g.
Wf = Net effective weight of dam
(b) Effect of horizontal component :The horizontal component imparts following two forces:
(1)Hydrodynamic force: Due to horizontal acceleration (fh), the water pressure is increased momentarily. -
hydrodynamic pressure. The expression given by

(2) Inertia force: Due to the horizontal acceleration ‘ fh ‘an inertia force will be developed on the body of the
dam this force is given by,
Where, I = inertia force, W= total weight of dam, g= acceleration due to gravity, fh=horizontal acceleration, Ch=
a coefficient adopted for horizontal acceleration 0.1 g to 0.3 g.
5. Silt Pressure : The silt - deposited - exerts pressure on the dam.
(a) When the upstream face is completely vertical, the silt pressure is given by Rankine's formula
Where, Ws = submerged sp.wt of silt, h= depth of silt deposit, ϕ= angle of
internal friction.

6. Wave Pressure: When very high wind or tornado flows over the water surface of the reservoir, waves are
formed which exert pressure on the upper part of the dam. The magnitude of the wave depends on the velocity
of wind, depth of reservoir and the area of water surface. The wave pressure is calculated by Moliter’s formula
as follows

7. Ice Pressure: formation of ice is expected on the reservoir surface-exerts pressure on the dam at the point of
contact during the process of contraction and expansion with the change of temperature.
In India - ice pressure - 25,000 kg/m2
8. Wind Pressure: The top exposed portion- wind pressure at the rate of about 150 kg/m2
UNIT 4

1. How are canals generally classified? Describe them briefly.

The canals and channels of an irrigation system may be classified as 4
 Based on distribution:
 Main canal
 Branch canal
 Distributory canal
 Field channels
 Based on alignment:
 Ridge or watershed canal
 Contour canal
 Side slope canal
 Based on distribution: 6
Main Canal:
 Directly from the diversion head work
 Backbone of the canal system

Branch Canal:
 Taken from either side of the main canal
 The discharge varies from 5 to 10 cumec

Distributory Canal:
 Taken from the branch canals
 Discharge - varies from 0.25 to 3 cumec

Field Channels:
Taken from the outlets of the distributory.
Based on alignment 6
Depending upon the alignment, the canals are designated as (a) Ridge or watershed canal (b) Contour canal, (c)
Side slope canal.

Contour Canal:
 Aligned approximately parallel to the contour lines is known as contour canal.
 Irrigate the areas one side only- cross natural drainage - cross-drainage works are necessary.

Ridge or Watershed Canal:

 Aligned along the ridge line (watershed line) is known as ridge canal or watershed canal.
 irrigate the areas on both sides -no possibility of crossing any natural drainage - no cross drainage works are
necessary.

Side Slope Canal:

 aligned approximately at right angles to the contour lines is known as side slope canal- irrigate the areas on one
side only - does not cross any natural drainage -the cross-drainage works are not necessary.

2. Explain the various considerations for alignment of a canal.

Any 8x2=16
 The alignment of the canal should be such as to ensure
 The most economical way of distributing the water to the land
 As high command as possible
 Minimum number of cross drainage works
 The alignment of a canal on a watershed, being the most economical, is preferred. As a general rule, the entire
watershed lying in a command should be occupied by distributaries.
 The length of the main canal from the point where it takes off from a river to a point where it mounts on a
watershed should be minimum.
 The contour alignment should be changed this way or that way in order to reduce the number of cross-
drainage works to a minimum.
 The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places, places of worship and other valuable
properties.
 The alignment should pass through the balanced depth of cutting. If not, it should involve minimum depth of
cutting or minimum height of filling.
 The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
 Idle length of canal should be minimum and branches etc., should be economically planned.
 The alignment should not be made in a rocky, brakish or cracked stratum.

Alignment of a field channel:

 They should be laid along field boundaries.

 They should be capable of supplying sufficient water to the tail end.
 Separate field channels should be provided for high and low lands.
 The field channels should not pass through rocky, brakish or cracked strata.

3. Why are canal falls necessary? Describe with sketch briefly any three types of canal falls.
These hydraulic structures-negotiate the difference in bed slope and ground slope and 2
to bring down the canal bed line.

