DaoTran

Easily Confused Words To

Students of English

2/22/20 Self-study course

i
 DaoTran

Contents
Above or over?................................................................................... 1
Across, over or through? ................................................................... 2
Advice or advise? .............................................................................. 4
Affect or effect? ............................................................................... 4
All or every? ...................................................................................... 4
All or whole? ..................................................................................... 6
Allow, permit or let?......................................................................... 8
Almost or nearly? ............................................................................. 9
Alone, lonely, or lonesome? ............................................................. 9
Along or alongside? ......................................................................... 10
Already, still or yet? ......................................................................... 10
Also, as well or too?......................................................................... 12
Alternate(ly), alternative(ly) .......................................................... 13
Although or though? ....................................................................... 14
Altogether or all together? ............................................................. 16
Amount of, number of or quantity of? ........................................... 16
Any more or anymore? .................................................................... 16
Anyone, anybody or anything? ....................................................... 17
Apart from or except for? ............................................................... 18
Arise or rise? .................................................................................... 18
Around or round? ............................................................................ 18
Arouse or rouse?.............................................................................. 19
As or like? 19
As, because or since? .......................................................................20
As, when or while? .......................................................................... 22
Been or gone? .................................................................................. 23
Begin or start? .................................................................................24
Beside or besides? ...........................................................................24
Between or among? ........................................................................24
Born or borne? ................................................................................. 25
Bring, take and fetch .......................................................................26

ii
 DaoTran

Can, could or may?...........................................................................28

Classic or classical? ..........................................................................29
Come or go? ..................................................................................... 30
Consider or regard? ......................................................................... 31
Consist, comprise or compose? ...................................................... 32
Content or contents? ....................................................................... 32
Different from, different to or different than? .............................. 33
Do or make? ..................................................................................... 33
Down, downwards or downward? .................................................34
During or for? .................................................................................. 35
Each or every? .................................................................................. 36
East or eastern; north or northern? ................................................ 36
Economic or economical?................................................................ 37
Efficient or effective? ...................................................................... 37
Elder, eldest or older, oldest? ......................................................... 38
End or finish? ................................................................................... 38
Especially or specially? .................................................................... 39
Except or except for? ...................................................................... 39
Expect, hope or wait? ..................................................................... 40
Experience or experiment? .............................................................42
Fall or fall down? .............................................................................42
Far or a long way?............................................................................43
Farther, farthest or further, furthest? ........................................... 44
Fast, quick or quickly? .....................................................................45
Fell or felt? 46
Female or feminine; male or masculine? ....................................... 46
Finally, at last, lastly or in the end? ................................................ 46
First, firstly or at first? ..................................................................... 47
Fit or suit? 48
Following or the following? ........................................................... 48
For or since? .................................................................................... 49
Forget or leave? .............................................................................. 49

iii
 DaoTran

Full or filled? ....................................................................................50

Fun or funny? ...................................................................................50
Get or go? 51
Grateful or thankful? ....................................................................... 52
Hear or listen (to)?........................................................................... 52
High or tall? 53
Historic or historical? ...................................................................... 53
House or home? ...............................................................................54
How is …? or What is … like? ......................................................... 55
If or when? 55
If or whether? .................................................................................. 56
Ill or sick? 58
Imply or infer? .................................................................................58
In the way or on the way? ...............................................................58
It’s or its? 59
Late or lately? ................................................................................. 60
Lay or lie? 60
Lend or borrow? .............................................................................. 61
Less or fewer? ..................................................................................62
Look at, see or watch? .....................................................................62
Low or short? .................................................................................. 64
Man, mankind or people?............................................................... 64
Maybe or may be? ........................................................................... 65
Maybe or perhaps? ......................................................................... 66
Nearest or next? .............................................................................. 67
Never or not … ever? ...................................................................... 67
Nice or sympathetic? ...................................................................... 68
No doubt or without doubt? .......................................................... 68
No or not? 68
Nowadays, these days or today?..................................................... 70
Open or opened? ............................................................................. 71
Opportunity or possibility? ............................................................. 71

iv
 DaoTran

Opposite or in front of?................................................................... 72

Other, others, the other or another? .............................................. 72
Out or out of? .................................................................................. 75
Permit or permission? ..................................................................... 75
Person, persons or people?............................................................. 76
Pick or pick up? ................................................................................ 76
Play or game?................................................................................... 77
Politics, political, politician or policy? ............................................ 77
Price or prize? .................................................................................. 78
Principal or principle?...................................................................... 78
Quiet or quite? ................................................................................. 79
Raise or rise? .................................................................................... 79
Remember or remind? .................................................................... 79
Right or rightly? .............................................................................. 80
Rob or steal? .................................................................................... 81
Say or tell? 81
So that or in order that? .................................................................. 83
Sometimes or sometime? ............................................................... 83
Sound or noise? ............................................................................... 83
Speak or talk? ................................................................................. 84
Such or so? 85
There, their or they’re? ................................................................... 87
Towards or toward? ........................................................................ 87
Wait or wait for? ............................................................................. 88
Wake, wake up or awaken? ........................................................... 88
Worth or worthwhile?.................................................................... 89

v
 DaoTran

Above or over?
When we use above as a preposition, it means ‘higher than’. Its meaning is close to
that of the preposition over. In the following sentences, over can be used instead
of above:
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or … came up over her
head …)
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or
… got over the clouds …)
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
[a ‘chalet’ is a small wooden building usually found in mountainous areas]
Do they live in that chalet above the village?
Not: Do they live in that chalet over the village?
We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things
referred to. Over or on top of have a more general meaning, and can be used when
one thing touches or covers another:
They made her comfortable and put a blanket over her.
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
We normally use over not above with numbers:
I get over sixty emails a day.
Not: I get above sixty emails a day.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet.
Not: If you weigh above 100 kilograms
Warning:
When we talk about temperatures in relation to zero or (the) average, we
use above not over:
It was three degrees above zero.
Not: It was three degrees over zero.
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally
use above or over:
The temperature is already above 30 degrees. (or … over 30 degrees.)
Typical errors
• We don’t use over to mean ‘higher level’.
Most of the race is 500 metres above sea level.
Not: Most of the race is 500 metres over sea level.
• We don’t use above when one thing touches or covers another.

1
 DaoTran

Pour some cream over the tart and serve it warm.

Not: Pour some cream above the tart
• We don’t use above with numbers.
Over 100 people complained about the programme.
Not: Above 100 people complained

Across, over or through?

Across
We use across as a preposition (prep) and an adverb (adv). Across means on the other
side of something, or from one side to the other of something which has sides or
limits such as a city, road or river:
We took a boat [PREP]across the river.
[PREP]Across the room, she could see some old friends. She got up and went to join
them.
My neighbour came [ADV]across to see me this morning to complain about our cat.
The road was so busy that we found it difficult to get [ADV]across.
We also use across when something touches or stretches from one side to another:
The Ponte Vecchio is a beautiful old bridge across the river Arno in Florence.
She divided the page by drawing a red line across it. Then she cut it in two.
Especially in American English, across from is used to refer to people or objects being
‘opposite’ or ‘on the other side’:
The pharmacy is across from the Town Hall.
Helen’s office is just across from mine.
We use across to emphasise that something is happening at the same time in many
places, e.g. within an organisation, a city or a country:
She’s opened coffee shops across the city and they’re very successful.
Across the country, people are coming out to vote for a new president.
We also use across to refer to the width or diagonal measurement of something:
The size of a television screen is measured from the higher corner of one side to the
lower corner of the other side, that is, from one corner across to the opposite corner.
Across comes after measurements when we talk about diameter or width:
The building is 157 metres long, 92 metres across and the façade is 68 metres wide.
Over
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position
than something else, sometimes involving movement from one side to another:
From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.

2
 DaoTran

We toasted marshmallows [PREP]over the fire.

We drove high up [PREP]over the mountains on a narrow dangerous road.
Suddenly a plane flew [ADV]over and dropped hundreds of leaflets.
Come over often means to come to the speaker’s home:
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same as across:
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop – the shop is on the
other side of the road)
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldn’t remember his name. (or I
was going over to say … meaning ‘to the other side of the street or room’)
Across or through?
Movement
When we talk about movement from one side to another but ‘in something’, such as
long grass or a forest, we use through instead of across:
I love walking through the forest. (through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
Not: I love walking across the forest.
When my dog runs through long grass, it’s difficult to find him. (through stresses that
the dog is in the grass)
Not: When my dog runs across long grass …
Time
When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers
often use through where British English speakers say from … to/till …:
The office is open Monday through Friday, 9 am–5 pm. (preferred British form: from
Monday to Friday)
Warning:
We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a
number is specified (of days, weeks, etc.):
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.
Across, over and through: typical errors
• When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we
use through not across:
We cycled through a number of small villages.
Not: We cycled across a number of small villages.
• When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another, we
use across not on:

3
 DaoTran

The papers were spread across the table.

Not: The papers were spread on the table.
• We don’t use through when we’re talking about periods of time from start to finish
and we mention a specific number of days, weeks, etc:
We haven’t seen each other much over the last four years.
Not: We haven’t seen each other much through the last four years.

Advice or advise?
Advice /ədˈvɑɪs/ is a noun and means a suggestion about what someone should do. It
is uncountable:
Let me give you some advice: stay away from Margaret.
Not: Let me give you an advice
She gave him a lot of advice, but I don’t think he listened.
Not: …a lot of advices …
If we want to use advice in a countable way, then we use the phrase a piece of advice:
I have two pieces of advice for you about the holiday.
We use the verb advise /ədˈvɑɪz/ to mean ‘to give someone advice’:
I strongly advise you to lose weight.
They finally did what we advised.

Affect or effect?
Affect is a verb meaning ‘influence or cause someone or something to change’:
The cold weather has really affected her health.
New technologies continue to affect how we live.
Effect is a noun that means ‘the result of an influence’:
The pollution in the city had a bad effect on me.
Most people these days understand the serious effects of smoking.

All or every?
All and every are determiners.
We use both all and every to refer to the total number of something. All refers to a
complete group. Every refers to each member of a complete group:
The questionnaire was sent to all employees.
The questionnaire was sent to every employee.
We can use every to focus on each individual member.
Compare

4
 DaoTran

refers to the whole

All passengers must turn off their mobile phones.
group

Every passenger must turn off their mobile phone.

focuses on each
(We use their instead of his or her to refer back to a
individual member of
singular noun (passenger) because we are referring to
the whole group
both male and female passengers.)

We can use all, but not every, on its own without a noun. We
use everyone/everybody/everything instead:
The meeting is at Oriel Hall. It begins at 8 pm and all are welcome.
Not: … every is welcome
Everyone is welcome to join the village social club.
All and every + nouns
The meaning of all and every is very similar but we use them in different ways. We
use all with plural and uncountable nouns and every with singular nouns:
All donations will be sent to the earthquake relief fund.
All equipment must be returned by the end of June. (uncountable)
Every donation is appreciated.
We can use all and all of before determiners, but we don’t use every before
determiners:
I invited all (of) my friends.
Not: … every my friends
All (of) the
We can use all and all of before articles (the, a/an), demonstratives (this, that) and
possessives (our, his) but we can’t use every before them:
[talking about a library]
It has got all (of) the books that have ever been published.
Not: It has got every the book or It has got the every book
She’s gone to all (of) their concerts this year. She hasn’t missed one.
Not: … every their concerts
All day, every day
We use all day, all week, all month to mean ‘one entire day/week/month’:
We spent all day at the beach yesterday.
Every day (week/month) focuses on each individual day (week/month):
We spent every day at the beach in the holidays.

5
 DaoTran

Not: We spent all days at the beach

Fuel prices are rising every week.
Not: Fuel prices are rising all weeks.
All or every: typical errors
• We don’t use every before determiners:
He sold all (of) his books.
Not: … every his books.
• We don’t use every with uncountable nouns:
All (the) information can be saved in the computer memory.
Not: Every information can be saved …
• We don’t use every with plural nouns:
We should organise a trip for all students.
Not: … for every students
• We don’t use every on its own without a noun; we
use everyone, everybody or everything instead:
He suggested cancelling the trip and everyone agreed.
Not: … every agreed

All or whole?
All and whole are determiners.
We use them before nouns and with other determiners to refer to a total number
or complete set of things in a group.
Compare

All the cast had food poisoning. They were forced to cancel
all + determiner + noun
the show.

