Anatoly Dubinsky's Home page: http://www.bgu.ac.

il/~dubin

Gabi Ben-Dor
e-mail: bendorg@bgu.ac.il
Anatoly Dubinsky
e-mail: dubin@bgu.ac.il
Tov Elperin
e-mail: elperin@bgu.ac.il
The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical
Engineering Studies,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
P.O. Box 653,
Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
Ballistic Impact: Recent Advances
in Analytical Modeling of Plate
Penetration Dynamics–A Review
This review covers studies dealing with simplified analytical models for ballistic penetra-
tion of an impactor into different solid media, namely, metals, soil, concrete, and com-
posites at high speeds, but not at hypervelocities. The overview covers mainly papers that
were published in the last decade, but not analyzed in previous reviews on impact dy-
namics. Both mathematical models and their engineering applications are considered.
The review covers 280 citations. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.2048626兴

1 Introduction ␶ជ 0 = − 共vជ 0 + u · nជ 0兲/冑1 − u2, u = − vជ 0 · nជ 0 = cos ␽ 共2兲

Models classified as empirical, semi- or quasi-empirical, engi-
neering, simplified, analytical, semi-analytical and approximate in
the mechanics of high-speed 共nonhypervelocity兲 penetration con-
stitute the subject of this review. These models comprise algebraic
relations and/or ordinary differential equations, and calculations
based on such models do not require large computer resources.
Analytical models are useful from the viewpoint of their direct
applicability, since the qualitative laws determined by the use of
these models can be considered as a basis for further theoretical
and experimental investigations.
Most review publications on ballistic impact 共Table 1兲 关1–20兴
also survey analytical models. The current review surveys, to a
large extent, developments subsequent to the publications of Cor-
bett et al. 关13兴, Abrate 关14兴, Kasano 关17兴, and Goldsmith 关18兴,
which appeared between 1996 and 1999. Earlier studies are also
included for the following reasons: 共i兲 they have not been covered
in other reviews; 共ii兲 they have been analyzed in a different con-
text; or 共iii兲 for purposes of completeness and continuity of the
analysis.
2 Some Common Approaches to Approximate Model-
ing of Penetration and Perforation
2.1 Localized Interaction Approach. Many engineering
models for penetration modeling belong to the category of the
so-called localized interaction models 共LIM兲 关21,22兴, in which the
integral effect of the interaction between the host medium and a
moving projectile is described as the superposition of the indepen-
dent local interactions of the projectile’s surface elements with the
medium. Each local interaction is determined both by the local
ជ is the force acting at the surface element dS of the projectile
dF
that is in contact with the host medium, nជ 0 and ␶ជ 0 are the inner
normal and tangent unit vectors at a given location on the projec-
tile’s surface, respectively, vជ 0 is a unit vector of the velocity at the
projectile vជ , ␽ is the angle between the vector nជ 0 and the vector
共−vជ 0兲, the functions ⍀n and ⍀␶ determine the model of the
projectile-medium interaction, and aជ is a vector with components
a0 , a1 , . . . that characterize, mainly, the properties of the host me-
dium. In the most frequently used types of LIM, it is assumed that
⍀␶ = 0 共3兲
or
⍀␶ = k⍀n 共4兲
where k is the coefficient of friction between the impactor and the
shield.
Ben-Dor et al. 关23,24兴 proposed a unified model describing the
normal penetration of a rigid striker into a non-thin shield. This
formalism for a shield with a finite thickness 共SFT兲 is illustrated
in Figs. 2 and 3, which also show the notations used. The coordi-
nate h, the current depth of the penetration, is defined as the dis-
tance between the nose of the impactor and the front surface of the
shield. The cylindrical coordinates x , ␳ , ␪ pertain to the impactor,
and the equation ␳ = ⌽共x , ␪兲, where ⌽ is some function, deter-
mines the shape of the impactor. The part of the lateral surface of
the impactor between the cross sections x = ␹1 and x = ␹2 共0 艋 h
艋 L + b兲 interacts with the SFT, where 共see Fig. 3兲

再 冎
geometric and kinematic parameters of the surface element 共pri-
marily, by the angle between the velocity vector and the local 0 if 0 艋 h 艋 b
normal vector to the projectile surface兲 and by some global pa- ␹1共h兲 =
rameters that take into account the integral characteristics of the h−b if b 艋 h 艋 b + L

再 冎
medium 共e.g., hardness, density, etc.兲. The following description is 共5兲
typical of LIM: h if 0 艋 h 艋 L
␹2共h兲 =

冦 冧
关⍀n共aជ ;u, v兲nជ 0 + ⍀␶共aជ ;u, v兲␶ជ 0兴ds if 0 ⬍ u ⬍ 1 L if h 艌 L
dFជ = ⍀n共aជ ;1, v兲nជ 0ds if u = 1 共1兲 b is the thickness of the shield and L is the impactor’s nose length.
0 if u 艋 0 The total force Fជ is determined by integrating the local force
over the impactor-shield contact surface determined for some h as
0 艋 ␪ 艋 2␲, ␹1共h兲 艋 x 艋 ␹2共h兲. The drag force D = F ជ · 共−vជ 0兲 is a
where 共see Fig. 1兲
function of aជ , h , v, i.e., it does not depend on time in the explicit
form. Let us consider a sharp impactor and, for simplicity, assume
Transmitted by Assoc. Editor N. Jones. that it has no flat bluntness. Then Eqs. 共1兲, 共2兲, and 共5兲 imply

Applied Mechanics Reviews Copyright © 2005 by ASME NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 355
 Table 1 Basic review publications on ballistic impact

Type of
Reference Year Material publication

Kennedy 关1兴 1976 Concrete Survey

Backman and Goldsmith 关2兴 1978 Metal, soil Survey
Jonas and Zukas 关3兴 1978 Metal, soil Survey
Zukas 关4兴 1982 Metal Book
Brown 关5兴 1986 Metal, soil, concrete Survey
Anderson and Bodner 关6兴 1988 Metal, soil Survey
Heuzé 关7兴 1989 Geological materials Report
Recht 关8兴 1990 Metal Book
Zukas and Walters 关9兴 1990 Metal, soil, concrete Book
Abrate 关10兴 1991 Composites Survey
Abrate 关11兴 1994 Composites Survey
Dancygier and Yankelevsky 关12兴 1996 Concrete Article
Corbett et al. 关13兴 1996 Metal, soil, concrete Survey
Abrate 关14兴 1998 Composites Book
Teland 关15兴 1998 Concrete Report
Børvik et al. 关16兴 1998 Metal Report
Kasano 关17兴 1999 Fiber composites Survey
Goldsmith 关18兴 1999 Metal, soil Survey
Cheeseman and Bogetti 关19兴 2003 Fiber composites Survey
Phoenix and Porwal 关20兴 2003 Fiber composites Article

冕 冕
␹2共h兲 2␲
D共aជ ;h, v兲 = dx ⍀0关aជ ;u共x, ␪兲, v兴u0共x, ␪兲d␪
␹1共h兲 0 including shields with air gaps 关27兴, was analyzed.
where
⍀0共aជ ;u, v兲 = u⍀n共aជ ;u, v兲 + 冑1 − u2⍀␶共aជ ;u, v兲
⌽⌽x
u共x, ␽兲 = , u0共x, ␽兲 = 冑⌽2共⌽2x + 1兲 + ⌽␽2
u0共x, ␽兲
The equation of motion of an impactor with mass m may be given
as
dv
mv + D共aជ ;h, v兲 = 0
dh
where the velocity of the impactor v is considered as a function of
h. This model is also valid for a semi-infinite shield 共SIS兲. In the
latter case, the impactor-shield contact surface is determined as
0 艋 ␪ 艋 2␲, 0 艋 x 艋 ␹2共h兲.
Let v = ␸共vimp , h兲 be the solution of Eq. 共9兲 with the initial con-
dition v共0兲 = vimp. The ballistic limit velocity 共BLV兲, vbl, is usually
considered as a characteristic of the perforation process for a SFT,
and it is defined as the initial velocity of the impactor required to
emerge from the shield with zero velocity. Thus, vbl is determined
from the equation ␸共vbl , L + b兲 = 0. In the case of a SIS, the depth
of penetration 共DOP兲, H, for the known impact velocity vimp is
determined from the equation ␸共vimp , H兲 = 0. Thus, the general
characteristics of the penetration, the BLV and the DOP, can be
obtained by solving a first-order ordinary differential equation.
Equation 共6兲 shows that the assumption that the lateral surface
of the impactor during its motion is completely immersed in the
host medium, i.e.,
␹1 = 0, ␹2 = L
implies that D does not depend on h. Thus, an equation of motion
of the impactor does not contain h in explicit form. It is thus a
separable equation, which simplifies the solution. However, Li et
al. 关25兴, using experimental data, confirmed the need for taking
into account the incomplete immersion of the impactor in the
shield at the initial stage of penetration, where the length of the
impactor and a penetration depth are of the same order.
Ben-Dor et al. 关26兴 extended LIMs to the case of nonhomoge-
neous shields in which the properties of the material vary, depend-
ing on the depth of the shield, ␰ 共Fig. 2兲, i.e., aជ = aជ 共␰兲. In particu-
共6兲 lar, a step function dependence of aជ 共␰兲 for layered shields,
The LIMs can be readily modified for impactors with plane
bluntness 关21,28,29兴.
共7兲 It is very attractive to apply the localized interaction approach
for investigating problems of impact dynamics, since it allows one
to describe relatively easily the projectile-medium interaction—
共8兲 taking into account the impactor’s shape—and to simulate the
motion of an impactor in a shield. Indeed, many of the known
models can be described in the framework of the localized inter-
action approach.
To the best of our knowledge, the first model describing bullet-
barrier interaction during the penetration of a projectile through a
共9兲 plate was suggested by Nishiwaki 关30兴. This model can be de-
scribed by means of Eqs. 共1兲, 共2兲, and 共4兲 with
⍀ n = a 0 + a 2u 2v 2 共11兲
where a0 is the “static contact pressure” and a2 = ␥ is the density
of the material of the shield. Using his experimental results for
conical bullets and aluminum shields, Nishiwaki 关30兴 drew the
conclusion that a0 is proportional to the thickness of the perfo-
rated plate. He developed a relationship between the impact ve-
locity and the residual velocity of a cone-shaped impactor perfo-
rating a SFT, taking into consideration the change in the impactor-
plate contact surface during penetration. It is interesting to note
that the above-described model is based on the same assumptions
as the Newton’s LIM 关31兴 widely used in aerodynamics. To de-
termine the effect of the hypersonic gas flow over the surface of
the projectile, the projectile-medium interaction is modeled as the
outcome of nonelastic impacts of the host medium’s particles on
the projectile surface. On the basis of their experimental investi-
gations, Vitman and Stepanov 关32兴 proposed the model described
by Eqs. 共3兲 and 共11兲, where a2 = ␥ and a0 is the “dynamic hard-
共10兲 ness” of the material of the host medium. Golubev and Medved-
kin 关33兴 modified the model 关32兴 to take into account the effect of
viscous resistance at the initial stage of penetration. Various semi-
empirical models that differ from one another mainly in the choice
of functions ⍀n and ⍀␶ were collected and analyzed by Recht 关8兴;
this list may be supplemented by adding the model suggested by
Landgzov and Sarkisyan 关34兴.
A model that is based solely on the dependence between the
drag force D and the velocity of the impactor v, and does not
consider the influence of the impactor’s shape on its resistance or
does not take it into account through some, usually empirical,