TYPES OF CANAL FALLS: 2

 Ogee fall
 Rapid fall
 Stepped fall
 Notch fall
 Vertical Drop Fall or Sarda Fall
 Glacis Fall
 Montogue Type Fall
 Inglis Type Fall
Explanation any 3x4=12
Ogee fall:
 An ogee curve (a combination of convex curve and concave curve) fall
 Natural ground surface suddenly changes to a steeper slope
 The fall consists of a. concrete vertical wall and concrete bed.
 Over the concrete bed the rubble masonry is provided in the shape of ogee curve.

Rapid fall:

 It consists of a glacis sloping at 1 vertical to 10 to 20 horizontal.

 The long glacis assured the formation of hydraulic jump.
 Natural ground surface is even and long.
 Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the sloping glacis. The sloping bed is
provided with rubble masonry.
 The upstream and downstream side of the fall is also protected by rubble masonry. The masonry surface is
finished with rich cement mortar

Stepped fall:

 A series of vertical drops in the form of steps.

 Sloping ground is very long and requires long.
 The sloping glacis is divided into a number of drops
 Brick walls are provided at each of the drops.
 The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich cement motor.
Trapezoidal Notch Fall

 A body wall is constructed across the canal.

 Several trapezoidal notches between the side piers and the intermediate pier or piers.
 The sills of the notches - upstream bed level of the canal.
 The body wall - masonry or concrete.
 A impervious floor - resist the scouring effect of the falling water..

Vertical Drop Fall or Sarda Fall

 Vertical drop wall - masonry work.

 The water flows over the crest of the wall.
 a water cistern - downstream side - dissipate the energy of falling water.
 a concrete floor - downstream side to control the scouring effect of the flowing water. Curtain walls - upstream
and down-stream side.
 stone pitching with cement grouting - scouring.

Glacis Fall

 Straight sloping glacis provided with a crest.

 A water cushion - to dissipate the energy of flowing Water.
 The sloping glacis - cement concrete.
 Curtain walls and toe walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side.
Montogue Type Fall

 Parabolic shape - Montague profile.

 The main body - cement concrete.

Inglis Type Fall

 Glacis is straight and sloping
 Buffle walls - dissipate the energy of flowing water.
 The main body - cement concrete.
 Fall is known as buffle fall.

4. What are the types of cross drainage works? Describe them briefly with sketches.

When an irrigation canal crosses a natural drainage course (such as stream, river, etc.,) a
masonry work known as a cross drainage work is provided for the safe disposal of drainage water across the
canal.
At the crossing, it may be possible to have different site conditions.
 The canal bed level may be higher than the bed level of drain.
 The bed levels of canal and drainage may almost be same.
 The canal bed level may be lower than the bed level of dam.
Types of crossings:
The crossing may necessitate,
 To take the canal above the drain (aqueduct)
 To siphon the drain below the canal (siphon aqueduct)
 To take the canal below the drain (super passage)
 To siphon the canal below the drain (siphon super passage)
 To let the drain in to the canal on one side and take out from the other side of the canal (level crossing)
Aqueduct:
 Canal is taken over the deck supported by piers.
 Shape -rectangular trough - reinforced cement concrete.
 An inspection road-the bed and banks - boulder pitching with cement grouting .
 The piers may be of brick masonry, stone masonry or reinforced cement concrete.
 The concrete foundation - the depth of foundation according to the availability of hard soil.

Fig. Aqueduct
Siphon Aqueduct:
The bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal trough by providing
sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.
The sloping apron - stone pitching or cement concrete.
This tunnel acts as a siphon.
Cut off walls - prevent scouring.
Boulder pitching should he provided on the upstream and downstream of the cut-off walls.
 Superpassage

The bed level of drainage is above the fully supply level of the canal.
The drainage - rectangular or trapezoidal trough - on the deck supported by piers.
The trough - reinforced cement concrete.
The bed and banks of the canal -boulder pitching or lining with concrete slabs.

Siphon Super Passage

 Canal passes below the drainage trough.