The whole cast had food poisoning. They were forced to determiner + whole +
cancel the show. noun

All my family lives abroad. or My whole family lives abroad.

We often use all and the whole with of the:
She complains all of the time. or She complains the whole of the time.
We use a/an with whole but not with all:
I spent a whole day looking for that book and eventually found it in a little old bookshop
on the edge of town.

6
 DaoTran

Not: … all a day …

All or whole for single entities
We use the whole or the whole of to refer to complete single things and events that
are countable and defined:
The whole performance was disappointing from start to finish. (or The whole of the
performance was disappointing …)
When we can split up a thing into parts, we can use either whole or all with the same
meaning:
You don’t have to pay the whole (of the) bill at once.
You don’t have to pay all (of) the bill at once.
She ate the whole orange.
She ate all of the orange.
We often use the whole of with periods of time to emphasise duration:
We spent the whole (of the) summer at the beach.
All the with uncountable nouns
We use all the and not the whole with uncountable nouns:
She was given all the advice she needed.
Not: She was given the whole advice …
All the equipment is supplied.
All and whole with plural nouns
We usually use all the and all of the with plural nouns:
It’s funny when all the actors come in dressed up in their costumes.
She opens all the cupboard doors and doesn’t close them after her.
You have to try all of the activities.
When we use whole with plural nouns, it means ‘complete’ or ‘entire’.
Compare

Whole families normally shared one room in the nineteenth

entire families
century.

All families normally shared one bedroom in the nineteenth each and every
century. family

All and whole: typical errors

• We don’t use all before a and an:

7
 DaoTran

She ate a whole bar of chocolate in one go.

Not: She ate all a bar …
• We can’t omit the before whole with a singular noun:
We travelled throughout the whole country.
Not: … throughout whole country.

Allow, permit or let?

Allow, permit and let are verbs that all have a similar meaning: ‘give permission
or make it possible for somebody to do or have something’.
Permit is more formal than allow. Allow is more formal than let:
The University has established a Museums Committee to permit more formal discussion
of common problems amongst its museums.
The plan for Heathrow will allow airport operator BAA to build a third, shorter runway.
Will you let me pay for the meal?
Let me show you how to open it. It’s a bit tricky.
Permit/allow someone + to do something
We use a direct object + to-infinitive after permit and allow:
[from a newspaper report about a rugby player]
He has not decided yet whether his leg injury will permit him to play this weekend.
I would not allow a child to have a TV or a computer in their room.
Let someone + do something
We use an infinitive without to after let:
[child to parent]
Why don’t you let me go? All my friends are going.
We don’t let employees use the office telephone for personal calls.
Passive with permit and allow
We often use the passive with permit and allow. Permit is often used for official
public notices:
Photography is permitted for non-commercial use only.
[talking about a diet]
You’re allowed to eat as much fruit as you like.
We’re not allowed to put posters on the walls.
Warning:
We don’t usually use the passive with let:
The children were allowed to do whatever they wanted.
Not: The children were let do …

8
 DaoTran

Almost or nearly?
We use almost and nearly to refer to the progress of things, especially if we are
measuring and counting things. In these examples, almost and nearly can both be
used:
[someone has been running five miles on a running machine in a gym]
Don’t give up! You’re almost there.
It’s time for bed. It’s nearly 10 o’clock.
Their CD has sold almost 90,000 copies in the last week.
Nearly all my friends were in the photograph.
We also use almost and nearly with extreme adjectives such
as perfect, impossible or frozen:
That guy is almost impossible.
The chicken is still nearly frozen. I thought you’d taken it out of the freezer.
We use almost (but not nearly) to soften statements:
I almost wish I hadn’t offered to pay his fine.
We use almost before any and before negative words such
as no, none, never, nobody, nothing. We don’t use nearly in this way:
[describing computer software which traces the history of towns]
Using this special software, you can find the history of almost any building.
They’ve almost no confidence that they can use the new phone properly.
She almost never raises her voice.
Not: She nearly never raises her voice.

Alone, lonely, or lonesome?

Alone or lonely?
Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When
we use alone as an adjective, it never comes before the noun (predicative adjective):
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective)
It’s impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb)
Do you live alone? (adverb)
Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a
result. We may choose to be alone but generally we do not choose to be lonely:
Without her friends, it was a long and lonely journey.
She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.
We don’t use lonely as an adverb:

9
 DaoTran

I prefer going to lunch alone.

Not: I prefer going to lunch lonely.
Lonesome
In American English, lonesome means the same as lonely:
If they’re away from home, they get lonesome. (If they’re away from home, they
get lonely).

Along or alongside?
Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.
Along
As a preposition, along means ‘in a line next to something long and thin’, e.g. a road,
a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.
We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning ‘together with’:
Why don’t you come along with us to the party?
They said they’d bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means ‘close beside’, ‘next to’ or ‘together with’:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)
Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems. (together
with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning ‘along the side of’ or ‘next to’
something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.

Already, still or yet?

Already or yet?
We use already to refer to something which has happened or may have happened
before the moment of speaking. Already can sometimes suggest surprise on the part
of the speaker, that something is unexpected:
Is it seven o’clock already? (The speaker didn’t expect it to be so late.)
We use yet most commonly in questions and negatives, to talk about things which
are expected but which have not happened:

10
 DaoTran

Is it seven o’clock yet? (The speaker thinks that probably it’s almost seven o’clock.)
A: Where will you be staying?
B: I haven’t decided yet, but somewhere in the city centre.
Already refers to things which have happened or which people think may have
happened. Yet refers to things which have not happened or which people think may
not have happened.
Already, yet or still?
We use still not yet or already to refer to the continuation of a situation:
I still meet my friends from my schooldays now and then. (I continue to meet my
friends)
Not: I already meet my friends or I yet meet my friends
Compare

A: Is your sister still at university? I know she was at university. Does that
B: Yes. She’s got one more year to do. continue to be true?

A: Is your sister at university yet? I expect that she will go to university. Is

B: No. She’s only 17. She’ll go next year. she there now?

A: Is your sister already at university?

I’m surprised if your sister is at
She’s only 17!
university. I did not expect it to happen
B: Yes. She started this year. She’s so
until later.
clever they let her enter a year early.

Negatives with already, still, yet

Negatives with yet mean that something has not happened up to now:
I haven’t spoken to Henry about the car yet.
Negatives with still suggest that the situation should have changed, but it has not:
I still haven’t found my passport. I know it’s here somewhere. (I’ve been looking for it
for a long time. I should have found it by now)
Warning:
We usually put yet after the main verb, whereas we usually put still after the subject.
Compare

I haven’t finished yet. I still haven’t finished.

You know, it’s dark now and she hasn’t You know, it’s dark now and
arrived yet. she still hasn’t arrived.

11
 DaoTran

Negatives with already are far less common than negatives with yet and still. They
usually refer to things which should have happened before they did happen:
If you’ve already registered, the price is 50 pounds. If you haven’t already registered, it’s
75 pounds for late registration.
I was surprised that they hadn’t already told me the news.

Also, as well or too?

Also, as well and too are adverbs and mean ‘in addition’.
Also
Also is commonly used in writing, but is less common in speaking. Also occupies
different positions in a sentence.
We use also in front position to emphasise what follows or to add a new point or
topic:
It’s very humid. Also, you can easily get sunburnt.
[on the telephone]
OK, I’ll phone you next week and we can discuss it then. Also, we need to decide who
will be going to Singapore.
We use also in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and main
verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb. In this
position, the meaning of also usually connects back to the whole clause that comes
before:
She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.
I’ve been working in the garden this week, and I’ve also been reading a lot.
In end position, also normally connects two phrases. We use as well and too instead
of also, in end position, especially in speech:
She contacted him in the office but he didn’t answer the phone. His mobile phone was
silent also. (or His mobile phone was silent too. or … was silent as well.)
As well
Spoken English:
As well is much more common in speaking than in writing, and is more common in
speaking than also.
As well almost always comes in end position:
[In a restaurant. Customer (A) is ordering from a waiter (B)]
A: I’ll have steak please.
B: Yes.
A: And I’ll have the mixed vegetables as well.

12
 DaoTran

Too
We usually put too in end position:
Gill’s having chicken. I’ll probably have chicken too.
She looks really tired and she must be really hungry too.
Too can occur immediately after the subject, if it refers directly to the subject. It does
not normally occur after a modal or auxiliary verb. We sometimes write commas
before and after too:
I too thought she looked unwell.
We, too, have been very pleased to receive the prize on her behalf.
Not: We have too been very pleased …
Too is especially common in responses to fixed expressions such as giving good
wishes, and in responses consisting of a single object pronoun:
A: Enjoy the play.
B: Thanks. You enjoy your evening too. (preferred to You enjoy your evening as well.
or You also enjoy your evening.)
A: I need to go to the gym.
B: Yeah, me too. (preferred to Yeah, me also. or Yeah, me as well.)
In imperative clauses, as well and too are normally preferred to also:
[customer in a post office, buying books of first and second class stamps]
Give me a book of ten first and a book of ten second as well then please. (preferred to
… and a book of ten second also then please.)
Linking negatives
We use either not also, as well or too to connect two negative ideas:
Bill’s not here. I don’t think Dave is either, is he?
Not: I don’t think Dave is also/as well/too.
A: That’s not in paperback yet. It’s not been in any book clubs either, has it?
B: No.
Not: It’s not been in any book clubs also/as well/too, has it?
Also, as well and too: typical error
• We don’t use as well at the beginning of a clause. As well usually comes at the end
of a clause:
I just ignored it. I think everybody else did as well.
Not: As well I think everybody else did.

Alternate(ly), alternative(ly)

13
 DaoTran

Alternate(ly)
The adjective alternate and the adverb alternately mean ‘first one thing, then another
thing and then the first thing again’. When we refer to time, we can also use the
phrase every other day, every other week, etc.
The trouble is you can only park in the hospital on alternate days. (or … in the
hospital every other day.)
Not: on alternative days
She was alternately pleased and angry.
Alternative(ly)
Alternative(ly) means ‘something that is different and unusual and offers a possible
choice’:
We can’t use that room for meetings. They’ll have to find us an alternative room.
Not: …an alternate room …
Alternatively, we could just stay in.
Not: Alternately, we could …

Although or though?
Although and though meaning ‘in spite of’
Although and though both mean ‘in spite of something’. They are subordinating
conjunctions. This means that the clause which they introduce is a subordinate
clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete:
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although [subordinate clause]we
lost the match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy, [main clause]we put on our jackets and went
for a walk.
Spoken English:
Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common
than although in speaking. For emphasis, we often use even with though (but not
with although).
Warning:
When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a
comma at the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to
use a comma:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
I still feel hungry even though I had a big lunch.
Although and though with -ing clauses

14
 DaoTran

In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:
[a teacher talking about a student]
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into
mathematics.
[a doctor talking about a patient]
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his
medication.
Although and though with reduced clauses
In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even
though to introduce a clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didn’t show any emotion when she invited him to
go for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.
Although and though meaning ‘but’
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean ‘but it
is also true that …’:
Karen is coming to stay next week although I’m not sure what day she is coming.
We didn’t make any profit though nobody knows why.
Though meaning ‘however’
Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although or even though) with a
meaning similar to however or nevertheless. In these cases, we usually put it at the
end of a clause:
A: You have six hours in the airport between flights!
B: I don’t mind, though. I have lots of work to do. I’ll just bring my laptop with me.
A: It’s expensive.
B: It’s nice, though.
A: Yeah, I think I’ll buy it.
As though
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as
though:
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
He looks as though/as if he hasn’t slept.

15
 DaoTran

Altogether or all together?