356 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005 Transactions of the ASME

 Fig. 2 Normal impact: coordinates and notations

Fig. 1 Definition of LIM
coefficients, may be classified as a “degenerate” LIM 共DLIM兲.
“Classic” DLIMs postulate a polynomial dependence of D共v兲 关2兴.
Heimdahl and Schulz 关35兴 studied the motion of an impactor for
an arbitrary function D共v兲. A number of workers have proposed
power-law dependences for different media 关36–39兴. Ben-Dor et
al. 关23兴 showed how the power-law version of a DLIM implies a
LIM.
The localized interaction approach allows one to extend models
developed for conical impactors to impactors with more complex
shapes 关40–42兴. Let us consider the normal penetration of a coni-
cal impactor into a medium and assume that functions ˜␴n共aជ ; ␣ , v兲
and ˜␴␶共aជ ; ␣ , v兲 in the relationship
Here 共see Fig. 4兲, the impactor’s surface that interacts with the
shield is divided into subareas using the planes x = xi, where
␹1共h兲 = x1 ⬍ x2 ⬍ ¯ ⬍ xi ⬍ xi+1 ⬍ ¯ ⬍ xN = ␹2共h兲, and A共xi兲
is the cross-sectional area of the impactor by a plane x = xi,
⌬A共xi兲 = A共xi+1兲 − A共xi兲, ␣i = ␣共xi兲.
In both of the above-described methods, the force at the loca-
tion of the interaction between the projectile and the host medium
is assumed to be equal to the force at the surface of the tangent
cone at this location, when the projectile velocity and the host
medium are the same in both cases. Different versions of such an
approach are known in aerodynamics as “methods of tangent
cones” 共MTC兲 关21,31兴.
2.2 Cavity Expansion Approximations. The spherical cavity
expansion approximation 共SCEA兲 in a quasi-static version is
widely used for constructing impactor-shield interaction models
for SIS. In these models, expansion of a spherically symmetrical
cavity from a zero initial radius at a constant velocity is consid-
ered by means of some continuum mechanics model of the mate-
rial. Let the solution of this problem be represented in the form

ជ = 关˜␴ 共aជ ; ␣, v兲nជ 0 + ˜␴ 共aជ ; ␣, v兲␶ជ 0兴ds, p = ␻共aជ ; ␳˙ *兲 共16兲

dF n ␶
are known, where ␣ is the half angle of the apex of the cone.
Equation 共12兲 is similar to Eq. 共1兲 and determines the effect of the
host medium on the surface of the conical impactor. Then, func-
tions determining the LIM that is suitable for sharp impactors with
other shapes are determined as
⍀␭共aជ ;u, v兲 = ˜␴␭共aជ ;sin u, v兲, −1
␭ = n, ␶
The method proposed by Recht 关8兴 can be considered as a dis-
crete version of the localized interaction theory 共LIT兲 for sharp
bodies of revolution. Let us assume, for simplicity, that Eq. 共3兲 is
valid. Then Eqs. 共6兲–共8兲 imply
0 ⬍ ␣ ⬍ ␲/2 共12兲
where p is the stress at the boundary of the cavity, ␳* is the radius
of the hole, and ␻ is some function. Then, it is assumed that the
normal stress at the surface of the impactor moving in the same
medium is given by the following formula:
␴n = ␻共aជ ;uv兲 共17兲
共13兲 i.e., it is assumed that the normal effect of the host medium on the
impactor’s surface at some location with instantaneous normal
velocity vn = v cos ␯ = uv is equal to the stress at the boundary of
the cavity that expands with constant velocity vn. Clearly, a quasi-
static SCEA implies a LIM with ⍀n = ␻共aជ ; uv兲 in Eq. 共1兲.

冕
␹2共h兲 Another widely used approach is known as the cylindrical cav-
ity expansion approximation 共CCEA兲 共model, method, etc.兲.
D共aជ ;h, v兲 = 2␲ ⍀n共aជ ;u, v兲⌽⌽xdx 共14兲
Sometimes other names are used, e.g., the method of plane sec-
␹1共h兲
tions 关43,44兴 and the disks model 关45兴. The CCEA has been ap-
where u = u共x兲 = ⌽x / 冑⌽2x + 1 = sin ␣ and ␣ = ␣共x兲 is the angle be- plied to modeling penetration into SISs and perforation of SFTs.
In this approach, normal penetration of a slender body of revolu-
tween the tangent to the generator and the axis of the impactor.
tion is usually considered, and it is assumed that particles of the
The integral in Eq. 共14兲 can be approximated by a sum
material of the shield move in radial direction during penetration

冕
xi+1
by the impactor. The shield is divided into infinitely thin layers,
D共aជ ;h, v兲 ⬇ 2␲ 兺i
⍀n共aជ ;u, v兲⌽⌽xdx and, in each layer, cavity expansion caused by the moving impac-
xi tor is modeled. This facilitates the determination of the stress at

冕
xi+1 the boundary of the hole, the force acting at the penetrator in each
d共␲⌽2兲
⬇ 兺i
˜␴n共aជ ; ␣i, v兲
xi
dx
dx layer and, respectively, at each location on the impactor’s lateral
surface. The common technique for applying the CCEA to pen-
etration mechanics may be described as follows. The solution of a
⬇ 兺 ˜␴ 共aជ ; ␣ , v兲⌬A共x 兲
i
n i i 共15兲 “dynamics problem” of hole expansion with time is usually rep-
resented for each layer as

Applied Mechanics Reviews NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 357