 The bed of the canal is depressed below the bottom level of the drainage trough by providing sloping apron on
both sides of the crossing.
 The sloping apron – stone pitching or concrete slabs.
 The section of the canal - the form of tunnel which acts as siphon.
 Cut-off walls are provided

Level Crossing:
To regulate the flow of water through the drainage and the canal when they cross each other
approximately at the same bed level.
The level crossing consists of the following components
(1) Crest Wall:
 Upstream side of the crossing point.
 The top level of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal
(2)Drainage Regulator:
It is provided across the drainage just at the downstream side of the crossing point.
The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers
 (3) Canal regulator: adjustable shutters at different tiers.
Inlet and outlet

 An inlet is provided in the channel bank simply by open cut and the drainage water is allowed to join the
channel,
 Downstream side of the channel - stream outlet is provided by open cut and the water from the irrigation
channel is allowed to flow through a leading channel towards the original course of the drainage.
 At the points of inlet and outlet the bed and banks - stone pitching.

5. What are the components of river training work? Explain Marginal embankment in detail.
Components of river training work 4
 Marginal embankment
 Guide bank
 Spur
 Groynes
 Bank protection

Figure 4

Marginal Embankment (Dyke Or Levee) 8

 Earthen embankment of trapezoidal section - parallel to the bank of the river to confine the flood water
within a section between the embankments.
 A margin of about 2 m is provided between the toe of the embankment and the top edge of river bank.
 The top width - 2 m to 3 m the sides slope - 2:1 to3:1.
 Timber piles -about 1 m away from the toe of the embankment at an interval of 1 m, centre to centre - resists
the scouring effect of the river water.
 The piles are kept projected about 50 cm above the ground level.
 The space between the pile line and the toe of the embankment is properly packed with boulders, i.e. boulder
apron.
 The river side slope is protected by stone pitching with cement grouting. The country side slope is protected
by turfing.
 The country side slope should be such that a cover of 50 cm on the hydraulic gradient line may be available
The marginal embankment serves the following purposes,
 1.It protects the towns, villages, agricultural land, etc from flood water.
2.It provides roadway on the top which serves the purpose of communication.
3.In case of barrage, the marginal embankment retains the storage water within a specified section.

6. Elaborate types of spurs and groynes in detail

SPURS any 2 x4=8
 Temporary structures permeable in nature provided on the curve of a river to protect the river
bank from erosion
 Projected - 60° to 75° with the bank of the river.
 Function - break the velocity of flow and to form a water pocket on the upstream side
(a) Bamboo Spur
 Box like compartments
 The piles are secured by bamboo bracings.
 The hollow space is filled up with sand bags
 Temporary
(b) Timber Spur
 Box like compartment
 Wooden bracings
 Hollow space is filled up by boulders. permeable

(c) Boulder Spur:

 Boulders are enclosed in G.I. wire net in circular shape.
 30 kg to 50 kg
 Wire net -4 mm diameter G.I. wires.
 Angle of 600-750

GROYNES any 2 x4=8

 Impervious permanent structures -protect the river bank from erosion.
 Angle of 60° to 75° with the bank.
 Rubble masonry in trapezoidal section
 The stone pitching or the concrete blocks are set with rich cement mortar.
 The topwidth -3 m to 4 m, The side slope - 11/2:1 or 2: 1.
(a) Attracting Groyne: The groyne which is constructed obliquely to the bank by making an angle of 60° to
75° towards the downstream, is known as attracting groyne. Here the flow of water is attracted towards the
bank, and the velocity of flow is reduced to such a extent that it cannot cause any erosion to the bank.
However, a bank protection of stone pitching is provided for safety.
 b) Repelling Groyne: A groyne which is aligned towards upstream at an angle of 60° to 75° with the river
bank is known as repelling groyne. A still water pocket is formed on die upstream where silting takes
place. Here the bank protection is not necessary, because the flow of water does not touch the bank and there is
no effect of erosion on the bank. But still boulder pitching should he provided for safety.