Altogether
Altogether means ‘completely’ or ‘in total’:
In 1997 the sales tax was lowered to 4%, then in 2001 it was abolished altogether.
The book was €13.50 and the magazine was €5.25, so it was €18.75 altogether.
All together
All together means ‘with each other’, and is similar to together:
Put your clothes all together in one pile and I’ll wash them for you.
Not: Put your clothes altogether in one pile …
[a group of five people are waiting at the entrance to a restaurant]
Waiter:
Are you all together?
Customer:
Yes. Can you do a table for five?

Amount of, number of or quantity of?

Amount of or number of?
We use amount of with uncountable nouns. Number of is used with countable nouns:
We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day.
The amount of time it took to finish the job was very frustrating.
A great number of students volunteer each year for environmental projects.
Not: A great amount of students volunteer …
I have a number of things I want to talk to you about.
A quantity of or quantities of?
Quantity is more formal than amount or number. A quantity of or quantities of can be
followed by a countable noun or an uncountable noun. They are most commonly
used with an adjective such as huge, big, large, small:
The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden under the floor of a disused
building. (countable)
You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the sand. (uncountable)
Large quantities of illegal drugs had been discovered. (countable)
Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee
camps. (uncountable)

Any more or anymore?

16
 DaoTran

Any more as a determiner

We use any more as a determiner to describe ‘an indefinite quantity of
something’. Any more is similar to some more. Some more is more common in
affirmative statements; any more is more common in questions, in clauses with if and
in sentences with negative words such as hardly, never, scarcely:
Would you like any more tea?
If you find any more books, please let us know.
She doesn’t want any more contact with him.
There are hardly any more people here than last month.
Yes, I’d like some more information about trains to Berlin, please.
Not: Yes, I’d like any more information about …
Any more as an adverb
Any more is also an adverb and has the meaning of ‘no longer’ or ‘in the past but not
now.’ In this meaning, we use it in end position:
We don’t go to Cornwall on holiday any more. (We used to go in the past but not
now.)
The cost of electricity is not cheap any more.
Especially in American English, any more, as an adverb, can be written as one
word, anymore:
He doesn’t cycle anymore.

Anyone, anybody or anything?

Anyone, anybody and anything are indefinite pronouns. We
use anyone, anybody and anything to refer to both an open, unlimited set of things or
people and specific things or people. We use them with a singular verb:
Has anyone got a dictionary?
Anybody is welcome to join. There aren’t any rules.
Can I do anything to help?
I don’t know anybody who speaks Portuguese.
We often use the plural pronoun they to refer back to (singular) anyone when we do
not know if the person is male or female:
If anyone would like further information about the dogs, they should call Canine Rescue
on 0502 75257. (The same as If anyone would like further information about the
dogs, he or she should call Canine Rescue on 0502 75257.)
Anything, anyone, anybody don’t have a negative meaning on their own:

17
 DaoTran

We stayed in Sevilla for the rest of our holidays. No one wanted to come back, but we
had to.
Not: Anyone wanted to come back.
Anyone and anybody
Anyone and anybody have no difference in meaning. Anybody is a little less formal
than anyone. Anyone is used more in writing than anybody:
I didn’t know anybody at the party.
[talking about the New Zealand rugby team, the All Blacks]
It is hard to find anyone who thinks that the All Blacks will face a stronger team.

Apart from or except for?

Apart from and except for are multi-word prepositions. Apart from can mean either
‘including’ or ‘excluding’:
Apart from Germany, they also visited Italy and Austria. (including Germany, in
addition to Germany)
I like all vegetables apart from tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Apart from Friday, I’ll be in London. (excluding Friday)
Except for or except only mean ‘not including’ or ‘excluding’:
I like all vegetables except for tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Except for Jim, who is unwell, they are all ready to leave for America tomorrow.
She enjoys all sports except swimming.

Arise or rise?
Arise means ‘happen’ or ‘occur’. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The
three forms of arise are arise, arose, arisen. It is used in formal contexts:
An opportunity arose and he decided to take the job in Brussels.
A problem has arisen with my passport.
Rise means ‘go up’. The three forms of rise are rise, rose, risen:
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Food prices have risen a lot in the last few months.

Around or round?
Around and round are prepositions or adverbs. We use around and round when
we refer to movements in circles or from one place to another. Around and round can
both be used. Around is more common in American English. Round is a little more
common in speaking:

18
 DaoTran

The earth goes round the sun. (movement in circles)

We spent a very pleasant day walking round the town. (movement from one place to
another)
Now they are retired, they are planning a trip around the world.
We also commonly use around and round in phrasal verbs:
Can you pass these application forms around to all the people present?
We spent the whole day moving round some furniture in the bedroom.
Around and round also mean ‘in different places’ and ‘here and there’:
People were panicking and running round and shouting.
A: Where’s Jill?
B: I know she’s around somewhere in the office.
Around can also mean ‘approximately’:
A: How old do you think the castle is?
B: I’d say around 500 years.

Arouse or rouse?
Rouse and arouse are both used in formal contexts. Arouse means ‘make someone
have a particular feeling’:
Both lecturers aroused a lot of interest in the subject of geology.
Rouse means ‘wake someone up’ or ‘make someone active’:
The goal roused the supporters and they began to really get behind the team. (get
behind means ‘support’)
We also use rouse as a reflexive verb:
She finally roused herself at lunchtime and got out of bed.

As or like?
As and like are prepositions or conjunctions. The
prepositions as and like have different meanings. As + noun means ‘in the role
of’, like + noun means ‘similar to’ or ‘in the same way as’.
Compare

As your father, I’ll help you as

The speaker is the listener’s father.
much as I can.

19
 DaoTran

Like your father, I’ll help you as The speaker is not the father but wishes to act in a
much as I can. similar way to the father.

We use like (but not as) to compare two things:

She’s got a headache like me.
Not: She’s got a headache as me.
Like the other students, he finds it a bit difficult to get to lectures early in the morning.
Not: As the other students, he finds it …
When we compare appearance or behaviour, we use like, not as:
That house looks like a castle.
Not: That house looks as a castle.
As is commonly used to talk about jobs:
He worked for a long time as a teacher in Africa.
Not: … like a teacher in Africa.
The conjunctions as and like have the same meaning when used in
comparisons. Like is a little more informal.
Nobody understands him as I do.
Nobody understands him like I do.

As, because or since?

As, because and since are conjunctions. As, because and since all introduce
subordinate clauses. They connect the result of something with its reason.

result reason

He decided to go to the conference in

as he was in Spain anyway.
Barcelona,

Are you angry with me because I opened the letter?

Bilardo coaches his team by telephone,

since half of them play in Italy,
(Bilardo was the coach of the Argentinian
France or Spain.
football team)

Because
Because is more common than as and since, both in writing and speaking. When we
use because, we are focusing on the reason:
She spoke quietly because she didn’t want Catherine to hear.

20
 DaoTran

We’ll come over on Sunday because David’s got to work on Saturday.

We often put the because-clause at the beginning of a sentence, especially when we
want to give extra focus to the reason. We use a comma after the because-clause:
Because breathing is something we do automatically, we rarely think about it.
We can use a because-clause on its own without the main clause in speaking or
informal writing:
A: Would you like to go to school there?
B: Yes.
A: Why?
B: Because my best friend goes there. (I would like to go to school there because my
best friend goes there.)
Warning:
We don’t use a because-clause on its own in formal writing:
In 1998, the government introduced a new import tax because people were importing
cars from abroad.
Not: … a new import tax. Because people were importing cars from abroad.
Cos
We often shorten because to cos /kəz/ or /kɒz/ in informal speaking and writing:
I’m laughing cos I’m so happy.
As and since
We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the
reason. As and since are more formal than because. We usually put a comma
before since after the main clause:
[result]I hope they’ve decided to come as [reason]I wanted to hear about their India
trip.
[result]They’re rather expensive, since [reason]they’re quite hard to find.
We often use as and since clauses at the beginning of the sentence. We use a comma
after the as- or since- clause:
Since everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, there’s no
need to dress up for work any more.
As everyone already knows each other, there’s no need for introductions. We’ll get
straight into the business of the meeting.
We use because, not as or since, in questions where the speaker proposes a reason:
Are you feeling unwell because you ate too much?
Not: Are you feeling unwell since you ate too much? or … as you ate too much?

21
 DaoTran

As, when or while?

As, when and while are conjunctions. In some uses as, when and while can mean the
same, but they can also have slightly different meanings. We use them to introduce
subordinate clauses.
We can use as, when and while to mean ‘during the time that’, to connect two events
happening at the same time:
Another coach-load of people arrived as we were leaving.
We often use them with the past continuous to refer to background events:
When the men were out working in the field, I helped with milking the cows, feeding
the calves and the pigs.
While he was working, he often listened to music.
We can put clauses with as, when and while before or after the main clause. When
they come before the main clause, we use a comma:
As she was leaving the court, a crowd of photographers gathered around her. (before
the main clause, followed by a comma)
Steven was very unhappy when things weren’t going well for him.
Lucy came into the room while he was waiting.
As
We can use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as, we can
use a simple or continuous form of the verb. The continous form emphasises an
action that interrupts or occurs during the progress of another action:
As she walked to the door, she thanked them for a lovely dinner.
As they were signing the contract, they noticed that a page was missing.
When
We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the
middle of a longer activity or event. In these cases, we usually use a continuous verb
in the main clause to describe the background event:
He was walking back to his flat when he heard an explosion.
Depending on the context, when can mean ‘after’ or ‘at the same time’.
Compare

When you open the file, check the second page. when meaning ‘after’

I eat ice cream when I am on holiday. when meaning ‘at the same time’

22
 DaoTran

We often use just with when or as to express things happening at exactly the same
time:
The phone always rings just when I’m closing the front door.
She was a brilliant gymnast, but she had a terrible accident in 1999, just as her career
was taking off.
While and as
We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the
same time. We can use either simple or continuous verb forms:
We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had
chosen and explained his ideas.
We were lying on the beach sunbathing as they were playing volleyball.
When and while without a subject
We can use when and while without a verb, or without a subject + auxiliary verb be:
Go past the village signpost and you get to a church. When there, take the next turning
right. (formal)
He read his book while waiting for the bus. (while he was waiting)
Warning:
We can’t use as in this way:
We ate our sandwiches as we walked around the park.
Not: … as walking around the park.

Been or gone?
We often use been to, instead of gone to, when we refer to completed visits to a
place:
Have you ever been to Budapest?
Not: Have you ever gone to Budapest?
If the visit is not complete, we use gone.
Compare

Joan’s just gone to the shop. She’ll be back in about Joan has not yet returned
ten minutes. from the shop.

Joan’s just been to the shop. She bought some Joan has returned from the
cakes. Would you like one? shop.

23
 DaoTran

Begin or start?
We can use the verbs begin and start to mean the same thing but begin is more
formal than start. Begin is an irregular verb. Its past simple form is began and its -
ed form is begun:
When did you begin learning English?
The meeting didn’t start until 9 pm.
We use start, but not begin, to talk about machines:
Press this button to start the printer.
Not: …to begin the printer.
The lawnmower won’t start. (this means that it doesn’t work)
Not: The lawnmower won’t begin.
Start, but not begin, is used to talk about creating a new business:
She started a new restaurant and it’s been going really well.
Not: She began a new restaurant …

Beside or besides?
Beside
Beside is a preposition. It means ‘at the side of’ or ‘next to’. It is rather formal:
He would like to take a photograph of us. Would you come and sit beside me?
There was a small table beside the bed, on which there was a book.
Besides
Besides is a preposition or a linking adverb. It means ‘in addition to’ or ‘also’:
What other types of music do you like besides classical?
As a linking adverb, we usually put a comma before and after besides in writing:
I don’t think going for a walk is a good idea. It’s quite cold, and, besides, it’s getting late
and we don’t want to be out in the dark.

