The Mysterious Missing Matter

: The Dark Matter

Brajalta
Department Of Physics
Sanskriti University

A desertation submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements of the degree of master of

physics, The Sanskriti University.

July 2019
 Abstract
The mysterious matter is the matter that has made the 99.5% of the
universe. The universe consist os only 0.5 %of the visible matter .the
mysterious matter has grown interest in many minds towards it.many
theories are given for it. Axions are said to be the part of this dark
matter . also the WIMP’s theory talks about the weakly interactions
in the universe .due to this dark matter an aura of energy is being
felled which is also giving a hard time to let us know about it. Dark
matter is also being associated with the big bang and the origin of the
universe The patterning of this relic light holds many important clues
to the development and distribution of large-scale structures such as
galaxies and galaxy clusters..
Key words: dark matter , weakly interactions , axions ,big bang
,origin of universe, clusters,WIMP’s.
 Acknowledgement
I have taken efforts in doing this desertation. However, it would have
been impossible without the kind support and help of my mentors,
parents and organization. We would also like to extend my sincere
thanks to all of them who have knowingly or unknowingly given us
their support in the completion of this desertation.
I am highly indebted to Sanskriti University for the guidance provided
by our mentors , and their constant supervision for the completion of
the desertation and also providing the constant support during the time
period.
I would also like to express our gratitude towards our parents, friends
and batch mates encouragement that helped me in completion of this
desertation with their abilitiesand professionalism.
I consider myself as a very lucky individual as I was provided with an
opportunity to be a part of Sanaskriti University. I am also grateful for
having a chance to meet so many wonderful people and professionals
who led me though this dissertation.
I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who
supported me throughout the course of this M.Sc. dessertation. I am
thankful for their aspiring guidance, invaluably constructive criticism
and friendy advice during the project work. I am sincerely grateful to
them for sharing their truthful and illuminating views on a number of
issues related to the dessertation.
I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career
development. I will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the
best possible way, and I will continue to work on their improvement,
in order to attain desired career objectives. Hope to continue
cooperation with all of you in the future,
I am very grateful for all your support and love for us.
Content

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 The missing matter

I. Dark matter could be made up of axions
II. Dark matter may be older than big band
III. New way to deduct missing matter
IV. Dark matter may be formed after origin of universe
V. A new filter to better map the dark universe

Chapter 3 Research methodology

Chapter 4 Result

Chapter 5 Conclusion

Chapter 6 References
 Introduction
The matter that surrounds us is the matter that is visible to us. but it
some times occurs that if earth and planets, stars and clusters are
made up of visible matter than what is outer space made up of. This
question was answered in 1933 by Fritz Zwicky .and further studies
said that the outer space is made up of the matter called as missing
matter , which further was labeled as the dark matter. After several
years latter it was called as the mysterious matter by the scientists due
to its ability to remain the mystry to the calculative and expert eyes.
It was found that the universe mostly consists of the dark matter and
only 0.5 % is the visible matter. Many theories are given in to this
subject by many scientists. They has the assumptions that may be
dark matter is made up of the axions which lighter than the matter
particals, also they had many other theories like WIMPs .
The dark matter may be older than that of big bang as it gives us the
signs and also it shows the gravitational pull between the two types of
matter. There are some more assumptions about the mysterious
matter that are may be it was formed shortly after the origin of the
universe.
While not much is known about its origins, astronomers have shown
that dark matter plays a crucial role in the formation of galaxies and
galaxy clusters. Though not directly observable, scientists know dark
matter exists by its gravitation effects on how visible matter moves
and is distributed in space.
For a long time, researchers believed that dark matter must be a
leftover substance from the Big Bang. Researchers have long sought
this kind of dark matter, but so far all experimental searches have
been unsuccessful.
Many physicists believe that dark matter is made up of some particle
yet to be discovered. For some time, the favorite candidate has been
the Weakly Interacting Massive Particle or WIMP. But despite years
of effort, WIMPs have so far not shown up in experiments designed
to detect them. So scientists are now redoubling their efforts by
designing new and nimble experiments that can look for dark matter
in previously unexplored ranges of particle mass and energy, and
using previously untested methods. The new approach, rather than
relying on a few large experiments' "nets" to try to snare one type of
dark matter, is akin to casting many smaller nets with much finer
mesh.
Dark matter could be much "lighter," or lower in mass and slighter in
energy, than previously thought. It could be composed of theoretical,
wavelike ultralight particles known as axions. It could be populated
by a wild kingdom filled with many species of as-yet-undiscovered
particles. And it may not be composed of particles at all.
 The Mysterious Missing Matter : Dark Matter
A large fraction of the mass of our Universe is made out of an exotic,
non-baryonic component that is fundamentally different from the
ordinary matter that forms visible objects such as stars, planets,
galaxies and galaxy clusters is called Dark Matter. Dark matter is a
component of the universe ,whose presence is recognized from
its gravitational attraction rather than its luminous property. Dark
matter makes up around 30.1 percent of the whole matter-
energy composition of the universe. The rest is dark energy (69.4
percent) and “ordinary” visible matter (0.5 percent).it means that only
a certain part of universe is visible to us i.e we can see only a part of
this vast universe.
matter-energy content of the universeMatter-energy content of the
universe.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc

Originally known as “missing mass,” the dark matter’s existence

was firstly inferred by a Swiss American astronomer named Fritz
Zwicky, who in 1933 discovered that all the stars in the Coma
cluster of galaxies mass is only about 1 % of the mass that is
needed to keep the galaxies from escaping the cluster’s gravitational
pull. This missing mass is being a mistery from a very long time.
Also this matter does not scatter or emit any type of light hence,
named as dark matter .[1]

Over time and again , scientists have developed different theories to

exactly explain what the mysterious dark matter might be made up
of. Researchers have spent many years trying to hunt down the
weakly interacting massive particles with particle detectors,but are
not yet successful.
Some of these theories are given below

Dark Matter Could Be Made Of Axions

Among the potential candidates that came into the question are
weakly interacting large particles or WIMPs for the mass of the
missing matter. Researchers have spent many years in trying to hunt
these down with particle detectors, but are not successful yet. few
years ago, however, scientists proposed an alternative -- a class of
particles called axions, which are significantly lighter than other
particles present. According to the theory, the field of these particles
oscillates, and it means that it varies continuously. The frequency of
this oscillation is proportional to the mass of the particles, and, as this
is extremely low, the frequency muat be low essentially. But its
unknown to everyone just yet if that is the case. The problem is that
the field oscillation is as likely to go through a complete cycle once a
year as a trillion times a second.{2}
Dark Matter Might Be Older Than That Of Big
Bang
"The study revealed a new connection between particle physics and
astronomy. If dark matter consists of new particles that were born
before the Big Bang, they affect the way galaxies are distributed in
the sky in a unique way. This connection may be used to reveal their
identity and make conclusions about the times before the Big Bang
too," says Tommi Tenkanen, a postdoctoral fellow in Physics and
Astronomy at the Johns Hopkins University and the study's author.
While not much is known about the origin of the dark matter,the
astronomers have shown that dark matter plays an important role in
the formation of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Though can not be
observed directly, but scientists know dark matter exists by its
gravitational effects on how visible matter moves and its
distribution in space.
From a long time, researchers have believed that the dark matter
must be a leftover subject matter from the Big Bang. Researchers
have long sought this kind of dark matter, but so far all experimental
searches have not been successful yet.
"If dark matter were truly a remnant of the Big Bang, then in many
cases researchers should have seen a direct signal of dark matter in
different particle physics experiments already," says Tenkanen.
"We do not know what dark matter is, but if it has anything to do
with any scalar particles, it may be older than the Big Bang. With the
proposed mathematical scenario, we don't have to assume new types
of interactions between visible and dark matter beyond gravity, which
we already know is there," explains Tenkanen.
While the idea of existence of dark matter before the Big Bang is not
new, other theorists have not been able to come up with calculations
that support the idea. The new study shows that researchers have
always overlooked the simplest possible mathematical scenario for
dark matter's origins, he says.
The new study also suggested a way of testing dark matter’s origin
by observing the signatures that dark matter leaves through the
distribution of matter in the universe.
"While this type of dark matter is too elusive to be found in particle
experiments, it can reveal its presence in astronomical observations.
We will soon learn more about the origin of dark matter when the
Euclid satellite is launched in 2022. It's going to be very exciting to
see what it will reveal about dark matter and if its findings can be
used to peek into the times before the Big Bang."[3]
A New Way To Detect Missing Matter
The physicist Paul Dirac said that an electron which moves in a circle
near a monopole would change its phase in its wave function. As
electrons exist in both particles and waves nature in quantum theory,
the same electron could pass on either side of the monopole and as a
result be slightly out of phase on the other side.
This interference pattern, called the Aharonov-Bohm effect, means
that an electron passing around a magnetic field is influenced by it,
even if it does not pass through the field itself.
Terning and Verhaaren argue that you could detect a dark monopole
because of the way it shifts the phase of electrons as they pass by.
"This is a new type of dark matter but it comes with a new way to
look for it as well," Terning said.[4]
Dark Matter Might Have Been Formed Shortly
After The Origin Of The Universe
The stability of dark matter is usually explained by a symmetry
principle. However, in their paper, Dr. Michael Baker and Prof.
Joachim Kopp demonstrate that the universe may have gone through
a phase during which this symmetry was broken. This would mean
that it is possible for the hypothetical dark matter particle to decay.
During the electroweak phase transition, the symmetry that stabilized
the dark matter would have been re-established, that enabled it to
continue to exist in the universe to the present day.
With their new theory, Baker and Kopp have introduced a new
principle into the debate about the nature of dark matter that offers an
alternative to the widely accepted WIMP theory. Till now, weakly
interacting massive particles, have been regarded as the most likely
components of dark matter, and experiments involving heavily
shielded underground detectors have been carried out to look for
them. "The absence of any convincing signals caused us to start
looking for alternatives to the WIMP paradigm," said Kopp.[5]