Fig. 3 Domain of impactor-shield interaction in coordinates
x-h
p = ␻共aជ ; ␳*, ␳˙ *, ␳¨ *兲
Let ␳ = ⌽共x兲 be the equation of the surface of the impactor 共a body
of revolution兲, then for the layer with the coordinate ␰ 共see Fig. 2兲
we can write 关44兴
␳* = ⌽共h − ␰兲, ␳˙ * = ⌽⬘共x兲ḣ, ␳¨ * = ⌽⬙共x兲ḣ2 + ⌽⬘共x兲ḧ,
The expression for the normal stress at the surface of the impactor,
␴n = p, is obtained by substituting ␳* , ␳˙ *, and ␳¨ * from Eq. 共19兲 into
Eq. 共18兲. Since ␴n is a function of x , ḣ = v and ḧ = vdv / dh, the
equation of motion of an impactor in the case of CCEA that is
determined by Eq. 共18兲, is similar in structure to Eq. 共9兲.
In the case of a “quasi-static” model—when Eq. 共16兲 instead of
Eq. 共18兲 is assumed to be valid—the cylindrical cavity expansion
model yields
冉 冊
uv
␴n = ␻共aជ ;⌽⬘v兲 = ␻ aជ ; ⬅ ␻0共aជ ;u, v兲
冑1 − u2
i.e., the CCEA is reduced to a LIM with ⍀n = ␻0.
The study of Bishop et al. 关46兴 pioneered the application of
cavity expansion models in penetration mechanics. They obtained
solutions describing the quasi-static expansion of cylindrical and
spherical cavities in an infinite medium from zero initial radius
and used these solutions to determine the forces acting at a conical
impactor. A survey of the state of the art up to the late 1950s
concerning the dynamic expansion of cavities in solids was pre-
pared by Hopkins 关47兴. Useful information on this topic is sum-
marized in the monograph of Yu 关48兴, which consists of two parts,
namely, “Fundamental Solutions” and “Geotechnical Applica-
tions.” Cavity-expansion models applied to penetration mechanics
have been described and analyzed by Teland 关49兴 and Satapathy
关50兴. Recent studies directly associated with the application of
cavity-expansion methods in modeling ballistic impact are sur-
veyed below. The most intensive research in this field has been
conducted at Moscow State University and Sandia Research
Laboratories, and, as was noted by Isbell et al. 关51兴, some of the
results obtained are similar.
2.3 Lambert-Jonas Approximation. The following formula
was proposed by Lambert and Jonas 关52兴 and Lambert 关53兴 for the
reduction of ballistic impact data:
vimp vres
v̂res = a0共v̂imp
n
− 1兲1/n, v̂imp = , v̂res = , v̂imp ⬎ 1
vbl vbl
where vimp, vres and vbl are the impact velocity, the residual ve-
locity and the BLV, respectively, and a0 and n 共and, actually, vbl兲
358 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005
Fig. 4 Recht’s approach †8‡
are the coefficients of approximation in Eq. 共21兲. Many of the
empirical and semi-empirical models can be represented in the
form of Eq. 共21兲, particularly, models based on energy and/or
共18兲 momentum conservation 关4,54–58兴. Mileiko and Sarkisyan 关36兴
and Mileiko et al. 关37兴 共see also 关59兴兲 demonstrated that a solution
of the equation of motion of the impactor yields Eq. 共21兲 with
a0 = 1, when a power-law dependence between the impactor’s drag
force and its velocity is valid. Nixdorff 关60–63兴 showed that under
certain assumptions the theory of Awerbuch 关64兴 and Awerbuch
x=h−␰ and Bodner 关65兴 implies Eq. 共21兲. Ben-Dor et al. 关66兴 compared
共19兲 the accuracy of Eq. 共21兲 with an arbitrary exponent n and that
with n = 2.
Since at present Eq. 共21兲 is used as one of the preferred meth-
ods to reduce experimental data, it is useful to understand the
cause of the efficiency of this correlation. Ben-Dor et al. 关67,68兴
addressed this problem by constructing a wide class of physically
realistic models of penetration, which imply Eq. 共21兲. They found
that the following model satisfies the latter requirement: dD
= 关G1共x , h兲v2 + G2共x , h兲v2−n兴dx, where dD is the differential of the
drag force acting at the impactor’s surface element between cross
sections x and x + dx at a depth h 共see notations and coordinates in
Fig. 2兲, G1 and G2 are non-negative functions determining the
共20兲
model, and the loss or accumulation of mass and change of the
shape of the impactor during penetration can be taken into account
in this model. Nennstiel 关69兴 combined the Lambert-Jonas equa-
tion and the deMarre formula for BLV 关4兴 and introduced addi-
tional fitting parameters into the model. These parameters, deter-
mined by the method of nonlinear regression of experimental data,
enables the model to be adapted for special pistol and revolver
bullets.
Grabarek 关70兴 and Anderson et al. 关71兴 considered Eq. 共21兲 as
only one of the possible correlations between v̂res and v̂imp, and
used a different unified relationship:
v̂res = 共a2z2 + a1z + a0z0.5兲/共z + 1兲, z = v̂imp − 1, z 艋 2.5
共22兲
where the approximation coefficients ai共i = 0 , 1 , 2兲 are determined
from regression analysis of experimental data.
3 Metal, Geological and Concrete Shields
3.1 Modeling of Penetration. Investigations that were per-
formed at Moscow State University in the 1950s and the begin-
ning of the 1960s in the field of soil dynamics were summarized
in the monograph of Rakhmatulin et al. 关44兴, in which penetration
modeling occupies an important place. The authors described dy-
namic solutions for the expansion of cylindrical and spherical
cavities in soil. The problem of an impactor’s penetration into a
SIS 共soil兲 was solved by applying the developed cylindrical cavity
共21兲 expansion models. Solutions were found for the DOP, which took
into account incomplete immersion of the impactor in the shield at
the initial stage of penetration.
The results obtained during the next decade were summarized
Transactions of the ASME
in the monograph of Sagomonyan 关72兴, in which the “method of
normal sections,” a generalization of the “method of plane sec-
tions” 共cylindrical cavity expansion model兲 for modeling penetra-
tion by nonslender impactors, was proposed. This method is based
on the assumption that the particles of the host medium move
along the direction normal to the impactor’s surface after the con-
tact. Penetration by a nonslender sharp cone-shaped impactor was
studied by means of the proposed approach. Approximate solu-
tions were obtained for some other problems, i.e., normal penetra-
tion by a sphere, oblique penetration by a cone, and ricochet from
a soil surface.
The results of subsequent investigations were summarized in
another monograph of Sagomonyan 关73兴, which considered the
five classes of problems described below:
1. Normal impact of a slender rigid projectile (a body of revo-
lution). A dynamic CCEA was used to model perforation of
a metal plate and a brittle plate. A technique for obtaining an
analytical solution for the BLV was outlined, and some cal-
culations for cone-nosed impactors were performed. The
quasi-static solution of Bagdoev and Vantsyan 关74兴 for pen-
etration of a slender striker into an anisotropic shield was
discussed.
2. Perforation by normal impact of impactors with a cylindri-
cal nose. Impactors and shields with different combinations
of properties of the materials were considered 共strain-
hardening or rigid shield; rigid or strain-hardening impactor;
elastic or elastic-plastic impactor, etc.兲.
3. Perforation by normal impact of truncated cones and by
non-slender projectiles with a conical nose 共see also 关75兴兲.
Here, penetration of an impactor with plane bluntness into
an elastic-plastic shield with a plug formation was investi-
gated. The penetration phenomenon was considered as two
simultaneous processes, namely, expansion of the cavity in
the shield and motion of the plug. A model was developed to
describe the expansion of a cylindrical cavity inside an
elastic-plastic medium starting from nonzero radius. Solu-
tions associated with modeling the impact by a cylindrical
striker on a plate—taking into account different modes of
behavior of the material of the plate—were used for the
modeling of plugging. The version of the “method of normal
sections” was used for modeling the penetration of nonslen-
der impactors into a SFT.
4. Oblique impact by a rigid impactor on a plastic or elastic-
plastic plate 共see also 关76兴兲. Here, motion of the impactor
and simultaneous deformation of the plate were modeled by
means of both analytical and numerical approaches.
5. Penetration of rigid impactors into soils. A method to in-
crease the DOP by means of jet momentum was also stud-
ied. Studies in all these directions were continued in later
years 共see 关77–79兴兲.
Extensive studies of cavity expansion approximations 共CEA兲 in
penetration dynamics were performed at the Sandia Research
Laboratories by Forrestal and his colleagues. They proposed a
large variety of spherical and cylindrical cavity-expansion models
for materials with different mechanical properties. The distinct
features of their approach are described below. Simple quasi-static
two-term or three-term models for engineering applications were
developed by using theoretical studies of cavity expansion prob-
lems, numerical simulations, and experimental investigations. The
friction coefficient was often introduced into a model to account
for the tangent component of the impactor-shield interaction force.
A limited number of impactor nose shapes 共cone, sphere, and
ogive兲 were considered, comprehensively, although the approach
is applicable to a wide class of bodies of revolution. A simplifi-
cation of Eq. 共10兲 was used when normal penetration was
modeled.
Applied Mechanics Reviews
Two-term SCEAs
␻共aជ ; ␳˙ *兲 = a0 + a2␳˙ 2* 共23兲
were developed for concrete shields 关80,81兴, shields manufactured
from elastic-plastic materials 关82,83兴, strain-hardening materials
关84–88兴, and soils 关89兴. Three-term SCEAs
␻共aជ ; ␳˙ *兲 = a0 + a1␳˙ * + a2␳˙ 2* 共24兲
were proposed for concrete shields 关90兴 and metal shields taking
into account strain hardening, compressibility, and strain-rate ef-
fects 关91兴. The coefficients ai in Eqs. 共23兲 and 共24兲 depend, gen-
erally, on the mechanical properties of the material of the shield
and are determined experimentally or from numerical simulations.
For instance, the following model 关91兴 can be described in greater
detail:
a0 = â0Y, a1 = â1冑␥Y, a2 = â2␥ 共25兲
where Y is the quasi-static yield strength and ␥ is the density of
the nondeformed shield material. Fitting coefficients âi are pre-
sented by Warren and Forrestal 关91兴 for models with incompress-
ible or compressible materials with or without strain rate effects
共four versions of the model兲. All these studies considered normal
penetration into the SISs. The models described by Eqs. 共24兲 and
共25兲, taking into account the simplification of Eq. 共10兲, allow one
to obtain an expression for the DOP in a closed form.
Development of the approaches based on CEA accounts for
some additional features of penetration. In the studies of Little-
field et al. 关92兴, Partom 关93兴, and Teland and Sjøl 关94兴, cavity
expansion models were modified to account for the finite size of
the shield in the direction normal to the direction of penetration.
Warren and Poormon 关95兴 generalized the model 关91兴 to take into
account the influence of the free surface of a SIS on the motion of
the impactor after oblique impact. Generally, the approach may be
described as follows. Spherical cavity expansion is considered
under the condition that the radial stress equals zero at ␳ = ␳+,
where a sphere with a radius ␳+ represents the “free surface.”
Then, the solution of the spherical cavity expansion problem is
represented in the form p = ␻共aជ ; ␳* , ␳+ , ␳˙ *兲. Clearly, an uncertainty
in determining ␳* and ␳+ emerges in the calculation of the normal
stress at the surface of the impactor by means of Eq. 共17兲. Warren
and Poormon 关95兴 calculated the distances ␳* and ␳+ along the
direction normal to the penetrator surface at a given location,
namely, ␳+ was the distance between an axis of the impactor 共a