Between or among?
Between and among are prepositions.
Between, among: meaning and use
We use between to refer to two things which are clearly separated. We use among to
talk about things which are not clearly separated because they are part of a group or
crowd or mass of objects:
Our holiday house is between the mountains and the sea. (the mountains are on one
side and the sea is on the other)

24
 DaoTran

The ancient fountain was hidden among the trees. (surrounded by trees)
Between and prepositional phrases
Between is most often used to introduce a prepositional phrase which contains
two singular or plural noun phrases:
There was a cyclist [prepositional phrase]between the car and the lorry.
I didn’t see any difference [prepositional phrase]between the real bags and the
imitation bags.
We can also use between + pronoun when referring to two people or things:
I gave Yolanda and Lynn some money and told them to share it between them.
We can also use between, but not among, to connect times or numbers:
They lived in New York between 1998 and 2004.
Not: They lived in New York among 1998 and 2004.
What were you doing between 5.30 pm and 7.00 pm?
Nouns and verbs followed by between
The most common nouns often followed
by between are: connection, difference, distinction, link, relationship:
Is there a connection between his arrival and her disappearance?
There’s a strong link between clean drinking water and reduced infant mortality.
The most common verbs often followed
by between are: choose, differentiate, distinguish, divide:
[talking about judging a competition]
I didn’t want to have to choose between the singers.
Her money was divided between her son and her daughter.
Among meaning ‘surrounding, part of or included
in’
We use among to suggest a sense of being a part of or surrounded by or included in
something else. It is typically followed by a plural noun phrase:
She wanted to be among friends.
Among his books, we found some rare first editions.
Among others and among other things
In the phrases among others and among other things, among means ‘as well as’:
Her parents, among others, were worried about her travelling alone.
Among other things, I still have to pack.

Born or borne?

25
 DaoTran

Born
We use born in the phrase be born to indicate that a child has entered the world:
They say that in China a new baby is born every five minutes.
Warning:
We use was/were born when we talk about when or where someone started their life:
I was born in 1988.
Not: I am born in 1988. or I born in 1988.
Bear, bore, borne
Bear means to tolerate something, usually something that you dislike. It is most
commonly used in the expression can’t bear. The past form is bore and the -ed form
is borne:
I can’t bear so much football on television.
She has borne all her problems with great courage.
The verb bear is sometimes used to describe the act of giving birth. It is most
commonly used in the past tense and in rather formal situations. Have is more
common when talking about giving birth:
She bore twelve children in twenty-two years. (or, more commonly, She had twelve
children …)

Bring, take and fetch

Bring
Bring means moving something or someone. The movement is either from where the
listener is to where the speaker is, or from the speaker to the listener.
Bring is an irregular verb. Its past tense and -ed form are both brought.
In both of the following examples, the speakers are seeing things from A’s viewpoint
– things will move to the place where A is:
A: Are you going to the bedroom?
B: Yes.
A: Can you bring me my grey sweater? It’s on the bed.
B: Yeah. (B will return with the sweater to the place where A is.)
Not: Can you take me my grey sweater?
A: Are you coming to our place on Friday night?
B: Yes. Do you want me to bring my guitar? (B will carry the guitar to the place where
A will be.)
Bring can also mean moving with something or someone from another place to the
speaker’s or listener’s location:

26
 DaoTran

[on the telephone]

A: Did Laura bring you anything for your birthday?
B: Yes. She brought me some flowers and a CD. (Laura is C, another person, in a
different place from A or B. She moved with something to where B, the listener,
was.)
Take
Take means movement with something or someone from where the speaker or
listener is to a different place:
[university assistant at a central faculty office, speaking to a student]
You have to fill in this form and then take it to the English Department to get it
stamped. (the assistant and the student are at the central faculty office – the English
Department is a different place)
Not: … and then bring it to the English Department
A: I can take you to the station tomorrow. What time’s your train? (Neither A nor B is
at the station; it is a different place.)
B: Thanks. It’s eight-thirty.
Bring or take?
Compare

She visits her father every morning seen from the viewpoint of
and she always takes him the day’s newspaper. the doer – she

She visits her father every morning and she seen from the viewpoint of
always brings him the day’s newspaper. the receiver – him

Fetch
Fetch means to go to another place to get something or someone and return with
the thing or the person. We use it for people and things that are not here but that we
need or are due to be here. We can usually use get instead of fetch:
If you’re going to the garage, can you fetch that green bag with the paintbrushes in it?
Or Can you get that green bag …
Right. It’s five o’clock. I’d better go and fetch my mother from the station.
Bring, take and fetch: typical errors
• We don’t use take when something is seen from the receiver’s viewpoint:
A: Are you and Josh coming to our party?

27
 DaoTran

B: Yeah. Sheila invited us.

A: Good. Can you bring some CDs? We’re a bit short of music.
Not: Can you take some CDs?
• Brought is the past tense of bring. Bought is the past tense of buy:
Angela was in Morocco and she brought us back a beautiful wooden tray.
Not: and she bought us back …

Can, could or may?

Possibility
When we talk about possibility, we use can, could and may, but they are different in
meaning.
Compare

It can be dangerous to cycle This expresses what the speaker believes is a

in the city. general truth or known fact, or a strong possibility.

It could/may be dangerous to This does not express a general truth. The speaker
cycle in the city. is only expressing a weak possibility.

It’s dangerous to cycle in the This expresses a real fact using the present simple.
city. The speaker is certain and no modality is used.

Permission
We use can, could and may to ask for permission. We use can and may, but not could,
to give permission. May is less common:
Compare

giving
asking for permission formal/polite? formal/polite?
permission

Can I ask you a

informal informal
question? Yes, you can.
Yes, you may.
Could I use your Yes, you could.
more formal/polite formal/polite
phone?

28
 DaoTran

giving
asking for permission formal/polite? formal/polite?
permission

even more
May I use your phone?
formal/polite

Requests
When we make requests, we can use can or could (but not may). Could is more polite
than can:
Can you call back later? I’m busy now.
Could you call back later? I’m busy now.
Teachers and parents often use can and could in requests:
Can you open you books at page 34, please.
Can you please refrain from chewing gum.
Could you just sit down and listen!
Can, could or may: typical errors
• Could in the present only expresses weak possibility. Can expresses strong
possibility:
I can travel in July because my exams will definitely be finished at the beginning of that
month. (strong possibility)
I could travel in July because my exams will probably be finished at the beginning of that
month. (weak possibility)
• We don’t normally use could to talk about general truths which refer to the present
time. We use can instead:
Not everyone can afford to buy organic food.
Not: Not everyone could afford …
• We use could, not can, to express future possibility. Can expresses that we are
certain of something:
Working in London next summer could be a great experience. (The speaker thinks this
is possible, in particular circumstances)
Not: … can be a great experience.

Classic or classical?
Classic: adjective
Classic means ‘high quality’. In particular, we use it to mean something that
is valued because it has a traditional style:

29
 DaoTran

She was wearing a classic dark blue skirt.

It’s a classic motorbike from the 1940s.
Classic also means a perfect or most typical example of something:
The show is a classic example of TV made for children.
Classic: noun
We can use a classic and the classics to refer to the greatest and most famous works
of literature from the past:
Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ is a classic.
I never read modern novels. I always prefer the classics, such as Dickens and Jane
Austen.
Classics without an article means the academic subject which includes the study of
Ancient Greek and Latin:
My sister is studying Classics at Manchester University right now.
Classical: adjective
We use classical to refer to the culture of the past and to art forms which belong to a
long formal tradition:
Mozart is probably the best-known classical composer.
She’s only eight years old and she has learned to dance both classical and modern ballet.

Come or go?
We use come to describe movement between the speaker and listener, and
movement from another place to the place where the speaker or listener is. We
usually use go to talk about movement from where the speaker or listener is to
another place.
When we talk about another person (someone who is neither the speaker nor the
listener), we can use either come or go, depending on whether the speaker sees
things from the receiver’s viewpoint (come) or the doer’s viewpoint (go).

We use come when we see things from

[doer]Yolanda came to [receiver]her
the receiver’s viewpoint (in this case
mother for help.
the mother).

We use go when we see things from

[doer]Melissa went to [receiver]her
the doer’s viewpoint (in this case
mother for help.
Melissa).

30
 DaoTran

Come in, go in
Come in and go in both mean ‘enter’:
[dentist’s assistant to a patient who is waiting]
Will you come in now, please.
[at a beach on a cold day]
It’s so cold! I don’t want to go in the water.

Consider or regard?
Consider and regard can both mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or ‘understand’. When they
mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or ‘understand’, we don’t often use the continuous forms.
Consider
Consider takes several different patterns.
Consider + that-clause
When you consider that she was very scared, her story is even more remarkable.
Consider + object + to be
They consider him to be the best chef in the country.
Consider + object + to have
The ministry of trade considered the company to have the best vision for exports.
Warning:
We don’t use as with consider:
We consider this to be a very serious issue.
Not: We consider this as a very serious issue.
Regard
We often use regard in the phrase ‘regard as’: regard (+ object) + as + noun phrase or
adjective phrase:
The United Nations regard human rights as their main priority.
Alexander Graham Bell is regarded as the inventor of the telephone.
Do you regard their behaviour as good or bad?
Typical error
• We don’t usually use the continuous forms of consider and regard:
When you consider that he was too young, you have to blame his parents.

31
 DaoTran

Not: When you are considering that he was too young …

The government regards the economy as a main priority.
Not: The government is regarding the economy …

Consist, comprise or compose?

Consist, comprise and compose are all verbs used to describe what something is
‘made of’. We don’t use them in continuous forms.
Consist
Their diet only consisted of fruit and seeds.
The whole group consists of students.
We only use the active form of consist of:
Their flat consists of two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom.
Not: Their flat is consisted of two bedrooms…
Comprise
Comprise is more formal than consist:
The USA comprises 50 states.
We can also use it in the passive voice in the form ‘be comprised of’:
The course is comprised of ten lectures and five seminars on the theory of economics
and banking.
Comprise, but not compose, can be used with the parts that make up something as
the subject:
Oil and coal comprise 70% of the nation’s exports.
Compose of is even more formal than consist of and comprise. Compose of is only used
in the passive voice:
Muscle is composed of different types of protein.
Typical errors
• We don’t use consist, comprise and compose in a continuous form:
The whole group consists of students.
Not: The whole group is consisting of students.

Content or contents?
Content and contents are nouns.
Content (uncountable)

32
 DaoTran

Content as a singular noun is uncountable. It means the ideas that are contained in a
piece of writing or a film or a speech:
This film has adult content; it is not suitable for children.
His speech was very flowery, but it lacked content and was quite superficial.
Content can also mean the amount of a particular substance contained in something:
These hamburgers have a high fat content; they’re not good for you.
Contents (plural)
The contents of a book is the list of chapters or articles or parts that are in the book,
with the number of the page they begin on:
If you look at the contents, you’ll see there’s a chapter on Japanese folk music.

Different from, different to or different than?

The adjective different means ‘not the same’. When we compare two or more items,
it is usually followed by from. We also use different to, especially in speaking:
Adam is so different from/to his brother.
This house is very different from/to your last one.
In American English it is also common to say different than:
This tea tastes very different than the one I usually drink. (or … very different
from/to the one I usually drink)
In British English, people often say different than before a clause, but many speakers
consider this to be incorrect:
His accent is different now than before he went to Australia. (or
… different now from before he went to Australia.)

Do or make?
When we use do and make with noun phrases, do focuses on the process of acting or
performing something, make emphasises more the product or outcome of an action:
When I was [action]doing the calculations, I [outcome]made two mistakes.
I [action]did some work for her last summer; I [outcome]made a pond in her garden.
Examples of nouns used with do and make
Nouns which combine with do

activity damage favour job task

business drawing gardening laundry test

33
 DaoTran

cleaning duty harm one’s best washing (up)

cooking exam(ination) homework painting work

course exercise ironing shopping

I do the shopping on Fridays usually.

Could you do a job for me next week?
Who does the cooking in your house?
Nouns which combine with make

apology coffee excuse love offer remark

assumption comment friends lunch phone call sound

bed complaint guess mess plan soup

breakfast dinner law mistake profit speech

cake effort list money progress statement

change error loss noise promise tea

They made me an interesting offer of a job in Warsaw.

Not many building firms will make a profit this year.
I have to make a phone call.

Down, downwards or downward?

Down
We use down mostly as a preposition or adverb. It means ‘in or moving to a low or
lower position or level’:
We ran down the hill like two little children.
Jamie, put that vase down! You’ll break it!
We can also use down to mean ‘towards the south’, ‘generally in the south’, or
‘towards the place where a river meets the sea’:
When you were living in Spain, did you ever go down to Granada?
We went on a cruise down the Nile for seven days. It was fantastic.