A New Filter To Better Map The Dark Universe

Distortions in the cosmic microwave background (CMB), caused by a
phenomenon known as lensing, can further illuminate the structure of
the universe and can even tell us things about the mysterious, unseen
universe -- including dark energy, which makes up about 68 percent
of the universe and accounts for its accelerating expansion, and dark
matter, which accounts for about 27 percent of the universe.
In lensing of the CMB, gravity effects from large objects like
galaxies and galaxy clusters bend the CMB light in different ways.
These lensing effects can be subtle (known as weak lensing) for
distant and small galaxies, and computer programs can identify them
because they disrupt the regular CMB patterning.
There are some known issues with the accuracy of lensing
measurements, though, and particularly with temperature-based
measurements of the CMB and associated lensing effects.
While lensing can be a powerful tool for studying the invisible
universe, and could even potentially help us sort out the properties of
ghostly subatomic particles like neutrinos, the universe is an
inherently messy place.
The effects of this interference with temperature-based CMB studies
can lead to erroneous lensing measurements, said Emmanuel Schaan,
a postdoctoral researcher and Owen Chamberlain Postdoctoral
Fellow in the Physics Division at the Department of Energy's
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab).
"You can be wrong and not know it," Schaan said. "The existing
methods don't work perfectly -- they are really limiting."[6]
 Research Methodology
The research problem that we faced was” what is dark matter ?” We
were so fascinated by the question that we decided to make this our
desertation topic.
The past few decades have ushered in an amazing era in the science
of cosmology. A diverse array of high-precision measurements has
allowed us to reconstruct our universe’s history in remarkable detail.
And when we compare different measurements – of the expansion
rate of the universe, the patterns of light released in the formation of
the first atoms, the distributions in space of galaxies and galaxy
clusters and the abundances of various chemical species – we find
that they all tell the same story, and all support the same series of
events.
This line of research has, frankly, been more successful than I think
we had any right to have hoped. We know more about the origin and
history of our universe today than almost anyone a few decades ago
would have guessed that we would learn in such a short time.
But despite these very considerable successes, there remains much
more to be learned. And in some ways, the discoveries made in recent
decades have raised as many new questions as they have answered.
Since all the accumulated evidence is indirect, based on the
gravitational effects of dark matter, the intrinsic nature of this new
form of matter is not known. The leading theoretical assumption is
that dark matter is made of new, elementary particles. While the
Standard Model of particle physics does not contain a viable
candidate, particle physics beyond the Standard Model may well
provide a key ingredient towards our understanding of the
composition of the Cosmos.
 Result
In this work we found that there are many theories given in the
context of the mysterious matter, but all are being in their working
process . This gives this research an open end. Where we can say that
the mysterious matter is really being a mystery for all of us . It may
be taking time to show its existence or may be playing a game with
us. It will surely come to understanding one day, may be we are
missing some points that are important for us to know about the dark
mysterious missing matter. Not only have dark matter structures been
constantly evolving through gravity, we know that the properties of
galaxies – such as their mass and star formation rates – are strongly
dependent on their large-scale environment. We still don’t fully
understand that link, but some experiments may help us crack how it
happens.
The dark matter field is an intense area of research, with the problem
being addressed on several complementary fronts. Astrophysical
observations such as of the cosmic microwave background radiation,
of the clustering of galaxies and the abundance of galaxy clusters, to
name a few, constrain the dark matter properties and distribution on
large scales. Laboratory searches in experiments operated deep
underground aim to probe the nature of the dark matter particle, and
eventually study its local phase-space distribution, while
astrophysical searches of dark matter annihilation products can study
regions of increased dark matter density in our galaxy or in nearby
dwarf galaxies, which are dark matter dominated. In recent years the
Large Hadron Collider in Geneva constrains the production of dark
matter particles, while a series of precision measurements at the
intensity frontier are sensitive to other type of candidates, including
axions and axion-like-particles.
One of the most vexing gets at the heart of what our universe is
actually made of. Cosmological observations have determined
the average density of matter in our universe to very high precision.
But this density turns out to be much greater than can be accounted
for with ordinary atoms.
The stubborn elusiveness of dark matter has left many scientists both
surprised and confused. We had what seemed like very good reasons
to expect particles of dark matter to be discovered by now. And yet
the hunt continues, and the mystery deepens.
 Conclusion