body of revolution兲 and the free surface, and ␳* was the distance
between an axis of the impactor and its surface. Longcope et al.
关96兴 used a similar approach to account for the free-surface effect
in modeling the penetration of an impactor into a geological
shield, but they calculated ␳* and ␳+ in a different manner. A
spherical cavity expansion technique was also developed by
Macek and Duffey 关97兴 to take into account near-surface effects
and layering, in the case of normal and oblique penetration into
soil.
Cylindrical cavity expansion models were developed for geo-
logical shields 关98–105兴, metal shields 关87,106–109兴 and concrete
shields 关110兴.
Some two-term CCEAs and SCEAs were summarized and
compared by Forrestal et al. 关111兴—using experimental data—for
conical-, spherical, and ogive-nosed projectiles. The study of
Brown et al. 关112兴 describes practical applications of some cavity
expansion models developed in Sandia National Laboratories.
Analysis of various CEAs using experimental data and benchmark
calculations has been undertaken by a number of researchers
关113–116兴. Forrestal and Longcope 关117兴, Satapathy and Bless
关118,119兴, Kartuzov et al. 关120,121兴, Satapathy 关122兴 and Mas-
tilovic and Krajcinovic 关123,124兴 also applied cavity expansion
analysis to brittle materials. Aptukov 关125,126兴 and Aptukov et al.
关127兴, taking into account the influence of the free surface,
“spherical layering” of the medium and temperature effects, ob-
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 359
tained the solution for the one-dimensional problem of the expan-
sion of a spherical cavity into a compressible elastic-plastic me-
dium. Some engineering approximations of dynamic spherical
cavity expansion solutions in an elastic-plastic medium applied to
penetration problems were obtained. Kravchenko et al. 关128兴 used
a combined approach, including the “method of plane sections”
and cylindrical 共spherical兲 cavity expansion models in modeling
the penetration by a solid body of revolution into soils and rocks.
Bashurov et al. 关129兴 used a three-term SCEA given by Eq. 共24兲 in
modeling penetration into concrete, metal, ice, and geological me-
dia. Ben-Dor et al. 关130兴 obtained analytical formulas for the BLV
and the DOP by applying a dynamic CCEA and Eq. 共5兲.
Yarin et al. 关131兴 studied the penetration of a rigid projectile
into an elastic-plastic shield with finite thickness. An ovoid of
Rankine was considered as an impactor because it implied a rea-
sonably simple velocity field that exactly satisfied the continuity
equation and the condition of impenetrability of the projectile.
Some simplifications enabled the force applied at the projectile to
be calculated analytically. An equation of projectile’s motion
could generally be solved numerically. Simple analytical formulas
for the DOP or the residual velocity were derived by including
some additional assumptions. It was shown that the suggested
procedure could be approximately generalized to a projectile with
a tip of arbitrary shape. Roisman et al. 关132兴 developed an ana-
lytical model for oblique penetration by a rigid projectile into an
elastic-plastic shield. Yossifon et al. 关133兴 analyzed the main dif-
ference between the approach of Yarin et al. 关131兴 and that of
Roisman et al. 关132兴. The first solution satisfied the balance of
linear momentum pointwisely in the shield region, but it satisfied
the free-surface boundary conditions only in an integral sense.
The second solution satisfied the balance of linear momentum
only along a finite number of instantaneous streamlines, but it
satisfied the boundary conditions exactly at each intersection of
the streamlines with the boundary. The first solution was valid
only for normal penetration, whereas the second solution could be
used for oblique penetration. The predictions using these two the-
oretical approaches for the case of normal impact were compared
to numerical simulations. It was concluded that both analytical
methods yielded reliable results for the penetration depth, the
BLV and the residual velocity of the projectile. Yossifon et al.
关134兴 generalized the single-layer models 关131,133兴 to penetration
into multilayered shields by rigid projectiles and undertook a
comprehensive consideration of two-layered shields. They noted
that the computational time required for the proposed analytical
model was only a few minutes.
Using the energy-balance approach, Srivathsa and Ramakrish-
nan 关135,136兴 derived a ballistic performance index to estimate
and compare the ballistic quality of metal materials. This index is
a function of the commonly determined mechanical properties of
the material and the striking velocity of the projectile. Srivathsa
and Ramakrishnan 关137兴 represented these indexes as maps. For-
restal and Hanchak 关138兴 extended the rigid-plastic beam analysis
关139,140兴 to predict the BLV of a plate with a rectangular cross-
section against a flat-nosed nondeforming projectile with a rect-
angular cross section. Dinovitzer et al. 关141兴 developed an ana-
lytical model to predict the number of armor debris fragments
produced in a ballistic penetration into a single or multiple-
layered metal shield. Gupta and Madhu 关142兴 and Madhu et al.
关143兴 used their experimental data to derive empirical formulas
for calculating the residual velocity 共velocity drop兲 of an impactor.
Liaghat and Malekzadeh 关144兴 modified the model of Dikshit
and Sundararajan 关145兴 for perforation into thick plates by intro-
ducing an analytical equation instead of an empirical relationship
for determining the size of the plastic zone. Chen and Li 关146兴
developed a penetration model for perforation of a thick plate by
a rigid projectile with various nose shapes. The model takes into
account two perforation mechanisms, namely, hole expansion for
sharp-nosed projectiles and plug formation for blunt-nosed impac-
tors. Explicit formulas or algebraic equations were obtained to
360 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005
predict the BLV and the residual velocity of the impactor. The
proposed model of Chen and Li 关147兴 included submodels of
shear plugging, bending and membrane deformations, and hole
expansion for a range of plate thicknesses against blunt impactors
and was used to obtain analytical formulas for the BLV and the
residual velocity. Wu and Batra 关148兴 proposed a four-stage model
of perforation of a thick strain-hardening plate by hemispherical-
nosed rigid cylindrical rods. The first and the second stages cor-
responded to the cases in which 0 艋 h 艋 R and R ⬍ h ⬍ 2R, respec-
tively, where h is the penetration depth and R is the penetrator’s
shank radius. During the third stage, the tunnel continued to grow,
and it was assumed that a bulge was not formed at the rear surface
of the shield. Then 共in the fourth stage兲, a plug developed ahead of
the projectile and ejected out of the shield when the bulge radius
reached a limiting value. The fourth stage may not necessarily
occur for a relatively thick plate or for low-impact velocity, and
the second and/or the third stages may not necessarily occur for
relatively thin shields.
Holt et al. 关149兴 described a simple model of plugging based on
the equations of momentum and energy conservation and the as-
sumption of constant shear stress acting at the interface between
the plug and the shield. This model included parameters deter-
mined from experiments. Chen and Davies 关150兴 obtained a rela-
tionship between energy absorption during plugging and the initial
impact velocity and investigated the behavior of energy absorp-
tion versus impact velocity.
Grigoryan 关151兴 suggested a simple model describing the pen-
etration of a rigid impactor into soft soil and derived the solution
to the problem in an explicit form. He noted that his investigation
was performed in 1969, although it was published much later in
1993. Foster et al. 关152兴 proposed a simple combined analytical
model for penetration into geological shields. The “force compo-
nent” of the model included the model given by Eq. 共11兲 with the
equation for the tangent force being assumed to be a linear func-
tion of the normal force. The mass loss from a projectile due to
surface melting was estimated using thermodynamic consider-
ations and calculating the work performed by tangential forces
during penetration.
Børvik et al. 关16兴 analyzed the best-known phenomenological
models for normal impact on steel plates by blunt cylindrical pro-
jectiles 共some generalizations of the results of this analysis can be
found in 关153兴兲 and compared the results obtained using these
models to those obtained from experiments. In the study of Børvik
et al. 关153兴, the models suggested by Wen and Jones 关154兴, Bai
and Johnson 关155兴, and Ravid and Bodner 关156兴 were analyzed
using experimental results and benchmark calculations for a wide
range of shield thicknesses. For the reader’s convenience, a short
description of these models is presented in the Appendix.
Wierzbicki 关157兴 developed a new analytical model for perfo-
ration of thin plates struck normally by conical-nose projectiles
accompanied by petaling. A closed-form solution was derived for
the total energy absorbed by the system, the BLV, the number of
petals, and the final deformed shape of the plate as a function of
plate flow stress, thickness, and parameters of the external load-
ing. Gupta et al. 关158兴 suggested analytical and empirical relations
for determining the BLV and the residual velocity based on theo-
retical considerations and experiments performed for thin plates
and ogive-nosed projectiles. Atkins et al. 关159兴 investigated the
formation of multiple necks and cracks around perforations in
ductile materials and obtained expressions for the number of
plane-strain radial necks formed by conical and round-ended pro-
jectiles penetrating into plane targets.
Empirical formulas describing the impact on concrete shields
were analyzed in the studies listed in Table 1 and were also dis-
cussed by a number of researchers 关113,160–163兴. Dancygier
关164兴 modified the existing empirical perforation formulas to in-
clude the reinforcement ratio as a variable.
Luk and Forrestal 关80,81兴 developed a model to estimate the
DOPs and the forces acting at the surface of ogive- and spherical-
Transactions of the ASME
nose projectiles penetrating into a concrete SIS. The model was
based on a quasi-static SCEA. Forrestal et al. 关110兴 proposed a
cylindrical cavity expansion model and an iterative procedure for
determining its parameters. Forrestal et al. 关165兴 suggested the
following two-stage penetration model. In the first stage of the
penetration, the resistance force was given by 共the notations are
shown in Fig. 2兲
D = ch, 0 艋 h 艋 ␬R 共26兲
where c is a constant and ␬ = 4. In the second stage 共h 艌 ␬R兲, it
was assumed that the spherical cavity expansion model 关89兴 de-
scribed by Eq. 共23兲 is valid, with a0 = sf ⬘c , a2 = ␥, where f ⬘c is the
unconfined compressive strength and dimensionless empirical
constant s can be calculated from experimental data. The constant
c is determined using the condition of continuity of the resistance
force at h = ␬R. This model yielded an explicit solution for the
DOP. More recently, Forrestal et al. 关166兴 and Frew et al. 关167兴
showed that s can be considered as a function of f ⬘c and plotted the
corresponding curve. Frew et al. 关167兴 suggested the approxima-
tion s = 82.6共f ⬘c 兲−0.544 共f ⬘c in MPa兲, but Forrestal et al. 关168兴 pre-
ferred to interpret a0 as “the measure of the shield resistance.”
Although Forrestal and Luk 关89兴 developed their model for ogive-
shaped impactors, the model may be easily generalized to arbi-