34
 DaoTran

In informal situations, we can use down to talk about a quick trip to a destination
which we consider to be less central than where we are. In this meaning, we can use
it with or without to. Without to is less formal:
I’m just going down (to) the shop. Do you want anything?
Are you going down (to) the golf club tonight?
Down can also mean ‘along’. We can use it with from:
Mila’s office is just down the corridor, second door on the left.
They live just down the street from our house.
A good dictionary will tell you more meanings of down, especially when it is used as
part of a phrasal verb.
Downwards, downward
Downwards is an adverb. It means ‘movement towards a lower position’:
The garden slopes gently downwards in the direction of the river.
Could you point the reading lamp downwards? It’s shining in my eyes.
In American English, downward (with no final -s) is used as an adverb:
Since the nineteen seventies, our country has really taken some steps downward.
In British English, downward (with no final -s) is normally only used as an adjective:
The statistics for violent crimes have shown a downward trend in the last two
years. (The numbers have gone down.)

During or for?
We use during to say when something happens, if it happens in or over a period of
time. We use for to talk about the length of time something lasts.
Compare

They went to Florida during the

They went at one point in the winter.
winter.

They went to Florida for the They went from the beginning to the end of
winter. the winter.

She phoned me during the week to tell me that she was getting married. (referring to a
point in the week)
We were in the cinema for three and a half hours.
Not: … during three and a half hours.
Our flight to New York was delayed for seven hours.

35
 DaoTran

Not: … during seven hours.

We went to Italy for a week.
Not: … during a week.
We can also use for to refer to public holidays and seasons:
He always goes to his mother’s house for New Year.
Not: … during New Year.

Each or every?
We use each to refer to individual things in a group or a list of two or more things. It is
often similar in meaning to every, but we use every to refer to a group or list of three
or more things.
Compare

Each stresses individual members of a

Each one takes turns cooking dinner in group.
the evenings. Each refers to two or more people who
share the work.

Every stresses all the members of the

Everyone takes turns cooking dinner in
complete group.
the evenings.
Every refers to three or more people.

We use adverbs such as almost, practically and nearly with every, but not with each:
Almost every car in the car park was new.
Not: Almost each car …
Practically every house now has at least two televisions.
Not: Practically each house …
We can use each of + pronoun or each of + determiner + noun, but with every we must
use every one + pronoun or every one + determiner + noun:
Each of us has a bicycle.
Every one of us has a bicycle.
Not: Every of us …
Each of the children received a special gift.
Every one of the children received a special gift.
Not: Every of the children …

East or eastern; north or northern?

36
 DaoTran

North, south, east, west

We usually use north, south, east, west, not northern, southern, eastern and western,
to refer to specific places or to direction of movement. We can use north, south,
east and west as adjectives or adverbs and occasionally as nouns:
More and more people are buying second homes on the south coast of
Ireland. (adjective)
After Bangkok, we drove north for about six hours without stopping. (adverb)
Strong Atlantic winds are forecast in the west of Portugal. (noun)
We normally use capital letters in place names with north, south, east and west:
The conference is taking place in North Dakota.
[from an advertisement in a travel magazine]
Bargain flights to South America from London Gatwick from £350.
Northern, southern, eastern and western: larger areas
We commonly use northern, southern, eastern and western (without capital letters)
to refer to larger areas or territory. We can only use them as adjectives:
The northern parts of India have suffered severe flooding.
Houses are more expensive in most western parts of the country.
Some names of specific places have capital letters for northern,
southern, eastern and western:
We are holidaying in Northern Ireland next year. (name of a region)
Perth is the capital of Western Australia. (name of a state)
San Diego is my favourite place in southern California. (a part or region of a state but
not the name of a state)

Economic or economical?
Economic and economical are adjectives.
We use economic to mean ‘related to trade, industry or money’:
The economic forecast for next year is not good.
The President spoke mostly about economic policy.
We use economical to mean ‘not using a lot of money’:
Hybrid cars are very economical. (They do not cost a lot of money to run.)
Solar energy for your home is expensive in the short term but it is more economical in
the long term.

Efficient or effective?

37
 DaoTran

Efficient and effective are adjectives.

We use efficient to describe something or someone that works in a quick and
organised way:
The new online banking system offers a convenient and efficient way to check your
account.
[extract from a reference for someone applying for a job]
I have always known James to be highly competent and efficient in all aspects of his job.
We use effective to describe something that gives you the results you want:
Taking this tablet is a very effective cure for travel sickness.
In this light, the camera is more effective if you use the flash.

Elder, eldest or older, oldest?

Elder and eldest mean the same as older and oldest. We only use the
adjectives elder and eldest before a noun (as attributive adjectives), and usually when
talking about relationships within a family:
Let me introduce Siga. She’s my elder sister.
Not: … She’s my sister. She’s elder.
It’s Catherine’s eightieth birthday on Thursday and she is now the eldest member of the
family.
We also use elder and eldest as nouns:
Jack is the eldest of four brothers.
Older and oldest are used in similar ways:
My older sister is coming to stay with us at the weekend.
Matt is the oldest of our children and Simon is the youngest.
Older and oldest can be used to refer to the age of things more generally:
The town hall is by far the oldest building in the whole region.
Not: The town hall is by far the eldest building …
We can use older and oldest after a linking verb (as predicative adjectives):
I think her grandfather must be older than her grandmother.
Not: I think her grandfather must be elder than …

End or finish?
We use the verbs end and finish in similar ways, to mean ‘come to a stop’:
I think that his contract ends this month.
What time does the film finish?

38
 DaoTran

We use finish to say that we complete something that we are doing. It emphasises
that the process stops within a specific period of time. End would not normally be
used in these examples:
He finished his meal in just three minutes.
If we had the right tools, we could finish the job by Friday this week.
Her brother finished last in the race.
We use end to say that stopping something is significant, and has a clear conclusion
or shape. Finish wouldn’t normally be used in these examples:
The course of the river ended in a delightful harbour with small sailing boats
everywhere.
Many historians agree that the medieval period in Europe ended in the mid-sixteenth
century.
Verbs that end in -ed are usually in the past tense.
Finish can be followed by the -ing form, but not by a to-infinitive:
They’ve finished playing those computer games.
Not: They’ve finished to play …
I haven’t finished drying my hair yet.
Not: I haven’t finished to dry …
End cannot be followed by either a to-infinitive or the -ing form:
Call me when you’ve finished writing the report.
Not: Call me when you’ve ended writing …

Especially or specially?
Especially and specially are adverbs.
Especially means ‘particularly’ or ‘above all’:
She loves flowers, especially roses.
I am especially grateful to all my family and friends who supported me.
Not: Especially I am …
We use specially to talk about the specific purpose of something:
This kitchen was specially designed to make it easy for a disabled person to use.
He has his shirts made specially for him by a tailor in London.
Especially can also be used to mean ‘for a particular purpose’:
I bought these (e)specially for you.

Except or except for?

39
 DaoTran

We often use except and except for as prepositions to mean ‘not including’ or
‘excluding’. They are followed by a noun or noun phrase or a wh-clause.
Both except and except for are correct after a noun:
I like all fruit except (for) oranges. (excluding oranges)
Except for Louisa, who’s away in Berlin this weekend, we’ll all be at the party.
She likes going to most sports events, except cricket matches.
Except can also be used as a conjunction. We don’t use except for in this way:
The brothers are very alike, except (that) Mark is slightly taller than Kevin.
Except and except for are used in similar ways to apart and apart from.

Expect, hope or wait?

Expect
We use expect to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect in
the following main patterns:

expect + object: She’s expecting a second baby.

expect + to-infinitive: We expect to move into our new flat next week.

We expected that the guest house would have much

expect + that-clause:
better rooms.

expect + object + to-

The company expects her to be early.
infinitive:

Expect also means ‘think’ or ‘suppose’. When expect has this meaning, we do
not commonly use it in the continuous form:
A: Will he have bought the necklace by now?
B: I expect so.
Not: I’m expecting so.
I expect that he’ll be wearing that bright blue shirt.
Not: I am expecting …
When we expect that something will not happen or is not true, expect is most
commonly used in a negative form:
I don’t expect she will pass the exam. (preferred to I expect she won’t pass …)
Hope

40
 DaoTran

We use hope when we do not know whether something will happen or not but we
want it to happen. We use hope in the following patterns:

hope + to-infinitive: I think you were hoping to see your family next week.

hope + that clause: I hope that your sister recovers quickly from the operation.

[parents discussing the birth of their next child]

hope + for:
We’ve already got two boys so we’re hoping for a girl.

We use hope to express good intentions and wishes for the future:
I hope we can see each other soon.
Not: I wish we can see each other soon.
I hope you enjoy your stay in Greece.
Not: I wish you enjoy your stay in Greece.
Wait
We use wait when we refer to letting time pass because we are expecting that
something is going to happen. We use wait in the following main patterns:

wait (imperative): Just wait here with the bags and I’ll go and get a taxi.

wait + for: Don’t worry. I’ll wait for you.

wait + to- When the band arrived at the concert hall, a large crowd of
infinitive: screaming fans were waiting to greet them.

wait + for + object + to-infinitive:

They’re waiting for him to make up his mind and won’t do anything until he does.

Expect, hope or wait: typical errors

• We don’t use wait or wait for to say that we believe that something will happen.
We use expect:
People usually expect holidays to revive their spirits and renew their souls and they
often succeed in achieving that target.
Not: People usually wait for holidays to …
• We don’t use expect to refer to time passing when we are talking about something
that we hope is going to happen:
I look forward very much to hearing from you soon, and I wait anxiously for a positive
answer.

41
 DaoTran

Not: … and I expect anxiously a positive answer.

Experience or experiment?
We use experience as a verb when something happens to us, or we feel it. It is rather
formal:
I experienced a feeling of deep sadness as I entered the refugee camp.
Customers have experienced problems in finding parking places at the mall.
Warning:
We don’t use live instead of experience:
How children behave when they grow up depends on what they experience during early
childhood.
Not: … what they live during early childhood.
Experiment as a verb means ‘try something in order to discover what it is like or to
find out more about it’:
Scientists have experimented with liquids and gels in which plants can grow
artificially.
I wish the government would stop experimenting with new teaching methods for our
kids every couple of years.
Warning:
We don’t use experiment when we are talking about feelings or things which happen:
She suddenly experienced a sensation of homesickness.
Not: … experimented a sensation …
The company’s Asia branch experienced a sharp drop in profits in 2007.
Not: … experimented a sharp drop…

Fall or fall down?

We can use fall as a noun or a verb. It means ‘suddenly go down onto the ground or
towards the ground unintentionally or accidentally’. It can also mean ‘come down
from a higher position’. As a verb, it is irregular. Its past form is fell and its -ed form
is fallen. Fall does not need an object:
Mrs McGrath had a terrible fall yesterday. She’s in hospital now. (noun)
Four trees fell in the storm. (verb)
Oil prices have fallen recently.
Fall down is a phrasal verb. We use it when something falls to the ground from its
normal position:
The picture keeps falling down. (from the wall to the ground)

42
 DaoTran

He slipped and fell down.

Warning:
We use fall, not fall down, when trees drop their leaves during the autumn:
As autumn came and the leaves fell from the trees, she began to feel sad.
Not: … the leaves fell down …
We can’t use fall down to mean ‘come down from a higher position’:
House prices have fallen a lot this year.
Not: House prices have fallen down a lot …

Far or a long way?

Far and a long way both describe something at a great distance:
I can’t see very far without my glasses on.
San Francisco is a long way from New York.
Far is used mostly in negatives and questions:
There’s a Thai restaurant not far from here.
How far is your house from the station?
A long way is used mostly in affirmative statements but we also use it in questions
and negatives:
A: How long did it take you to get here today?
B: I left home at half past ten this morning.
A: Six hours. That’s a long time, isn’t it?
B: Yeah. It’s a long way.
Not: It’s far.
A: We have to go to Cathy’s place first to pick her up.
B: Is it a long way from here?
A: No, it’s not far.
Far is used in affirmative statements with words such as so, too, enough and as. These
expressions can refer to time as well as distance:
So far, we have sent four letters to the Council about the litter on the street. (time until
now)
Six months is too far ahead. The restaurant only takes bookings for up to two months in
advance.
Where we live is far enough away from the city. I don’t want to move any further away.
From here, you can see as far as the ocean.
Far is also used in comparatives to mean ‘much’:
The roads here are far better than in our country.
Food costs far more in the UK.