(C) Deflecting Groyne

 Constructed perpendicular to the river bank
 Flow of water is deflected from the bank
 An eddy current is formed

UNIT 5
1. Discuss the inadequacies of present – day canal irrigation management in India.(any 8x2=16)
 Insufficient planning and preparation at the stage of execution of the project which results in longer
construction time and escalated project cost,
 Involvement of more than one ministry/department and poor coordination among them,
 Non-responsive, authoritarian, and poor administration resulting in increased malpractices,
 Lack of interaction between engineering and agricultural experts,
 Lag between creation of potential and its utilization,
 Improper assessment of personnel, equipment, and other facilities for proper operation and maintenance of
reservoirs and canal systems resulting in erratic (unreliable and insufficient) supplies inequitable distribution of
available water,
 Higher conveyance losses,
 Absence of conjunctive use of ground water and surface water,
 Insufficient drainage, excessive seepage, and waterlogging,
 Poor on-farm management,
 Absence of farmer’s participation in the management,
 Lack of communication facilities in the command area,
 Poor extension services – lack of pilot projects, demonstration farms, etc.,
 Problems related to land settlement and rehabilitation of displaced persons, and
 Recovery of the project cost.
2. Describe the common criteria for judging the performance of an irrigation system.
2
Measures are lining of canals and field channels, on-farm development, farmers organization, warabandi system
of water distribution, charging farmers volumetrically for water, and education farmers in water use
management.
Criteria of good irrigation system performance 8
Type of person Possible first criterion of good system performance
Landless Labourer Increased labour demand, days of working, and wages
 Farmer Delivery to his or her farm of an adequate, convenient,
predictable, and timely water supply for preferred farming
practices
Irrigation engineer Efficient delivery of water from headworks to outlet
Agricultural Efficient delivery and field application of irrigation water from
engineer the outlet to the root zone of the crop
Agronomist Creation and maintenance of the optimum moisture regime and
plant growth and, in particular, maximizing production of that
part of the plant which is the harvestable product
General economist A high internal rate of return
Political economist Equitable distribution of benefits, especially to disadvantaged
groups
Sociologist Participation of irrigators in management

 Productivity each 2 marks

Productivity is defined as the ratio of output and input. The output can be water delivered, area irrigated,
yield, or income, and the input can be water in the root zone, at the farm gate at the outlet or at upstream points
in the system including the point of diversion or storage
Equity
Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness, and even-handed dealing in matters of allocation
and appropriation of irrigation water.
 Prior appropriation
 Proportionate equality.
 Stability
Stability
 Short-term stability
 Long-term sustainability.
The short term -function of climate, water supply, storage and control, system management, and other factors
such as pests, diseases, and availability of labour and other inputs.
The long term stability - “environmental stability” and “durability” -waterlogging, leaching of nutrients form
soils, salinity, erosion, silting, the ‘mining’ of ground water, and infestations with weeds.