trary bodies of revolution and projectiles with plane bluntness.
The corresponding formulas for cone, truncated-ogive and
segmental-spherical noses were derived by Chen and Li 关29兴.
Lixin et al. 关169兴 introduced an empirical constant to take into
account the truncation effect of the ogive-nose projectile. In some
studies 关169,170兴 it was proposed that ␬ in Eq. 共26兲 should be
considered as an empirical constant. Li and Tong 关171兴 general-
ized the model, taking into account plug formation. A modifica-
tion of this model has also been proposed by Teland and Sjøl
关172兴.
Forrestal and Tzou 关90兴 compared different spherical cavity ex-
pansion penetration models for concrete shields. An elastic-
cracked model based on the SCEA was developed by Xu et al.
关173兴. Yankelevsky 关160兴 suggested a two-stage model for con-
crete slab penetration in which the disks model 关45兴 was used.
Gomez and Shukla 关170兴 extended the model of Forrestal and Luk
关89兴 to multiple impacts. To this end, an empirical coefficient that
is a function of the number of impacts was introduced into the
formula derived by Forrestal and Luk 关89兴. On the basis of the
same model, Choudhury et al. 关174兴 and Siddiqui et al. 关175兴
derived expressions for the DOP in a buried shield and applied
sensitivity analysis to study the influence of various random vari-
ables on projectile reliability and shield safety. Chen and Li 关29兴
and Li and Chen 关162,176兴 performed a dimensional analysis of
analytical perforation models for concrete, metal, and soil and
concluded that two dimensionless parameters would suffice to de-
scribe the DOP with reasonable accuracy. Me-Bar 关177兴 proposed
a method for scaling the phenomena of ballistic penetration into
concrete shields. The authors suggested to separate the energy
absorbed by the shield during penetration into the energy ex-
pended for surface effects and the energy expended for volume
effects. Then using energy balance they derived expressions that
account for the irregularity in scaling.
Frew et al. 关178兴 and Forrestal and Hanchak 关179兴 proposed
that the model of Forrestal and Luk 关89兴 could be applied to a
limestone shield with a2 = ␥ and a0 = ␮0 + ␮1共R / R0兲, where ␮0
= 607 MPa, ␮1 = 86 MPa, R0 = 0.0254 m.
The modeling of penetration into a shield with a predrilled cav-
ity has also attracted the attention of researchers in the field. To
determine the DOP, Murphy 关180兴 and Folsom 关181兴 modified
models developed for homogeneous shields. A better substantiated
approach takes into account the influence of the predrilled cavity
on the contact surface between an impactor and a shield during
penetration. The area and shape of this contact surface affect a
drag force. Teland 关182,183兴 suggested an SCEA-based model
Applied Mechanics Reviews
and noted that a similar approach had been developed indepen-
dently by Szendrei 关184兴. Yankelevsky 关185兴 developed a model
based on his own version of CCEA. Clearly, a LIM can be easily
generalized to this situation.
Young 关186兴 suggested the following formulas for the DOP of
再 冎
an impactor penetrating into soil, rock, or concrete:
0.0008␨a3a4共m/S0兲0.7ln共1 + 0.000215vimp
2
兲 if vimp ⬍ 61
H=
0.000018␨a3a4共m/S0兲0.7共vimp − 30.5兲 if vimp 艌 61
共27兲
再 冎
where
0.27m0.4 if 2 艋 m ⬍ 27
␨= 共28兲
1 if m 艌 27
再 冎
for soil, and
0.46m0.15 if 5 艋 m ⬍ 182
␨= 共29兲
1 if m 艌 182
for rock and concrete, where S0 is a characteristic cross-sectional
area of the impactor and the coefficients a3 and a4 depend on the
impactor’s nose shape and on the properties of the material of the
shield, respectively 共a method for calculating a3 and a4 was also
suggested by Young 关186兴兲. All the parameters in Eqs. 共27兲–共29兲
are in SI units. Similar formulas were also developed by Young
关186兴 for ice and frozen soil.
3.2 Shape Optimization of Impactors. At the early stages of
investigations of problems of an impactor’s shape optimization,
indirect criteria were used. Kucher 关187兴 optimized the penetra-
tor’s shape using as a criterion the “dynamic work” from Thom-
son’s theory 关188兴 for thin plates. Nixdorff 关189兴 compared the
efficiency of conical, different power-law, and ogival heads and
found that there are indeed shapes that are superior to “Kucher’s
optimum head,” which was determined by solving the correspond-
ing variational problem. Ben-Dor et al. 关28兴 explained this para-
dox with reference to the correct solution 关190兴 共see also 关191兴兲 of
the mathematically similar variational problem in hypersonic
aerodynamics, namely, determining a thin head with minimum
drag by means of the Newton-Busemann model for projectile-
medium interaction. Gendugov et al. 关192兴, Bunimovich and
Yakunina 关193–195兴, Ostapenko and Yakunina 关196兴, and Ostap-
enko 关197兴 determined the shapes of three-dimensional 共3D兲 bod-
ies with the minimum “shape factor” that is equivalent to the
minimum resistance during the motion of an impactor inside a
dense medium with constant velocity. Using the previously devel-
oped disks model 关45兴, Yankelevsky 关198兴 optimized the shape of
a projectile penetrating into soil by minimizing the instantaneous
resistance force. The optimal shape was found to be determined
by a single parameter depending on the velocity and deceleration
of the impactor and the properties of the medium.
As direct criteria for optimization, the maximum DOP for a
given impact velocity in the case of a SIS and the BLV for a SFT
were used. Yankelevsky and Gluck 关199兴, using the disks model
关45兴, obtained formulas for the penetration depth of an ogive-
shaped projectile into soil and analyzed the influence of the im-
pactor’s shape parameters and the characteristics of the shield
material on the criterion. Bondarchuk et al. 关200兴 used a simple
LIM for shape optimization of 3D impactors penetrating into SISs
共soil and metal兲. Numerical calculations and experiments showed
that 3D impactors offer advantages over bodies of revolution
when the DOP is considered as the criterion of optimization. Ad-
ditional calculations associated with determining efficient 3D pen-
etrators are to be found in the monographs 关201,202兴. Ostapenko
et al. 关203兴 found numerically the optimum cross section of a 3D
conical impactor with the maximum DOP for the class of models
with ⍀n = a2共uv兲2 + a1共uv兲 + a0 and ⍀␶ given by Eq. 共4兲. Ostapenko
and Yakunina 关204兴 used this criterion in their analytical investi-
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 361
gation of a variational problem based on the model given by Eqs.
共4兲 and 共11兲; they considered slender bodies with self-similar
cross sections.
Jones et al. 关205兴 investigated the problem of impactor 共body of
revolution兲 optimization using the model given by Eqs. 共3兲, 共10兲,
and 共11兲 and the “shape factor” as the optimization criterion.
Jones and Rule 关206兴 showed later that the criterion of the maxi-
mum DOP implies the same variational problem. Jones et al.
关205兴 used an approximate perturbation method and a numerical
simulation for solving the Euler-Lagrange equation. Jones and
Rule 关206兴 and Rule and Jones 关207兴 investigated analytically and
numerically the problem of maximizing the DOP using the model
given by Eqs. 共4兲, 共10兲, and 共11兲, i.e., taking friction into account.
It was found 关205–207兴 that blunt-nosed impactors have the most
favorable geometry. In 关206兴 it was observed that numerical simu-
lations showed that for some values of the parameters the pre-
dicted impactor tip is “as close to blunt-ended as possible.” Ben-
Dor et al. 关28兴 noted that the formulation of impactor shape
optimization problems must allow for the existence of the plane
bluntness with the unknown size. They drew attention to the ana-
lytical solution of the mathematical problem investigated by Jones
et al. 关205兴, which was obtained earlier in aerodynamics—the op-
timal projectile with a plane bluntness 关191,208兴. If friction is
taken into account, then the optimal impactors also have a plane
bluntness 关209兴. The shape of the impactor that attains the maxi-
mum DOP for concrete or limestone SIS for a given impact ve-
locity was determined by Ben-Dor et al. 关210兴 using the two-stage
model 关165兴. They found that the optimum shape is close to a
blunt cone and that it is independent of the properties of the ma-
terial of the shield. The optimum shapes among spherical-conic,
sharp-conic, and truncated-ogive impactors were also found. A
new formulation of the problem of the nose optimization of an
impactor against a SFT when the impactor can have a plane blunt-
ness with a hitherto unknown radius that causes a plug formation
was suggested by Ben-Dor et al. 关211兴.
Ben-Dor et al. 关28兴 investigated the properties of the following
model used for shape optimization of impactors:
⍀n = ⍀共a1, . . . ;u兲␸1共v兲 + a0␸0共v兲, ⍀␶ = 0 共30兲
where ␸0 and ␸1 are some functions. They described a procedure
for averaging the drag force for 3D impactors with plane blunt-
ness that generalizes and interprets the widely used replacement
of Eq. 共5兲 by Eq. 共10兲. The properties established for the simpli-
fied model are described below. Determining the shape of the
impactor with the minimum BLV for a SFT is equivalent to de-
termining the shape of the impactor with the maximum DOP for a
SIS; in these determinations the optimal shape of the impactor
must be selected from shapes with a given cross-sectional area of
the base. The two problems can be reduced to the minimization of
the same functional; this functional and the optimal shape of the
impactor are independent of the choice of functions ␸0 and ␸1. In
addition, this optimal impactor has minimum resistance in the
hypothetical situation in which the impactor is completely im-
mersed in a homogeneous shield and moves with constant veloc-
ity. If in Eq. 共30兲 ⍀ = a1␺共u兲, where ␺共u兲 is some function, then
the shape of the optimal impactor does not depend on the proper-
ties of the material of the shield 共parameters a0 and a1兲.
Bunimovich and Dubinsky 关21兴 showed that the LIM model
given by Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲 implies the condition u = −vជ 0 · nជ 0 = uⴱ for
the projectile with the minimum drag among 3D projectiles—with
a given cross-sectional area of the base—flying at a zero angle of
attack, where uⴱ is a constant determined by the model adopted
for projectile-medium interaction. Yakunina 关212,213兴 proposed a
procedure, using the above-mentioned condition, for constructing
projectiles with the minimum drag from conical and plane ele-
ments. Later, she used DOP as a criterion of optimization and the
following model to extend this theory to 3D impactors 关214兴:
⍀n = a2共uv兲2 + a0, ⍀␶ = a4共uv兲2 + a3 共31兲
362 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005
Using a LIM with ⍀n = a2␺共u兲v2 + a0 and Eq. 共3兲, Ben-Dor et al.
关26,215兴 studied the problem of impactor shape optimization for
nonhomogenous 共layered兲 shields They considered 3D sharp coni-
cal impactors with a given form of the longitudinal contour,
length, and volume. It was found that an impactor having the
minimum drag during its hypothetical motion with constant veloc-
ity in a homogenous shield penetrates to the maximum depth in a
SIS and has the minimum BLV when it penetrates into a SFT,
regardless of the distribution of the properties of the material of
the shield along its depth and of the number of the layers. By
analogy with the hypersonic flow over flying projectiles, Ben-Dor
et al. 关215兴 predicted that the optimal impactors have a star-shaped
cross section. It was shown 关215兴 that if the ballistic performance
of one of the two impactors is better in penetrating a reference
homogenous or nonhomogenous shield, then the same property