43
 DaoTran

We can use by far before a superlative adjective to add emphasis:

With more than seven million people, London is by far the biggest city in England – the
second city, Birmingham, has just over one million.
We use the phrase has come a long way to mean ‘has improved or developed’:
Our team has come such a long way. We lost our first game 5-0!
We can use the phrase to be a long way off (+ noun or -ing form) to refer to a long
time:
The holidays are a long way off.
We’re a long way off retiring yet, Marlene.

Farther, farthest or further, furthest?

Comparative forms
Farther and further are comparative adverbs or adjectives. They are the
irregular comparative forms of far. We use them to talk about distance. There is no
difference in meaning between them. Further is more common:
We can’t go any further; the road’s blocked.
After this, I felt a little refreshed but as I came over the hill, my legs rebelled. I could
walk no further.
How much farther are we going?
Farther, and, much less commonly, further can be used as adjectives to refer to
distance away from the speaker:
He could see a small boat on the farther shore.
At the further end of the village stood an old ruined house.
We often repeat farther or further to emphasise the distance:
‘I am just a little ship,’ Aunt Emily said, ‘drifting farther and farther out to sea.’
We often use along with farther and further:
Ben Gunn had told me his boat was hidden near the white rock, and I found that
rock farther along the beach.
We often use a little, a bit or a lot before further and farther:
[in an aerobics exercise class]
Now push and stretch that arm just a little further and count to ten.
Superlative forms
Farthest and furthest are superlative adjectives or adverbs. They are the
irregular superlative forms of far. We use them to talk about distance. There is no
difference in meaning between them. Furthest is more common than farthest:
The furthest galaxies are about three thousand million light years away.

44
 DaoTran

Go on, boys! Let’s see who can run furthest.

Viv took a corner seat farthest away from the door.
Further (but not farther)
There are some occasions when we can use further but not farther.
We use further before a noun to mean ‘extra’, ‘additional’ or ‘a higher level’:
For further information, please ring 095-6710090.
A further door led off to the right, with a tiled passage taking her to the bathroom, and
another large square room at the end, which was probably the dining-room.
She’s gone to a college of further education. (a place to study practical subjects from
age 17)
We also use further to mean ‘more’:
I do not propose to discuss it any further.
Before you look at your programme, let me explain a little further.
The expression further to is often used in formal letters and emails when someone
writes as a follow-up to a previous letter or email:
Further to my email of 22nd January, I’m now writing to ask if you have considered our
offer and whether you wish to proceed with the contract.

Fast, quick or quickly?

Fast and quick mean moving with great speed. Fast is both an adjective and an
adverb. Quick is an adjective and the adverb form is quickly.
Compare

It was a fast train.

Fast and quick are adjectives.
We need to have a quick chat before the meeting.

You walk very fast!

Not: … very fastly. Fast and quickly are adverbs.
We should do it as quickly as possible.

We usually use quick to refer to something happening in a short time, or a shorter

than expected time:
We stopped for a quick snack.
Not: … a fast snack.
I just need a quick answer.
Not: … a fast answer.
Fast refers to things that happen or go at high speed, e.g. a train, a person running:

45
 DaoTran

She loves fast cars.

Not: She loves quick cars.
Note the common expression fast food to refer to food such as hamburgers, which
are cooked and served in a very short time in restaurants:
You shouldn’t eat so much fast food. It’s not good for you.

Fell or felt?
Fell is the past simple of the verb fall:
The snow fell all day in big white flakes.
He slipped and fell, hurting his leg quite badly.
She fell in love with him as soon as they met.
Not: She felt in love …
Felt is the past simple of the verb feel:
I felt really sad that they had lost all their money.
They felt his forehead and it was very, very hot.

Female or feminine; male or masculine?

We use female and male to refer to the sex of humans and animals:
Female lions hunt for food more than male lions.
In some industries such as the clothing industry, only females are employed.
We use feminine and masculine when we refer to the qualities that we consider to be
typical of women or men:
The bedroom was furnished in a very feminine style.
She had a very masculine voice.
We also use masculine and feminine to talk about features of languages:
‘He’ is the masculine form of the third person singular; ‘she’ is the feminine form.

Finally, at last, lastly or in the end?

Finally, at last, lastly and in the end all have a meaning of ‘after a period of time’.
However, we use them in different ways.
Finally
We use finally to refer to something that happened after a long time and usually after
some difficulties. In this meaning, finally most commonly occurs in the normal mid
position for adverbs, between the subject and the main verb, after the modal verb or
the first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb:

46
 DaoTran

There were no taxis and we finally got home at 2 pm.

She’s had over twenty interviews but Jasmine has finally got a job as a journalist.
At last
We use at last when we have been impatient as a result of long delays. Like finally, at
last occurs in the normal mid position for adverbs as well as in front and end position:
At last I’ve discovered how to print envelopes on my printer!
She has at last given me the book she promised me.
They’re here at last!! We’ve been waiting half an hour.
Lastly
We use lastly to refer to something that comes at the end of a long list:
We need eggs, milk, sugar, bread and, lastly, we mustn’t forget yoghurt for Dad.
I’ve thanked my parents but lastly I must thank all my friends for their help.
In the end
We use in the end to refer to a conclusion after a long process, after a lot of changes
or after a lot of discussion:
We were going to ski in Austria, then the South of France and in the end we decided to
go to Italy.
And then, in the end, after months of discussion they offered to buy our house.

First, firstly or at first?

First and firstly
First can be an adjective or an adverb and refers to the person or thing that
comes before all others in order, time, amount, quality or importance:
What’s the name of the first person who walked on the moon? (adjective)
Beth always arrives first at meetings. (adverb)
We often use first, especially in writing, to show the order of the points we want to
make. When we are making lists, we can use first or firstly. Firstly is more formal
than first:
Dear Mr Yates
First(ly) I would like to thank you for your kind offer of a job …
Not: At first I would like to thank you …
First(ly) the sodium chloride is dissolved in the water and heated gently. Second(ly) a
dye is added to the solution.
Not: At first, the sodium chloride …

47
 DaoTran

At first
At first means ‘at the beginning’ or ‘in the beginning’ and we use it when we make
contrasts:
At first when I went to England to study English, I was homesick, but in the end I cried
when it was time to leave.
He called for help. No one heard him at first, but eventually two young girls came to
help him.

Fit or suit?
If something fits you or fits into a place, it is the right size or shape for you or for that
place:
[trying on shoes in a shoe shop]
These fit perfectly. And I like the colour. I think I’ll buy them.
I’ve put on weight and my trousers don’t fit me anymore!
Will this table fit into the space between the bookshelf and the wall?
If something suits someone or something, it is right for that person or thing or
situation, or it makes that person or thing look more attractive.
Wednesday at ten o’clock for the meeting suits me perfectly.
That sofa suits the room really well – the colours match the walls.
Black doesn’t suit me; I look better in lighter colours.
Warning:
We don’t use fit when we mean that something is right for a person or thing or
situation:
This restaurant suits people who like simple food.
Not: This restaurant fits people …

Following or the following?

We use following without the + noun phrase to mean ‘after’, ‘in response to’ or ‘as a
result of’:
Following the bad election results of May 8th, the Prime Minister has appointed three
new ministers.
Following a general strike in 1933, he fled the country and went to South America.
We use the following with a noun. It means ‘the next’:
They only stayed at the hotel one night and left early the following morning.
We went out on the boat. The sea was really rough and the following hour was the
worst in my short life.

48
 DaoTran

We also use the following without another noun to introduce things or people which
we then list:
I’m afraid I can’t eat any of the following: tomatoes, cucumber, onions and cabbage.
The following have helped me with this book of photographs: David Jones, Gill Farmer,
Martin Weekes and Anthony Gray.

For or since?
We use for with a period of time in the past, present or future.
We use since with a point in time in the past.
Compare

He lived in Oxford for 3 years and then he

moved. (completed past)
They’ve lived in Oxford for a couple of
For refers to periods of time, e.g. 3
months. (began in the past and continues
years, 4 hours, ages, a long time,
into the present)
months, years.
We’re going to stay in Oxford for three days
and then we’re going to London for a
day. (future plans)

Since refers to a previous point in

They’ve lived in Oxford since 2004.
time.

Warning:
We don’t use since with periods of time:
She’s been on the phone for hours.
Not: She’s been on the phone since hours.

Forget or leave?
We sometimes use forget when we don’t remember to bring something with us:
I’ll have to go back; I’ve forgotten my car keys.
We use leave with this same meaning, but only if we mention the place where we left
something:
Mia, you’re always leaving your car keys on your desk.
Not: … forgetting your car keys on your desk. or … you’re always leaving your car
keys.
I left my homework at home.

49
 DaoTran

Not: I forgot my homework at home.

We use leave when the action is deliberate:
We decided to leave the dog at home.

Full or filled?
Full is an adjective, and means ‘containing a lot’:
The theatre is completely full this evening.
The room was full of books.
Fill is a verb, and means ‘make or become full’. The -ed form is filled:
Can you fill this bottle with water for me?
She has filled my life with happiness.
We use the -ed form + with as an adjective especially in metaphorical contexts to
refer to strong emotions:
She looked at him, filled with horror.
Not: She looked at him, full of horror.

Fun or funny?
Fun
Fun is an uncountable noun meaning ‘pleasure and enjoyment’:
We had such fun together.
It was fun to go to the beach with Rita’s family.
I hope you have fun!
Spoken English:
In informal speaking, we also use fun as an adjective:
We did a lot of fun activities in groups and individually to learn, have a fun time, and to
get to know each other better.
Funny
Funny is an adjective and it means ‘amusing’ or ‘causing laughter’:
[an author is being interviewed about the main character in her book]
A: How would you describe Lorna?
B: Well. I think she’s very self-confident and assertive. I think she’s genuinely funny.
I think Jerry Springer is so funny. I just laugh so much when I watch his show.
Funny can also mean ‘strange’, ‘surprising’, ‘unexpected’ or ‘difficult to explain or
understand’:

50
 DaoTran

A funny thing happened to me the other day. I was parking my car and a man came and
knocked on my window … (A strange/surprising/unexpected thing happened …)
Wasn’t it funny the way Don just got up and left without saying goodbye to
anyone? (Wasn’t it strange …)
Typical error
• We don’t use funny to mean ‘enjoyable’:
The week I stayed in your country was really fun and I found the city where you live very
interesting and beautiful.
Not: … in your country was really funny …

Get or go?
Get and go have similar meanings, when talking about travel or motion. When we
use get, we emphasise arrival:
We’ll phone you as soon as we get to Rome.
Not: We’ll phone you as soon as we go to Rome.
The thing is, he missed the bus and got to school late and missed part of the match.
Not: … and went to school late and …
We use get on and get off not go on and go off for buses, trains, planes:
When I got on the plane, there was someone sitting in my seat.
Not: When I went on the plane …
Liam will be waiting for me when I get off the train.
Not: … when I go off the train.
Warning:
Get up means ‘leave your bed in the morning’; go up means ‘go to a higher place or
position’:
What time do we have to get up tomorrow?
Not: What time do we have to go up tomorrow?
Get and go are both used to mean ‘become’, but they combine with different
adjectives. We often use get with words like dark, light and late; we use go with
colours and words with negative associations such as mad, bald, bad:
It’s getting dark now so be careful.
Not: … going dark …
He’s only 30 and he’s going bald.
Not: … and he’s getting bald.
We left the milk in the sun too long and it’s gone bad.
Not: … and it’s got bad.