3. What are the methods adopted for improving canal irrigation management? Explain any four in detail.
Any 4x4=16
Irrigation management is an interdisciplinary system process with a built-in learning mechanism to improve
system performance by adjusting physical, technological, and institutional inputs to achieve the desired
levels of output.
 Cropping Pattern
An optimum cropping pattern - systems analysis.
Local preferences and requirements of the area
Necessary inputs are made available,
The farmers will adopt the cropping pattern arrived at using systems analysis.
 Conjunctive Use
Conjunctive use means that water lifted from below the ground is used in conjunction with canal waters.
It results in the coordinated, combined, and creative exploitation of ground water and surface water so as to
minimize the dislocation caused by nature’s inconsistent rainfall pattern
 Channel Capacity
Decided on the concept of evapotranspiration rather than the ‘kor’ period.
 Canal Lining
Lining of canals is a means to reduce the seepage losses from canals.
slope of a lined channel - reduced.
Regulators and escapes
Proper distribution
A suitable number of canal regulators and canal escapes must be provided
 Canal escapes are needed for the safety as well as for regulating canal supplies in areas
 Canal Outlets
Controlling the distribution of water
Link between the administration and the farmer.
Equitable distribution of water- a regulated outlet would be an ideal choice
 Main System Management
Future allocation, scheduling, delivery of water on main systems down to and including outlets, and the disposal
of water in drains below chaks (i.e. The irrigated fields).
It includes planning, decision making, the operation of controls, and communications both upwards to
managers and downwards to groups of farmers so that equitable supplies can be ensured throughout the
command area.
Main system management (MSM) is capable of reducing gross inequities of water supply to tail-end farmers
and increasing the farm yield from the command area.
 Night Irrigation
In most of the canal irrigation projects, the canal water continues to flow at nights as well and is either badly
used or wasted. Darkness, cold, fear, normal working hours and desire for sleep discourage the irrigation staff,
farmers, and labourers to work at night.
Measures to reduce night irrigation with water saving involve storage of water which can be achieved in
five different ways – in main reservoirs, in canals, in intermediate storage reservoirs, on-farm storage, and in
ground water storage. On the other hand, three obvious measures to reduce night irrigation without saving water
are:
 Stopping river diversion flows,
 Redistributing day water so that even tail-enders get adequate supplies,
 Passing water to escapes and drains.
 Water Delivery System
Water delivery systems can be of three types:
 Demand – based,
 Continuous, and
 Rotational (also known as warabandi).
The warabandi system -system of equitable water distribution by turns according to a predetermined
schedule specifying the day, time, and duration of supply to each irrigator in proportion to land holdings in
outlet command
 Irrigation Scheduling
The water is supplied to the plants when they need it and in quantities actually required by the plants.
Estimating the starting time, stopping time, and the quantity of water for different cycles of irrigation during the
crop period. Irrigation scheduling can be determined by using one of three approaches, viz.,
 The soil-moisture depletion approach,
 The climatological approach using evapotranspiration and effective rainfall data, and
 The farmer’s existing schedule approach.
 Irrigation Methods
. The drip irrigation method is highly efficient and better suited for fruit crops, vegetables, and cash crops like
sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, etc.
Sprinklers, drip irrigation - need to save water and extend irrigation facility to as large a cropped area as
possible for producing food for the growing population.
 Use of Waste Water
Used water is suitably treated and used for irrigation. Such measures can provide additional irrigation potential
 Conservation of Water on the Field.
The percolation losses can also be reduced by puddling the soil using improved puddlers and the saving of
water can be between 16 and 26 percent depending upon the type of soil and puddlers used.
 Water logging
Water logging results in lowered yields, loss of lands for useful activities, and health hazards. To eliminate or
control water logging one or more of the following, remedial measures have usually been used:
 Reducing inflow to the ground through lining of canals,
 Removing ground water through pumping,
 Removing surface and ground waters through drainage,
 Educating farmers in water management, and
 Conjunctive use.
Water logging can also be reduced by supplying less water during nights (, cutting off water supplies
during rains, rotating supplies in distributaries and minors instead of continuous supply, shortening irrigation
periods, and zoning for crop type.
 Soil Reclamation
Magnitude, saline and alkaline soils - joint efforts of agricultural chemists, agronomists, agricultural experts,
and irrigation engineers. The role of an irrigation engineer is important in lowering the water table if it is high
and also providing irrigation water of good quality for leaching out the salts.
 Water Charges and Pricing of the Agricultural Output
Water charges - on the basis of area served and the crop irrespective of the volume of water supplied. -
leads to inefficient use of water.
Managing internal distribution and collection of charges from its members, may possibly result in
efficiently use of water.
 Farmer’s Participation
The participation of the farmer in all stages of the irrigation system would be very beneficial.
Phase 1 – Invitation
- Publicising the proposal, without restriction, as a promotional measure to gain popular support.
- Extending invitations for information meeting.
- Scheduling public hearing.
Phase 2 – Invitation
- Establishing formal organizations of farmers.
- Recognizing the roles of organization.
- Forming joint committees charged with proposing and reviewing.
- Conducting training courses.
Phase 3 – Invitation
- Assisting farmers to maintain their level of participation and increase its intensity.
- Relating their duties to improve their socio-economic status.
- Monitoring the performance of programmes to generate feedback into assistance and instruction.