remains valid for any other shield if both impactors have the same
longitudinal contours, are manufactured from the same material,
and have the same lengths of the nose and of the cylindrical part.
Aptukov and Pozdeev 关216兴 considered the minimax problem
for determining the shape of an impactor that penetrates to the
maximum depth under the most unfavorable distribution of the
mechanical properties along the depth of SIS with a given areal
density. The model given by Eqs. 共3兲 and 共11兲 was used with a
linear relationship between the parameters a0 and a2.
On the basis of the LIM given by Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲, Ben-Dor et
al. 关24,217兴 determined the area rules for penetrating impactors
that facilitate the prediction of the influence of a small variation of
the impactor’s shape on its BLV. It was found that the BLV of a
3D impactor whose shape is close to the shape of any reference
impactor 共body of revolution or body with polygonal cross sec-
tions兲 is determined, mainly, by the distribution of the cross-
sectional area along the longitudinal axis. If this area distribution
is the same for a 3D impactor and the reference impactor, then the
difference in their BLVs is of the order of ␧2, where ␧ is the order
of the difference in their shapes.
3.3 Modeling, Analysis and Optimization of Multilayered
Plates. Marom and Bodner 关218兴 conducted a combined analyti-
cal and experimental comparative study of monolithic, layered,
and spaced thin aluminum shields. They found that the ballistic
resistance of a monolithic shield is higher than that of a multilay-
ered shield in contact with the same areal density and lower than
the ballistic resistance of a spaced shield. The study of Radin and
Goldsmith 关219兴 was also based on semi-empirical models and
experimental investigations. They found a monolithic aluminum
shield to be superior to a layered shield with the same total thick-
ness for both conical-nose and blunt projectiles, whereas spaced
shields were less effective. Nixdorff 关61–63兴 compared the ballis-
tic performance of a monolithic metal shield to that of a shield
having the same total thickness, but consisting of several plates in
contact, where the two shields were manufactured from the same
material. Using the theory developed by Awerbuch and Bodner
关64,65兴, Nixdorff showed that division of a homogeneous shield
into several layers implies a reduction of the BLV of the shield.
Woodward and Cimpoeru 关220兴 developed a simple semi-
empirical model that considers the perforation of laminates as a
two-stage process of indentation on the impact side of the shield
and either shear or dishing failure on the exit side, depending on
the shield configuration. Experimental data for laminated alumi-
num alloy shields perforated by plane-ended or conical penetra-
tors were used in this investigation. Young 关186兴, using semi-
empirical formulas for soil, rock, and concrete homogeneous
shields, developed a technique for calculating the penetration into
layered shields.
Aptukov et al. 关221兴 and Aptukov 关222兴, using Pontrjagin’s
maximum principle, determined the optimum distribution of the
mechanical characteristics of a nonhomogeneous plate. The areal
density of the shield along the trajectory of the impactor’s motion,
up to its stop, was used as a criterion and cylindrical and cone-
nosed impactors were considered. The model determined by Eqs.
Transactions of the ASME
共3兲 and 共11兲 and a linear relationship between the parameters a0
and a2 was used. Aptukov et al. 关223兴 solved the discrete problem
of optimization of a layered plate when the shield consisted of
several layers of material and the material itself could be chosen
from a given set of materials. The cylindrical cavity expansion
model suggested by Sagomonyan 关224兴 was used in this study. All
these investigations are summarized in the monograph of Aptukov
et al. 关127兴.
Ben-Dor et al. 关225兴 considered multilayered shields consisting
of several plates in contact with no interaction between plates. It
was assumed that the model given by the equation
⍀n = a2共i兲␺共u兲v2 + a0共i兲, ⍀␶ = 0 共32兲
was valid for the ith plate in the initial order of the layers in the
shield. The effect of the order of the plates on the BLV of the
shield was studied, and the results can be summarized as follows.
If a共i兲
2 are the same for all the plates in the shield, the shield is
perforated by 3D nonconical impactor, and a共i兲 0 ⬎ a0
共i+1兲
for any two
adjacent plates, then the BLV of the shield can be increased by
interchanging the plates. The maximum BLV of the shield is
achieved when the plates are arranged in the order of increasing
values a共i兲
0 ; the minimum BLV is attained when the plates are
arranged in the armor in the inverse order. In the general case 共in
which a0 and a2 are different for different plates兲, the maximum
BLV for a two-layered shield against a 3D conical impactor is
attained when the plates are arranged according to increasing
magnitudes of the parameter ␮,
␮共i兲 = a0共i兲/a2共i兲 共33兲
In additional assumption that the plates are perforated sequentially
共one would expect that this is approximately valid if the length of
the impactor is much less than the thickness of each plate兲 facili-
tated the extension of the latter conclusion to shields consisting of
more than two plates.
Ben-Dor et al. 关27,226–228兴 studied analytically the influence
of air gaps between the plates on the BLV of a multi-layered
shield. Using the general LIM given by Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲, they 关27兴
found that the ballistic performance of the shield against 3D
conical-nosed impactors is independent of the widths of the air
gaps and of the sequence of plates in the shield and that it is
determined only by the total thickness of the plates if the plates
are manufactured from the same material. The influence of air
gaps on the BLV of a shield that consists of two plates manufac-
tured from different materials was studied by Ben-Dor et al. 关226兴
using the model described by Eq. 共32兲. It was found that if
␮共1兲 ⬎ ␮共2兲共␮共1兲 ⬍ ␮共2兲兲, then the BLV decreases 共increases兲 with
increasing the air gap thickness from zero to the length of the
impactor and becomes constant with further increases of the air
gap thickness. If ␮共1兲 = ␮共2兲 then the BLV does not depend on the
thickness of the air gap. Using the CCE model 关73兴, Ben-Dor et
al. 关227兴 studied the effect of air gaps on the ballistic performance
of a spaced shield comprising plates manufactured from the same
material, which was penetrated by a conical-nosed impactor. It
was found that the BLV of the shield increased with the increase
of the widths of air gaps; this effect was very small for slender
impactors and could be intensified by increasing the half angle of
the cone apex. The case of large air gaps and plates manufactured
from different materials was also considered by Ben-Dor et al.
关228兴.
A number of other ballistic properties of multilayered shields
perforated by a 3D conical impactor were established by Ben-Dor
et al. 关229,230兴. In the first case to be considered, the armor con-
sisted of adjacent plates manufactured from one of two possible
materials and the total thickness of the plates manufactured from
each material was fixed 关229兴. It was found that the maximum
BLV was attained for a two-layered shield without interchanging
the plates manufactured from different materials, i.e., the front
plate in the optimum shield must be the plate manufactured from
Applied Mechanics Reviews
the material with the smaller value of the parameter ␮. The second
case considered the use of a number of materials with different
properties for manufacturing the plates in a multilayered shield
关230兴. For a shield with a given areal density 共mass per unit sur-
face area兲 and thickness, the goal was to determine the structure
共i.e., the order and the thicknesses of the plates of the different
materials兲 that would provide the maximum BLV of the shield
against a normal impact by a 3D conical impactor. It was found
that the shield having the maximum BLV must contain one plate
manufactured from the material with the maximum ␮. The shield
with the minimum BLV will contain one plate manufactured from
the material with the minimum ␮. The magnitudes of the BLV of
different shields with a given areal density and thickness will vary
between these two limiting solutions.
4 Composite Shields
Florence 关231兴 developed an analytical model for a two-
component composite armor consisting of a ceramic front plate
and a ductile back plate impacted normally by a rigid projectile at
ballistic velocity. This model, as reworked by Hetherington and
Rajagopalan 关56兴, yields the following expression for the BLV,
vbl:
␧2␴2b2z关共␥1b1 + ␥2b2兲z + m兴
2
vbl = , z = ␲共R + 2b1兲2 共34兲
0.91m2
where bi are the plate’s thicknesses, ␴i are the ultimate tensile
strengths, ␧2 is the breaking strain, ␥i are the densities of the
materials of the plates, and subscripts 1 and 2 refer to a ceramic
plate and a back plate, respectively. The impactor was modeled as
a short cylindrical rod that strikes the ceramic plate. The ceramic
plate then breaks progressively into a cone of fractured material.
The impact energy is transferred to the back plate, which is de-
formed like a uniform membrane. The simplifying assumptions
that enabled an analytical expression to be obtained for the BLV
were elucidated by Hetherington and Rajagopalan 关56兴 as follows:
共i兲 the diameter of the circular area at the back plate over which
the momentum is distributed is equal to the base diameter of the
fracture conoid in the ceramic facing, and the angle of the conoid
is chosen to be equal 63 deg; 共ii兲 the deformation history of the
back plate is modeled by the motion of a membrane clamped
around the perimeter of the base of the fractured conoid, and the
initial conditions for the membrane’s motion are determined by
the condition imposed by the projectile’s impact and by the con-
servation of momentum within the projectile-shield system; 共iii兲
failure occurs when the maximum tensile strain in the membrane
attains the ultimate breaking strain of the back plate.
Florence’s model was used for solving problems associated
with armor optimization. Some numerical results obtained with
this approach were presented by Hetherington and Rajagopalan
关56兴 and by Florence 关231兴. Later, Hetherington 关232兴 investigated
analytically the problem of determining the structure of two-
component armor with a given areal density that provides the
maximum BLV. He suggested an approximate expression for the
optimum value of the ratio of the front plate width to the back
plate width. Wang and Lu 关233兴 investigated a similar problem in
which the total thickness of the armor rather than the areal density
was a given characteristic. The problem of designing two-
component armor with the minimum areal density for a given
BLV was comprehensively investigated by Ben-Dor et al. 关234兴. It
was shown that the solution of the optimization problem could be
presented in terms of the dimensionless variables, where all the
characteristics of the impactor and the armor were expressed as a
function of two independent dimensionless parameters. The latter
condition enables the determination of a solution of the optimiza-
tion problem for an arbitrary two-component composite armor in
an analytical form. Approximate formulas were derived for the
areal density and thicknesses of the plates in the optimal armor as
functions of the parameters determining the properties of the ma-
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 363
terials of the armor components, the crosssection and mass of the