51
 DaoTran

However, with some adjectives such as old, sick, tired and ill, we use get:
He got very tired walking to the match in such a large crowd.
Not: He went very tired walking …

Grateful or thankful?
We use grateful to talk about how we feel when someone is kind to us or does us a
favour:
[a message on a thank-you card]
Thank you so much for helping us move house. We are so grateful.
Love
Mark and Rose
[at the end of a formal letter]
I would be very grateful if you could send me more information about your company for
my school project.
Not: I would be thankful …
We usually use thankful when we are relieved that something unpleasant or
dangerous didn’t happen:
A: I heard you were in an accident. Are you okay?
B: I’m fine. There was some damage to the car. I’m just thankful that no one was
injured.

Hear or listen (to)?

‘Hearing’ is an event; it is something which happens to us as a natural process.
‘Listening’ is an action; it is something we do consciously.
Compare

hearing is an event. listening is an action.

Suddenly I heard a noise. Someone
was in the garden.
Did you hear the thunder last night?
[on the phone]
The line is very bad. I can’t hear you.
I listened very carefully to what she said and
wrote it all down.
Do you listen to the radio in bed?
George! Listen to me! I have something
important to tell you.

Sometimes we can use either hear or listen to, depending on whether we want to
emphasise the event or the action:

52
 DaoTran

Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on
the event)
Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis
on the action)
I love hearing/listening to the sound of falling rain.
We don’t normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hear with can:
[on an internet phone call]
I can hear you really clearly.
Not: I’m hearing you really clearly.
Warning:
We use to after listen before an object:
Every morning I listen to my Mozart CD while I’m having breakfast. It prepares me
mentally for the day.
Not: Every morning I listen my Mozart CD …
We use listen without to if we do not mention the object, or if it is a discourse marker:
Meena, listen! I don’t want you staying out late!
Listen, I was wondering if you could help me. (discourse marker beginning a new topic
or phase of a conversation)
The music was beautiful. We just sat there and listened.

High or tall?
We use high for mountains and for things which are a long way above the ground:
There are some high mountains in the north of the country.
The light switch is too high for a child to use.
Warning:
We don’t use high when we talk about people. We use tall:
Sally is very tall and slim – she could get a job as a model!
Not: Sally is very high and slim …
Tall people often get backache.
We use tall to describe things which are high and thin in their shape (e.g. buildings,
trees):
The tall trees by the river give welcome shade on hot days.
You know that very tall, white building just where the motorway begins – that’s where I
work.

Historic or historical?

53
 DaoTran

Historic means ‘important or likely to be important in history’:

I feel that this is a historic moment for our country.
When the Berlin wall came down, it was a historic occasion.
Historical means ‘related to the study of things from the past’:
I love reading historical novels.
Archaeologists found a large number of historical objects when they excavated the
field.

House or home?
We use the noun house to refer to a building:
They’re building six new houses at the end of our road.
When we refer to being at someone’s house, we can leave out the word house and
use at + possessive or at + the definite article + possessive:
We stayed overnight at Mike’s. (at Mike’s house)
We’re going to be at the Jacksons’ this evening. Want to come with us? (at the
Jacksons’ house)
We use home in a more personal and emotional way to refer to where someone lives.
The noun home does not usually refer to the building. We often use home with the
preposition at:
It’s not very big but it’s my home.
Why don’t you phone her now? I think she’s at home.
When we talk about the building we live in, we use house not home:
Our dog stays in the house with us.
Not: Our dog stays in the home with us.
Warning:
We usually don’t use an article or other determiner with home unless we are talking
about homes in general:
A lot of energy can be saved in the home by making small changes such as turning off
lights. (energy can be saved in all homes)
We use home as an adverb with verbs of movement such as get, go, come, arrive,
travel, drive. We don’t use to:
I’m going home now. I’m really tired.
Not: I’m going to home now.
Would you like me to drive you home?
Not: Would you like me to drive you to home?
Home can be used as a countable noun to refer to the place where people or animals
live and are cared for by people who are not their relatives or owners:

54
 DaoTran

There’s a home for the elderly at the end of our street.

We got our dog, Scotty, from the local dogs’ home.

How is …? or What is … like?

How is …?
We use How is …? to ask about someone’s general health or about the condition or
state of something, or how people experience something:
A: How’s your mother these days? (How is her general health?)
B: Oh, she’s fine, thanks.
[talking about an old house]
A: How are the walls in the kitchen? (What is the condition/state of the walls?)
B: Well, they need redecorating really.
A: How’s your new car?
B: Wonderful. It’s so much easier to drive than the old one.
What is … like?
We use What is … like? to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their
appearance, their character, their behaviour):
A: What’s her new house like?
B: It’s a modern one, quite big, with a nice garden.
A: What’s your new teacher like?
B: He’s nice. He’s very good-looking! But he’s quite strict.
Warning:
We don’t use How is … like? to ask for a description of something:
A: Have you ever had Korean kimchi?
B: No. What’s it like?
A: Well, it’s sort of spicy fermented vegetables, cabbage and things.
Not: How is it like?

If or when?
We use if to introduce a possible or unreal situation or condition. We use when to
refer to the time of a future situation or condition that we are certain of:
You can only go in if you’ve got your ticket.
When I’m older, I’d love to be a dancer.
Compare

55
 DaoTran

The speaker does not know whether Giles is

If Giles comes back to the office,
coming back to the office. It is possible, but
can you tell him I’ve gone home.
not definite.

When Giles comes back to the

The speaker is certain that Giles is coming back
office, can you tell him I’ve gone
to the office.
home.

To talk about situations and conditions that are repeated or predictable, we can use
either if or when + present verb form:
You can drive if you’re 17.
If you don’t add enough wood, the fire goes out.
When we go camping, we usually take two tents.
She gets out of breath easily when she’s jogging.
Typical error
• We don’t use when to introduce possible or unreal situations:
Unfortunately, if you arrive too late, you are not allowed to take the exam because they
don’t accept late enrolment.
Not: … when you arrive too late …

If or whether?
If and whether: indirect questions
We can use if or whether to report indirect yes-no questions and questions
with or. If is more common than whether:
Call the bakeries around town and find out if any of them sell raspberry pies.
I rang Peter from the station and asked if I could drop in to see him before going back
or if he’d meet me.
We often prefer whether in more formal contexts:
The teachers will be asked whether they would recommend the book to their classes.
[from a business meeting]
John read a letter that he’d written and the board discussed whether it should be
mailed.
We prefer whether with or when there is more than one alternative in the indirect
question:

56
 DaoTran

After the election, we asked whether the parties should change their leaders, their
policies, or both.
To express an alternative, we can use or not with if and whether. With whether we
can use or not immediately after whether or in end position. With if we use or not in
end position only:
I called Bill to find out whether or not he really did go to Afghanistan.
I called Bill to find out whether he really did go to Afghanistan or not.
I called Bill to find out if he really did go to Afghanistan or not.
We use whether and not if before a to-infinitive, often when we’re referring to future
plans or decisions:
I was wondering whether to go for a swim.
Some financial decisions, such as planning a pension, need to be taken as early as
possible. Others, such as whether to move house, can probably only be made much
later.
Whether not if
We use whether and not if after prepositions:
Later I argued with the doctor about whether I had hit my head, since I couldn’t
remember feeling it.
Not: Later I argued with the doctor about if I had hit my head …
The police seemed mainly interested in whether there were any locks on the windows.
Not: The police seemed mainly interested in if there were any locks …
I doubt if, I don’t know whether
We use if or whether to introduce clauses after verbs of doubting:
I don’t know if I can drive. My foot really hurts.
I didn’t prune the rose bush this year so I doubt if we’re going to have many
flowers. (‘prune’ means cut back)
We’ll have plenty of photographs to show you but I’m not sure whether we’ll be able to
learn very much from them.
If, whether: typical errors
• We use whether, not if, before to-infinitives:
I don’t know whether to buy the blue one or the red one.
Not: I don’t know if to buy the blue one …
• We use whether, not if, directly before or not:
Can you tell me whether or not you’re interested in the job.
Not: Can you tell me if or not you’re interested …
• We use whether, not if, after prepositions:

57
 DaoTran

[talking about a trip to Australia for a year]

We’re not interested in whether we get great jobs and that kind of thing, we just want
to have a good time.
Not: We’re not interested in if we get great jobs and that kind of thing …

Ill or sick?
Ill and sick are both adjectives that mean ‘not in good health’. We use
both ill and sick after a verb such as be, become, feel, look or seem:
I was ill for a time last year, but I’m fine now.
Nancy looks ill. I wonder what’s wrong with her.
I felt sick and had to go home at lunchtime.
We can use sick before a noun but we don’t normally use ill before a noun:
She’s been looking after a sick child this week, so she’s not at work.
Not: … an ill child …
Note that to be sick means ‘to vomit’ in British English. In American English it means
more generally ‘to be unwell’.

Imply or infer?
We imply something by what we say. We infer something from what somebody else
says. The main difference between these two words is that a speaker can imply, but a
listener can only infer.
When someone implies something, they put the suggestion into the message:
Are you implying that the team cheated?
When someone infers something, they take the suggestion out of the message. In
order to underline this difference, infer is used with the preposition from:
Then I think we must infer from what they said that they believe we should reapply for
the job.
Typical error
• We don’t use infer to refer to what someone has said:
Are you implying that I cheated?
Not: Are you inferring that I cheated?

In the way or on the way?

In the way

58
 DaoTran

If something or someone is in the way or in my/his/our way, it is in the space which

someone needs for a particular movement or action:
She can’t do her dance because the table is in the way. Can you help me move it?
On the way
We use on the way or on my/his/our way (to) when we talk about the route, direction
or path to somewhere:
We could leave early and have breakfast on the way. (during our journey to
somewhere)
I was on my way to Peter’s house when I met him in the street. (I was going to Peter’s
house when I met him)
We can use on the way to (plus a noun or an -ing form of a verb) to mean ‘close to’
doing or completing something:
Brazil is on the way to becoming one of the world’s strongest economies.

It’s or its?
It’s is the contracted form of it is or it has:
Can you hear that noise? Where do you think it’s (it is) coming from?
It’s (it is) nearly the end of the month. It’s (it has) gone really quickly.
Its is a possessive determiner (like my, your, his) which we use when referring to
things or animals:
Every house in the street has got its own garage.
[talking about a famous American journalist]
He joined the New York Tribune (1868), becoming its editor-in-chief and
eventually its principal owner (1872–1905).
We don’t use its as a possessive pronoun.
Compare

A: Whose is
this ball? Possessive pronoun mine used alone.
B: Mine.

A: Whose is
this ball? Possessive determiner its is not used alone. We repeat the noun
B: The dog’s. which is being referred to.
Not: Its.

59
 DaoTran

Late or lately?
Late is both an adverb and an adjective; it means the opposite of early. Lately is also
an adverb; it means ‘recently’.
Late meaning ‘not on time’
Late as an adverb means ‘not on time’:
Well, I couldn’t find my classroom, so I got to the classroom a bit late and then I had to
sing a song in front of the other students!
Not: I got to the classroom a bit lately …
The programme started late.
Not: The programme started lately.
Late as an adjective means ‘after the usual time’:
We had a late breakfast.
Compare

We got the train home late. describes when the activity happened

I got the late train home. describes the train

Lately meaning ‘recently’

We use lately for states or for repeated events, mostly with the present perfect:
She says she’s been feeling tired lately. I think she’s working too much.
He’s been studying hard lately. He’s got exams at the end of the month.
Warning:
We don’t use lately for single events that happened recently:
I had a strange experience recently.
Not: I had a strange experience lately.
Warning:
We don’t use lately as an adjective:
We usually have a late lunch.
Not: … a lately lunch.

Lay or lie?
The verb lay means ‘to put something down carefully in a flat position’. It must have
an object. It is a regular verb, but note the spelling of the past simple and -
ed form: laid not layed:

60
 DaoTran

Shall I lay the tray on the bed?