4. Describe the evaluation of performance of canal irrigation systems. Any 4x4=16

 Farmers operations performance
 Adequacy of crop production techniques for irrigated farming including adequacy of supply of inputs such
credit, certified seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.,
 Adequacy of irrigation methods
 Farm management and economic results
 Soil management and erosion control, and
 On-farm efficiency of water use.
 Delivery operational performance
 Water use efficiency in distribution
 Water losses (physical including evaporation)
 Project overall water use efficiency
 Deep percolation
 Canal seepage
 Spillage from canals
 Dam and foundation seepage
 Water operational losses (such as leakage from gates, etc.)
 Adequacy of delivery scheduling, and
 Energy use
 Drainage operational performance
 Drainage requirement area-wise
 Water table fluctuations by season and years
 Water quality changes reach-wise for drain effluents, and
 Soil salinity changes area-wise
 Maintenance of individual components
 Civil works (such as for canal, hydraulic structures,
 Equipment (pumps, hoists, earthmovers, trucks, loaders, computers, measuring devices, gates, office and
communication equipment) degradation and prediction of replacement schedule:
 Overall project review: efficiency and effectiveness
Show whether poor performance is a technical or managerial problem which could be resolved by internal
management processes.
Some of the matters which should be highlighted in such a review are:
 Documentation of project costs and revenues
 Adequacy of revenue sources to meet O & M needs
 Benefit flows from project farmers, governments, and others
 Comparison of benefits generated to revenue required
 Relevant agricultural and engineering issues, and
 Social and environmental changes and concerns and resulting implications.

5. Why should lining be provided in canals? What are the merits and demerits of canal lining?
The following are the main objects of canal lining: any 4x2=8
 To Control Seepage
 To seepage- the duty of canal water is much reduced - enhancement of storage capacity of a reservoir by
constructing high dam- expenditure of the project is increased
 To Prevent Water-Logging
 Areas may get converted into marshly lands.
 Land alkaline - unsuitable for agriculture.
 Breeding place of mosquitoes - many infectious diseases.
 To Increase the Capacity of Canal
 Silting and scouring is avoided.
 Velocity and the discharge of the canal are more with minimum cross-sectional area.
 To Increase the Command Area
 losses - controlled - command area of the project may be enhanced.

 To Protect the Canal from the Damage by Flood

 to protect the canals from the scouring and erosion, the lining should be provided.
 To Control the Growth of Weeds
 weeds reduce the velocity of flow and the capacity of the canals. The advantages and disadvantages of the canal
lining were discussed below.
 Advantages of Canal Lining any 2x2=4
 It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced.
 It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are eliminated.
 It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be determined.
 Due to the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also be reduced.
 It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed.
 The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed.
 It controls the growth of the weeds along the canal sides and bed.
 It provides the stable section of the canal.
 It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller section of the canal can produce greater
discharge.
 It prevents the sub-soil salt to come in contact with the canal water.
 It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals.
 Disadvantages of Canal Lining any 2x2=4
 The initial cost of the canal lining is very high. So, it makes the project very expensive with respect to the
output.
 It involves much difficulty for repairing the damaged section of lining.
  It takes too much time to complete the project work.
 It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets are required to be provided,
because the dismantling of the lined section is difficult.

6. Write the different types of canal lining. Explain them.

The following are the different types of lining which are generally recommended according to the various site
conditions. Any 4 - 4 marks
 Cement concrete lining
 Pre-cast concrete lining
 Cement mortar lining
 Lime concrete lining
 Brick lining
 Boulder lining
 Shot crete lining
 Asphalt lining
 Bentonite and clay lining
 Soil-cement lining