impactor, and the expected impact velocity. Lee and Yoo 关235兴
conducted a combined numerical and experimental study that sup-
ported the results for the armor’s optimization based on the model
suggested by Florence 关231兴. Hetherington and Lemieux 关236兴
and Sadanandan and Hetherington 关237兴 generalized Florence’s
model to the case of an oblique impact. Ben-Dor et al. 关234兴 used
fitting coefficient in Eq. 共34兲 that is determined from experimental
data in order to improve the accuracy of the model.
Woodward 关238兴 developed two simple models for the perfora-
tion of ceramic composite armor by a flat-ended cylinder, one for
the perforation of a shield with a thin back plate and the other for
a shield with a thick back plate. Analytical models for the perfo-
ration of a ceramic/metal armor with thin back plate have been
proposed by a number of researchers 关239–241兴. Zaera et al. 关242兴
developed an engineering model taking into account the effect of
the adhesive layer used to bond ceramic tiles to the back metallic
plate on the ballistic behavior of ceramic/metal armors. Fellows
and Barton 关243兴 suggested a model that predicts penetration of
projectiles into ceramic-faced semi-infinite armor. Zhang et al.
关244兴 proposed a three-stage dynamic model of ballistic impact by
a cylindrical projectile against ceramic fiber-reinforced plastic
共FRP兲 composites. Du and Zhao 关245兴 proposed a model that
facilitates the prediction of the BLV of shield manufactured from
a ceramic/aluminum alloy. James 关246兴 suggested an empirical
formula to estimate the optimum ratio between the thickness of
the ceramic plate and the thickness of the back metallic plate in a
two-component armor for an oblique impact. Ben-Dor et al. 关247兴
developed a procedure to optimize a two-component armor on the
basis of the experimental data.
In the model suggested by Wen 关248,249兴 共see also 关250兴兲, it
was assumed that the deformations are localized and that the pres-
sure at the surface of the impactor immerged into the shield can be
broken down into two components: the cohesive quasi-static re-
sistive pressure caused by elastic-plastic deformations of the ar-
mor material and the dynamic resistance associated with the ki-
netic energy of the impactor. It was assumed that the normal stress
at the surface of the projectile penetrating into a FRP laminate
could be represented as
␴n = c␴e + 冑␥␴e␤vimp 共35兲
where ␴e is the quasi-static linear elastic limit of the material of
the armor, c = 1, and ␤ is a constant depending on the shape of the
impactor. The values of the parameter ␤ were assumed to be ␤
= 2 sin ␣ for a conical-nosed impactor, where ␣ is the half angle of
the apex of the cone, ␤ = 2 for a cylindrical flat-faced impactor,
and ␤ = 1.5R / R̂ for an ogival-nosed impactor with ogive generator
radius R̂. Analytical equations were obtained for the DOP 共SIS兲
and the BLV 共SFT兲 struck at normal incidence by impactors with
conical, truncated, plane, ogival and hemispherical nose shapes.
Using the MTC, Ben-Dor et al. 关40兴 generalized the model
suggested by Wen 关248,249兴 to impactors with an arbitrary shape,
⍀n = ␴e + 2冑␥␴euvimp, studied the ballistic properties of impactors
that have the shape of a body of revolution against SFT and de-
rived formulas for the BLV. The shapes of the impactors with the
minimum and the maximum BLV were found analytically, i.e., the
interval of possible values of the BLV for impactors with different
shapes of the nose was determined. It was shown that the opti-
mum impactor with the minimum BLV has plane bluntness and its
BLV is very close to that for the optimum blunt cone impactor,
i.e., a quasi-optimum impactor shape can be selected among the
blunt cones. A comparison of impactors with different shapes
showed that the optimum impactor has a significant advantage
over the sharp-cone and ogive impactors. The shape of the impac-
tor that attains a given DOP with the minimum impact velocity
against semi-infinite FRP laminates was found by means of a
numerical procedure for solving the corresponding nonclassical
variational problem 关41兴. It was shown that the optimum shape
364 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005
depends on the DOP, which is assumed to be larger than the length
of the nose of the impactor. For a relatively small DOP, the opti-
mal impactor is a sharp awl-shaped body. With an increase of the
DOP, the optimal nose geometry of the impactor changes and
becomes close to a blunt cone. It was demonstrated analytically
that a plane-nosed cylinder requires the maximum impact velocity
so as to attain a given DOP. The performances of the impactors
with different head shapes penetrating into SISs was studied. Pen-
etration of monolithic semi-infinite and finite FRP laminates
struck by a 3D projectile was studied by Ben-Dor et al. 关42兴, and
formulas for calculating the characteristics of penetration and per-
foration were derived. It was shown that some typical problems of
optimization of the shape of the impactor for finite shields and
SISs can be reduced to the same variational problem. The study of
Ben-Dor et al. 关42兴 predicted the advantage of 3D conical impac-
tors over conical impactors having the shape of a body of revolu-
tion. Wen 关251兴 generalized his model given by Eq. 共35兲 to metal,
concrete, and soil shields, as well as to eroding penetrators. He
proposed that parameter c, which represents the constraining ef-
fect of the shield material, be determined either experimentally or
by cavity expansion analysis. The parameter ␴e was assigned the
meaning of static yield stress for metallic shields and of shear
strength for concrete or soil shields. To adapt the model to eroding
projectiles, it was assumed that the nose of the projectile could be
approximated by a semi-sphere with effective radius R̃ = ␧R,
where ␧ is an empirical coefficient that equals to 1.6 for steel
armor 共the value 1.55 was given in 关252兴兲. It was also proposed
that the ejection of the shield material from its distal side due to
surface effects 共such as spalling or plugging兲 be taken into ac-
count by introducing the effective thickness b̃ = b − ␨R, where ␨
艌 0 is an empirical constant. Wen also discussed the suggested
models in an additional paper 关253兴. The accuracy of the models
关248,249兴 for various composites has also been analyzed in
关254,255兴.
Wang and Chou 关256兴 developed a semi-empirical model to
describe the resistance force at each penetration stage by a
cylindrical-conical impactor into a glass-fiber-reinforced plastic
共GRP兲 plate by taking into account the incomplete immersion of
the impactor in the armor. The model facilitates the estimation of
the energy absorption and the residual velocity of the projectile.
Empirical parameters in the model must be determined experi-
mentally. Gellert et al. 关257兴 conducted ballistic tests for cylinders
with two diameters and three nose shapes against GRP composite
plates of various thicknesses. Reduction of the test data showed
that the kinetic energy of the impactor at the BLV can be repre-
sented as a two-component piecewise linear function of the shield
thickness. A simple model was suggested in order to explain this
dependence.
Based on the energy balance and taking into account the energy
absorbed by the shield and transferred to spallation, Czarnecki
关258兴 developed three semi-empirical procedures to estimate the
BLV of composite laminates.
For fiber composites, Lee et al. 关259兴 and Song and Egglestone
关260兴 proposed an empirical relationship between the BLV and the
areal density, vbl = c0Ac1, where c0 and c1 are material-dependent
constants whose values are given for Spectra-1000, Spectra-900,
Kelvar-29, and S-2 glass. Morye et al. 关261兴 developed a simple
model for calculating energy absorption by polymer composites
during ballistic impact. The energy loss of the projectile was sub-
divided into three terms, namely, energy absorbed in tensile fail-
ure of the composite, energy converted into elastic deformation of
the composite, and energy converted into the kinetic energy of the
moving portion of the composite. These contributions were com-
bined in the model to determine the BLV of the composite. The
required input parameters for the model were determined by
physical characterization and high-speed photography. The experi-
mentally measured values of the BLV were found to vary within
the range predicted by the model for three examined composite
Transactions of the ASME
systems. It was found that the dominant energy absorption mecha-
nism was associated with the kinetic energy of the moving portion
of the composites.
Kasano 关262兴 studied analytically and experimentally the im-
pact perforation of carbon fiber composite laminates struck by a
steel-ball projectile. Two analytical relationships between the im-
pact velocity and the residual velocity—identical in form and
similar to that determined in 关54兴—were obtained from the con-
servation laws for energy and momentum. The unknown coeffi-
cients in this unified relationship must be determined from impact
tests.
Prosser 关263兴 studied the perforation of nylon panels by rods
with a truncated wedge-shaped leading surface of the nose. He
used the model given by Eq. 共21兲 with n = 2, a0 = 1, which was
based on the assumption of independence of the projectile’s en-
ergy loss during perforation of the shield on the striking velocity.
A linear approximation of the square of the BLV versus the num-
ber of layers in the panel was proposed. Parga-Landa and
Hernandez-Olivares 关264兴 developed an analytical model for pre-
dicting the impact behavior of soft armors against a rigid projec-
tile. They made the following basic assumptions: separation dis-
tance between the adjacent armor layers is constant; the projectile
moves between the adjacent layers with constant acceleration; the
shield material properties remain constant during penetration;
there is no friction between the projectile and the armor plate;
fiber behavior is linear elastic; and every layer contributes to de-
celerating the projectile until it reaches its fracture strain. Cunniff
关265兴, taking into account mass, shape, impact velocity, impact
obliquity of the striker, and the areal density of the shield, devel-
oped a parametric model that facilitates the prediction of the BLV
and the residual velocity of a projectile penetrating into textile-
based body armor. The model was based on multidimensional
nonlinear regression analysis of extensive test data for Kevlar-29.
This model was also used to estimate the armor’s areal density
requirements for protection against anti-personnel mines. This
model, describing the flight of a mine fragment in air, assumed
that the drag force is a piecewise linear function of the velocity of
the fragment. Vinson and Zukas 关266兴 and Vinson and Walker
关267兴 modeled the ballistic impact on textile fabric and fiber-
reinforced composite shields by a blunt-nosed projectile by ana-
lyzing the conical shell formed on impact. Simple computational
procedures were proposed to determine the residual velocity of
the impactor. Additional analysis of the conical shell approach
was given by Focht and Vinson 关268兴.
Chocron-Benloulo et al. 关269兴 developed an analytical model to
describe impact on textile armor based on the results by Royance
et al. 关270兴 and Smith et al. 关271兴 and proposed a failure criterion.
Chocron-Benloulo et al. 关272兴 complemented the model with a
delamination equation. Billon and Robinson 关273兴 developed an
analytical model for ballistic impact on single-layered and multi-
layered fabric armor. The model employed the assumptions that