After doing the research , it is concluded that we hve came a long way
in the research and we do have a long way to go. We found that
darkmatter is something that we have to find about . we have to find
about its origin and what really dark matter is?
We found that dark matter may be made up of axions and was
originated a long way before the big bang with the origin of universe
itself. We also have a different way to detect the mysterious matter
that is by observing the phase change of the dark matter that leaves
some signatures behind it. Also dark matter is not the only thing
present other than the visible matter in the universe but also the dark
energy. For almost as long as we’ve known that dark matter exists,
physicists and astronomers have been devising ways to try to learn
what it’s made of. They’ve built ultra-sensitive detectors, deployed
in deep underground mines, in an effort to measure the gentle impacts
of individual dark matter particles colliding with atoms.

After decades of measurements and debate, we are now confident that

the overwhelming majority of our universe’s matter – about 84
percent – is not made up of atoms, or of any other known substance.
Although we can feel the gravitational pull of this other matter, and
clearly tell that it’s there, we simply do not know what it is. This
mysterious stuff is invisible, or at least nearly so. For lack of a better
name, we call it “dark matter.” But naming something is very
different from understanding it.
But our prescience seems to have come to an end – the long-predicted
particles associated with our favorite and most well-motivated
theories have stubbornly refused to appear. Perhaps the discoveries of
such particles are right around the corner, and our confidence will
soon be restored. But right now, there seems to be little support for
such optimism.
Considering the immense experimental, theoretical and observational
progress achieved during the last decade, the focus issue aims to
review the current situation in the field: from astrophysical probes
and numerical simulations of structure formation, to dark matter
particle models and the status and prospects of various searches. An
enormous effort is underway to uncover any non-gravitational
manifestation of dark matter, to elucidate its nature on a microscopic
scale and to determine its phase-space structure on the smallest
scales.
In response, droves of physicists are going back to their chalkboards,
revisiting and revising their assumptions. With bruised egos and a bit
more humility, we are desperately attempting to find a new way to
make sense of our world.
References
[1]. Dark matter astronomy written by: Adam riess
[2]. Teng Wu, John W. Blanchard, Gary P. Centers, Nataniel L. Figueroa,
Antoine Garcon, Peter W. Graham, Derek F. Jackson Kimball, Surjeet
Rajendran, Yevgeny V. Stadnik, Alexander O. Sushkov, Arne Wickenbrock,
Dmitry Budker. Search for Axionlike Dark Matter with a Liquid-State Nuclear
Spin Comagnetometer. Physical Review Letters, 2019; 122 (19)
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.191302
[3]. Tommi Tenkanen. Dark Matter from Scalar Field Fluctuations. Physical
Review Letters, 2019 DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.061302
[4] .John Terning, Christopher B. Verhaaren. Detecting Dark Matter with
Aharonov-Bohm. submitted to arXiv, 2019
[5] Michael J. Baker, Joachim Kopp. Dark Matter Decay between Phase
Transitions at the Weak Scale. Physical Review Letters, 2017; 119 (6)
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.061801
[6] Emmanuel Schaan, Simone Ferraro. Foreground-Immune Cosmic
Microwave Background Lensing with Shear-Only Reconstruction. Physical
Review Letters, 2019; 122 (18) DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.122.181301