 Cement Concrete lining any 3x4=12

This lining recommended for the canal in full banking. The cement concrete lining (cast in-situ) is widely
accepted as the best impervious lining. It can resist the effect of scouring and erosion very efficiently. The
velocity of flow may be kept above 2.5 m/sec. It can eliminate completely growth of weeds. The lining is done
by the following steps.
a) Preparation of sub-grade
The sub-grade is prepared by ramming the surface properly with a layer of sand (about 15 cm). Then, the slurry of
cement and sand (1:3) is spread uniformly over the prepared bed.
b) Laying of concrete
The cement concrete of grade M15 is spread uniformly according to the desired thickness (generally, the
thickness varies from 100 mm to 150 mm). After laying, the concrete is tapped gently until the slurry comes on
the top. The curing is done for two weeks. As the concrete is liable to get damaged by the change of
temperature, the expansion joints are provided at appropriate places. Normally no reinforcement is required
for this cement concrete. But in special cases, a network of 6 mm diameter rods may be provided with spacing
10 cm centre to centre.
 Pre – Cast Concrete Lining
This lining is recommended for the canal in full banking. It consists of pre-cast concrete slabs of size 60 cm
x 60 cm x 5 cm which are set along the canal bank and bed with cement mortar (1:6). A network of 6 mm
diameter rod is provided in the slab with spacing 10 cm centre of centre. The proportion of the concrete is
recommended as 1:2:4. Rebates are provided on all the four sides of the slab so that proper joints may be
obtained when they are placed side by side. The joints are finished with cement mortar (1:3). Expansion joints
are provided at a suitable interval. The slabs are set in the following sequence,
a) The sub-grade is prepared by properly ramming the soil with a layer of sand. The bed is leveled so that the slabs
can be placed easily.
b) The slabs are stacked as per estimate along the course of the canal. The slabs are placed with cement mortar
(1:6) by setting the rebates properly. The joints are finished with cement mortar (1:3).
c) The curing is done for a week.
 Cement Mortar Lining
This type of lining is recommended for the canal fully in cutting where hard soil or clayey soil is available.
The thickness of the cement mortar (1:4) is generally 2.5 cm. The sub-grade is prepared by ramming the soil
after cutting. Then, over the compacted sub-grade, the cement mortar is laid uniformly and the surface is
finished with neat cement polish. This lining is impervious, but is not durable. The curing should be done
properly.
 Lime Concrete Lining
When hydraulic lime, surki and brick ballast are available in plenty along the course of the canal or in the
vicinity of the irrigation project, then the lining of the canal may be made by the lime concrete of proportion
 1:1:6. The procedure of laying this concrete is same as that of the cement concrete lining. Here, the thickness
of concrete varies form 150 mm to 225 mm and the curing should be done for longer period. This lining is
less durable than the cement concrete lining
Brick Lining
This lining is prepared by the double layer brick flat soling laid with cement mortar (1:6) over the compacted
sub-grade. The first class bricks should be recommended for the work. The surface of the lining is finished with
cement plasters (1:3). The curing should be done perfectly.
 Boulder Lining
In hilly areas where the boulders are available in plenty, this type of lining is generally recommended. The
boulders are laid in single or double layer maintaining the slope of the banks and the bed level of the canal.
The joints of the boulders are grouted with cement mortar (1:6). The surface is finished with cement mortar
(1:3). Curing is necessary in this lining too.
 Shot Crete Lining
In this system, the cement mortar (1:4) is directly applied on the sub-grade by an equipment known as
cement gun. The mortar is termed as shot crete and the lining is known as shot crete lining. The process is also
known as guniting, as a gun is used for laying the mortar. Sometimes, this lining is known as gunited lining.
The lining is done in two ways,
 Asphalt Lining
This lining is prepared by spraying asphalt (i.e. bitumen) at a very high temperature (about 150oC) on the
subgrade to a thickness varies from 3 mm to 6 mm. The hot asphalt when becomes cold forms a water proof
membrane over the subgrade. This membrane is covered with a layer of earth and gravel. The lining is very
cheap and can control the seepage of water very effectively but it cannot control the growth of weeds.
 Bentonite and Clay Lining
In this lining a mixture of Bentonite and clay are mixed thoroughly to form a sticky mass. This mass is spread
over the sub-grade to form an impervious membrane which is effective in controlling the seepage of water, but
it cannot control the growth of weeds. This lining is generally recommended for small channels.
 Soil – Cement Lining
This lining is prepared with a mixture of soil and cement. The usual quantity of cement is 10 percent of the
weight of dry soil. The soil and cement are thoroughly mixed to get a uniform texture. The mixture is laid on
the sub-grade and it is made thoroughly compact. The lining is efficient to control the seepage of water, but it
cannot control the growth of weeds. So, this is recommended for small channels only.