the rate of change of the projectile’s kinetic energy remained con-
stant with increasing penetration depth 共this value depends on the
properties of the material of the layer兲, and interaction between
layers was neglected. This simplified model was used to maximize
the BLV of a multilayered fabric armor, and it was found that the
BLV reached its maximum value when all the fabric layers in the
assembly were manufactured from the material with the highest
single-layer BLV. Gu 关274兴 suggested an analytical model, based
on the energy conservation law, to calculate the decrease of the
kinetic energy and the residual velocity of a projectile penetrating
into a multilayered plane plain-woven fabric shield. Walker
关275,276兴 proposed simple models that imply the following ex-
pression for the BLV of the fabric:
共2␣兲 AS0
vbl = ␨共1 + ␤␹兲c f ␰1/
f ␸共z兲, ␹=
m ciate their investigations with LIT.
Applied Mechanics Reviews
z= 冋 9␲共1 + ␤␹兲
8␹
册 1/6
共36兲
where A is the areal density of the shield, c f is the sound speed of
the fiber and ␧ f is the failure strain of the fabric break, ␤ ⬇ 2.56.
For the model 关276兴, ␨ and ␣ ⬍ 1 are constants and ␸共z兲 = 1,
whereas for the model 关275兴, ␨ = 4.5, ␣ ⬍ 0.5, ␸共z兲 = 1 / 共z2 − 2z
+ 3兲. The BLV of fabrics with resin was calculated as 关276兴:
v̂bl = 冑1 − ␮ + ␮共␤␹兲3vbl
共37兲
where ␮ is the mass fraction of the resin in the system and vbl is
given by Eq. 共36兲. Additional analysis of the assumptions made by
Walker 关275,276兴 was performed by Orphal et al. 关277兴 and
Walker 关278兴.
Phoenix and Porwal 关20兴 developed an analytical membrane
model for the response of fibrous materials against ballistic impact
by a blunt-nosed projectile. They noted that many studies in this
field were performed in former USSR during 1940s and 1950s and
are unknown in the West, and they tried to fill this gap.
Hoo Fatt and Park 关279兴 found an analytical solution for the
BLV of a honeycomb plate subjected to normal impact by blunt
and spherical projectiles, which is based on the three-stages per-
foration model.
5 Concluding Remarks
Despite the capabilities of numerical simulations, the simplified
methods retain their importance in ballistic impact dynamics. In
situations in which the two types of method compete, the choice is
determined by the available resources and the requirements for
accuracy and reliability of the results. Very often, there is no al-
ternative to the use of the simplified approaches because the lack
of fundamental physical conceptions about the phenomena pre-
cludes the use of more exact models. Approximate models are
also important because, by allowing us to determine general gov-
erning laws in analytical form, they can stimulate new engineering
solutions and indicate directions for further theoretical and experi-
mental investigations.
Since this review is dedicated to analytical models, the authors
set out to classify 共as far as was feasible兲 the models according to
their mathematical description 共Sec. 2兲 and to distinguish between
the three main classes of model that are used in various modifi-
cations for different penetration conditions.
The comprehensive analysis of a localized interaction approach
in the review allowed us to determine its close connection to
cavity-expansion approximations and other methods used in high-
speed penetration mechanics 共HSPM兲. Since many models em-
ployed in HSPM and developed from different physical assump-
tions happen to be LIM, the review may be expected to stimulate
interest in studying LIMs and applying this approach to solving
practical problems. The LIT has been successfully used in aero-
dynamics since the 1960s 关21,22,280兴. In this review, we have
demonstrated that some approaches and results in aerodynamics
may be applied in HSPM, e.g., MTC and results for shape opti-
mization of projectiles. However, although in aerodynamics the
main field of application of the LIT is the calculation and analysis
of aerodynamic characteristics of projectiles during their specified
motion, in HSMP there are no laws of motion for impactors, and
important characteristics, such as BLV and DOP, are determined
by solving equations of impactor motion. Thus, the direct similar-
ity between HSPM and LIT applies only for determining forces
acting on impactor. Since applied problems in aerodynamics and
HSPM are different, it may be concluded that developing a LIT
for HSPM is a separate, independent problem. Analysis in the
review of publications in this field showed that the number of
studies using and developing the LIT concept is growing, al-
though the authors of these publications do not necessarily asso-
NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 365
 An important problem related to the use of approximate models
is the analysis of their accuracy. The majority of studies comprise
comparisons between results obtained with suggested or approxi-
mate models and experimental results or benchmark calculations.
Since the results of such comparisons can be easily predicted, we
did not discuss the corresponding sections of those studies in this
review. However, although this is formally beyond the scope of
our survey, we did mention a number of studies that analyzed
models suggested by other authors because we believe that such
investigations should be encouraged.
Analysis of the publications covered in this review showed that
the number of studies dedicated to simplified models in HSPM
and their use for investigating applied problems is quite large.
There is no reasons to doubt that this tendency will continue
within the coming years.
Nomenclature
Unless otherwise stated in the text the following notations apply:
BLV ⫽ ballistic limit velocity
CCEA ⫽ cylindrical cavity expansion
approximation/approach
CEA ⫽ cavity expansion approximation/approach
DLIM ⫽ “degenerate” localized interaction model
DOP ⫽ depth of penetration
FRP ⫽ fiber-reinforced plastic
HSPM ⫽ high speed penetration mechanics
LIM ⫽ localized interaction model
LIT ⫽ localized interaction theory
MTC ⫽ method of tangent cones
SCEA ⫽ spherical cavity expansion
approximation/approach
SFT ⫽ shield with a finite thickness
SIS ⫽ semi-infinite shield
D ⫽ drag force acting at the impactor
H ⫽ DOP
L ⫽ impactor’s nose length
R ⫽ impactor’s shank radius
S0 ⫽ characteristic cross sectional area of impactor
aជ ⫽ vector with components a0 , a1 , . . .
a0 , a1 , . . . ⫽ parameters of models that characterize, mainly,
properties of a shield 共may have different
meanings in different models兲
b ⫽ thickness of the shield 共Fig. 2兲
h ⫽ current DOP, the coordinate 共Fig. 2兲
k ⫽ coefficient of friction between the impactor’s
surface and a shield
m ⫽ mass of the impactor
nជ 0 ⫽ inner normal unit vector at a given location at
the projectile’s surface 共Fig. 1兲
p ⫽ stress at the boundary of a cavity in CEA
u ⫽ =cos ␽
v ⫽ velocity of the projectile
vn ⫽ normal component of the velocity of the
projectile
vជ 0 ⫽ unit vector of the velocity of the projectile at a
given location at its surface 共Fig. 1兲
vbl ⫽ BLV
vimp ⫽ impact velocity
x ⫽ axis of cylindrical coordinates associated with
the impactor 共Fig. 2兲
⌽共x , ␪兲 ⫽ function determining a shape of the impactor
⍀n , ⍀␶ ⫽ functions defining the projectile-shield LIM
␣ ⫽ apex half angle of a tangent cone
␥ ⫽ material density of the shield
␪ ⫽ axis of cylindrical coordinates associated with
the impactor 共Fig. 2兲
␰ ⫽ coordinate associated with a shield 共Fig. 2兲
366 / Vol. 58, NOVEMBER 2005
␳ ⫽ axis of cylindrical coordinates associated with
the impactor 共Fig. 2兲
␳* ⫽ radius of a hole in CEA
␶ជ 0 ⫽ tangent unit vector at a given location at the
projectile’s surface 共Fig. 1兲
␹1共h兲 , ␹2共h兲 ⫽ functions describing part of the impactor’s lat-
eral surface that interacts with a shield 共Figs. 2
and 3兲
␴n ⫽ normal stress at the surface of the impactor
˜␴n , ˜␴␶ ⫽ normal and tangent stress at the surface of the
conical impactor, respectively
␽ ⫽ angle between vector nជ 0 and vector 共−vជ 0兲
共Fig. 1兲
␻ , ␻0 ⫽ functions determining a model in CEA
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and Oblique Ballistic Impact on Ceramic/Metal Lightweight Armors,” Int. J.
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Model to Simulate Impact Onto Ceramic/Composite Armors,” Int. J. Impact
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“Modelling of the Adhesive Layer in Mixed Ceramic/Metal Armours Sub-
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关247兴 Ben-Dor, G., Dubinsky, A., and Elperin, T., 1999, “Optimization of Light
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Analysis of Penetration by an Eroding Projectile,” Int. J. Impact Eng., 15共5兲,
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Under Impact By Missiles,” Chinese J. High Press. Phys., 16共2兲, pp. 94–104.
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关278兴 Walker, J. D., 2002, “New Directions and New Challenges in Analytical
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Transactions of the ASME
 Gabi Ben-Dor is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Director of the Insti-
tutes for Applied Research of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (Beer-Sheva, Israel). His parents survived
the Holocaust and immigrated to Israel, where he was born in 1950. He completed a B.Sc. degree (1976) at
Ben-Gurion University and received a Ph.D. (1978) from the Institute for Aerospace Studies (UTIAS) of the
University of Toronto in Ontario, Canada, being awarded the G. N. Paterson Award for outstanding per-
formance in his graduate studies. He has been with the Department of Mechanical Engineering ever since.
From 1987 to 1991 he served as the Head of the Department and from 1994 to 2000 he served as the Dean
of the Faculty of Engineering Sciences. He has conducted extensive research in Fluid Mechanics and
Mechanics of Solids and has been widely published over the course of his academic career, including a
monograph entitled Shock Wave Reflection Phenomena, about 200 papers in scientific journals, and 60
chapters in collective volumes. Over 290 papers based on his research have been presented at scientific
conferences and symposia. He is a co-editor of a recently published three-volume Handbook of Shock
Waves. In 2000, he became the first incumbent of the Dr. Morton and Toby Mower Professorial Chair in Shock Wave Studies. In 2002,
he was awarded the Professor Hanin Award for his research on Shock Wave Reflection.

Anatoly Dubinsky is a Senior Researcher in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Ben-Gurion

University of the Negev (Beer-Sheva, Israel). He received his M.A. (1971) and Ph.D. (1982) degrees in
Mathematics and Mechanics from Moscow Lomonosov State University (Russia). He has authored about
150 papers and three books on Impact Dynamics, Aeromechanics, and Operations Research.

Tov Elperin is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Head of the Laboratory of
Turbulent Multiphase Flows at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (Beer-Sheva, Israel). He completed his
M. Sc. (1971) at Minsk State University (the former USSR) in Theoretical Physics and received his Ph.D.
(1984) in Nuclear Engineering from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. He has conducted extensive
research in Fluid Mechanics, Mechanics of Solids, Heat and Mass Transfer, and Applied Physics. He is the
author of over 200 papers in scientific journals and co-editor of the recently published three-volume
Handbook of Shock Waves. He holds 13 patents, and over 200 papers based on his research have been
presented at scientific conferences and symposia.

Applied Mechanics Reviews NOVEMBER 2005, Vol. 58 / 371