A wonderful wooden floor has been laid in the dining room.
Not: … floor has been layed …
Lie is a verb which means ‘to be in or put yourself into a flat position’. It is an irregular
verb and it doesn’t take an object. The -ing form is lying and the past simple is lay.
The -ed form, lain, is very formal and is rarely used:
I love to lie on a beach and read.
She lay on the bed and gazed at the ceiling, daydreaming.
The dog was lying by the gate waiting for me to come home.
Lie can also mean ‘say something which is not true’. In this case, it is a regular verb:
I lied to my teacher about my homework.
Compare

lay (put something lie (be lie (say something that is

base form
down) horizontal) not true)

past
laid lay lied
simple

-ed form laid lain lied

Typical errors
• We don’t use lay to talk about being in a flat position. Lay must have an object:
My mother hates when the cat lies on our beds.
Not: … when the cat lays on our beds …
• The past form of lie is lay:
I lay on the grass and watched a plane fly overhead.
Not: I lied on the grass …

Lend or borrow?
Lend means ‘give something to someone for a short time, expecting that you will get
it back’. The past simple and the -ed form are lent:
I never lend my CDs to anyone.
I lent Gary £30. (I expect that Gary will return this to me)
Borrow is a regular verb meaning ‘get something from someone, intending to give it
back after a short time’:
Could I borrow your pen for a minute, please?

61
 DaoTran

Laura used to borrow money from me all the time.

Typical error
• When you give something, you lend it; when you get or receive something,
you borrow it:
Can I borrow your dictionary?
Not: Can I lend your dictionary?

Less or fewer?
We use the quantifiers less and fewer to talk about quantities, amounts and
degree. Less and fewer are comparative words.
Less is the comparative form of little. Fewer is the comparative form of few.
Less and fewer with a noun
We usually use less with uncountable nouns. We use fewer with plural nouns:
I do less work at weekends than I used to.
Better cycle routes would mean fewer cars and fewer accidents.
Warning:
You will often hear less used with plural countable nouns in informal spoken
situations, but traditionally it is not considered to be correct:
We’ve got less pizzas than we need. There’s ten people and only eight
pizzas. (traditionally correct usage: fewer pizzas)
Less and fewer with of
When we use fewer or less before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that),
possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him, them), we need to use of. We use less
of with singular nouns and fewer of with plural nouns:
It was funny to begin with, but as time went on, it became less of a joke.
In ten years’ time, more and more people will be demanding information twenty-four
hours a day, from all parts of the world. Fewer of them will be getting that information
from newspapers which arrive hours after the news has occurred.
Less and fewer without a noun
We can leave out the noun when it is obvious:
Every year in Britain about 5,000 people die on the roads. Fewer are killed at
work. (fewer people)

Look at, see or watch?

62
 DaoTran

Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
[the speaker is sitting at her computer]
Come and look at this photo Carina sent me.
Look at the rabbit!
Warning:
When look has an object, it is followed by at:
Look at the rain. It’s so heavy.
Not: Look the rain.
See
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form is saw and the -
ed form is seen:
I saw Trevor at the shopping centre yesterday.
Has anyone seen my glasses?
Watch as a verb
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period
of time, especially something that is changing or moving:
We watch television every evening.
I like to sit at the window to watch what’s happening in the garden.
Warning:
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public
performances, such as films, theatre and dramas. However, we watch the television:
We saw a wonderful new film last night. You’ll have to go and see it while it’s in the
cinema.
Not: We watched… You’ll have to go and watch …
Compare

I watched ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night on DVD. I was at home.

I saw ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night. I was at a theatre or cinema.

When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see.
Compare

63
 DaoTran

We watched whales jumping Watch focuses on the process of seeing: we spent

out of the water. time looking at the whales.

See focuses more on the finished event. It doesn’t

We saw whales jumping out
suggest that we spent much time looking at the
of the water.
whales.

Look at, see or watch: typical errors

• When there is an object, we use at after look:
If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
Not: … you can look the beautiful scenery.
• We don’t use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
If you go to the forest, you might see some deer.
Not: … you might watch some deer.
• We don’t use watch when referring to a film in the cinema:
A: We’re going to the cinema tonight.
B: What are you going to see? (Not: What are you going to watch?)
A: I’m not sure. I really want to see the new Rocky movie but Nancy said she’s not
interested in that.
Not: I really want to watch the new Rocky movie …
• We use watch, not see, when we refer to something on the television:
At night, I like to watch the television.
Not: …I like to see the television.

Low or short?
We use low for things which are not high, or which are close to the ground or to the
bottom of something:
We have a sofa, two armchairs and a low table.
The wall is too low; we need to make it higher so the dog can’t get out.
Warning:
We use short, not low, to describe people’s height:
Joseph is quite short but his brothers are both really tall.
Not: Joseph is quite low …

Man, mankind or people?

64
 DaoTran

Man and mankind

Traditionally, we use man to refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in
contrast with other animals. However, many people consider this to be sexist, so it is
better to use a different expression, such as human beings:
Human beings first emerged in Africa, some two million years ago. (preferred to Man
first emerged …)
Mankind can also refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in the sense of
social or conscious beings. Although people generally consider it less sexist than man,
it is usually better to use a different expression, such as human beings (with a plural
verb) or humankind (with a singular verb):
Human beings have always dreamt of happiness and of a perfect
world. or Humankind has always dreamt of happiness … (preferred to Mankind has
always dreamt …)
People
People can refer to all human beings, or to a group of persons in a particular situation.
It is a plural noun and it takes a plural verb:
People will always need food, so the food industry will never disappear. (all human
beings)
It’s difficult to sell an old computer. People don’t want second-hand ones. (those
typical persons interested in buying computers)
People started coming into the hall at five-thirty, almost an hour before the start of the
meeting. (those persons who were attending the meeting)
Warning:
We don’t use the with man, mankind, humankind or people when they are used with a
general meaning to refer to all human beings:
People / Human beings will always defend their territory against an attack from
outside.
Not: The people/The human beings …

Maybe or may be?

We use maybe and may be to talk about possibility. They are often confused because
we use them both when we think that something is possible but we are not certain.
Maybe as an adverb
Maybe /ˈmeɪbi/ is an adverb and it means the same as perhaps. It is written as one
word:

65
 DaoTran

Maybe no one will come to the party.

Not: May be no one will come to the party.
Spoken English:
In speaking, we sometimes use maybe at the end of what we say when we are
making a suggestion which we are not very certain about:
A: There’s something wrong with my PC. I can’t load my photos.
B: It could be a virus, maybe.
Spoken English:
In speaking, we can use maybe as a response when we agree that something is
possible:
A: Ronnie and Linda are going to leave New Zealand in January.
B: Why? I thought they were very happy there.
A: I’m not sure. Perhaps they feel a bit lonely.
B: Maybe.
We can also use maybe to express uncertainty in response to a suggestion:
A: Would you like to have chicken curry for dinner?
B: Maybe.
A: You don’t sound very enthusiastic.
B: I just can’t think about dinner right now. I’ve just had breakfast.
May be
In the phrase may be /meɪ bi:/ may is a modal verb and be is a main or auxiliary verb.
Here may and be are two separate words, whereas maybe is one word:
There may be a train at 10.00am.
Not: There maybe a train at 10.00am.
He may be waiting for us.
Typical error
• We use may as a modal verb in the phrase may be. They are two separate words.
We use maybe as an adverb:
This may be the last match that he plays for Barcelona.
Not: This maybe the last match that he plays for Barcelona.

Maybe or perhaps?
Maybe and perhaps are adverbs that mean the same thing. We use them when we
think something is possible, but we are not certain. We use maybe mostly in front or
end position whereas perhaps is used in front, mid and end position:
A: Have you seen my glasses? I can’t find them anywhere.

66
 DaoTran

B: Maybe you left them at work.

A: Do you think these shoes are too high?
B: They are perhaps. (it’s possible but I’m not certain)
As you perhaps remember, I worked as an interpreter for three years in the European
Parliament.
Not: As you maybe remember …
Perhaps is slightly more formal than maybe:
He was, perhaps, a little too smartly dressed for a holidaymaker.
Maybe I’ll finish work early tomorrow and go shopping with you.

Nearest or next?
Nearest is the superlative form of near. It means ‘the closest in distance or time’:
We need to buy some food. Where’s the nearest supermarket? (There may be several
supermarkets: which one is the shortest distance from here?)
Not: Where’s the next supermarket?
Feeling very sick, she took a taxi to the nearest hospital.
Next means ‘the first person or thing after the present one or after the one just
mentioned’:
We had the addresses of three restaurants. The first one we went to was closed.
The next one was open but full. Luckily, the last one had a table free.
A: When is your yoga lesson?
B: Next Wednesday at five.

Never or not … ever?

We can use not … ever instead of never, but never is much more common:
She has never been a friend of ours. (or, less common, She hasn’t ever been a friend of
ours.)
Never forget where you came from, your family, your childhood friends. (or, less
common, Don’t ever forget where you came from …)
A: Why don’t you go to college and get a degree?
B: I haven’t really ever thought about it. I’m too old now anyway. (or, more
common, I’ve never really thought about it.)
Warning:
We don’t use not … ever at the beginning of a statement (in front position):
Never had they seen so many strangers in their village all at the same time.
Not: Not ever had they seen so many strangers …

67
 DaoTran

Nice or sympathetic?
Nice is an adjective meaning ‘pleasant’, ‘enjoyable’ or ‘satisfactory’:
Have a nice trip!
We had a really nice meal. Thank you.
When we use it to talk about someone, it means ‘kind’, ‘friendly’ or ‘polite’:
It was really nice of you to call me.
Tanya’s new boyfriend is so nice.
Sympathetic is an adjective used to describe a person who shows that they
understand and care about someone’s suffering or problems, especially by what they
say:
My colleagues were so sympathetic when I was ill.
As a teacher, you have to be sympathetic to the problems of your students.
Warning:
We don’t use sympathetic to mean ‘nice’:
Our new teacher is really nice.
Not: Our new teacher is really sympathetic.
His small house was nice and warm.
Not: His small house was sympathetic and warm.

No doubt or without doubt?

We can use no doubt when we think that what we are saying is likely to happen, or
when we think it is true. It is similar to ‘I suppose’ or ‘I imagine’:
A: No doubt you’ll want breakfast before you leave tomorrow.
B: Yes, if that’s okay.
A: No problem.
We can use there is no doubt that … when we are very certain about our opinion. We
use it in formal situations:
He’s never won Wimbledon, but there’s no doubt that he is a great tennis player.
Not: He’s never won a Wimbledon title but no doubt he’s a great tennis player.
Without doubt is even more formal. We use it when we are absolutely certain about
our opinion:
Paul McCartney is without doubt one of the greatest composers of popular music of all
time.
Not: Paul McCartney is no doubt one of the greatest …

No or not?

68
 DaoTran

No and not are the two most common words we use to indicate negation. We
use no before a noun phrase:
There’s no address on the envelope.
[parent to child]
No biscuits before dinner!
No decisions have been made.
We use not with any other phrase or clause:
It’s not often that you stop and think about the way you breathe.
Not suitable for children under 15.
Not surprisingly, it was a tense match but eventually the more experienced Australians
won.
A: Do you go cycling all year round?
B: Not in the winter.
Not: No in the winter.
No or not any?
There is very little difference in meaning between There is/are no + noun and There
isn’t/aren’t any + noun:
There’s no reason to be afraid of her. (or There isn’t any reason to be afraid of her.)
There are no eggs in the fridge. (or There aren’t any eggs in the fridge.)
No + noun often makes the negative stronger. In speaking, we often stress no.
Compare

He paid no attention to what I was He didn’t pay any attention to what I

saying. (stronger) was saying.

I’ve decided that I I’ve decided that I

have no alternative. (stronger) don’t have any alternative.

No or Not a/an?
When a noun has an ungradable meaning (it is either something or it is not) we
cannot use no + noun:
A potato is not a fruit.
Not: A potato is no fruit.
When a noun has a gradable meaning, no + noun means the same as not a/an + noun:
[a football manager talking about signing a new player]
It’s no secret that we are interested. (= It’s not a secret. A secret is gradable.
Something can be more of a secret than something else.)

69
 DaoTran

Responding to a question
We often use no to respond to a yes-no question, or to agree with a negative
statement. We don’t use not on its own in this way:
A: Do you need anything from the shops?
B: No. I went earlier, thanks.
A: He’s not going to get any better.
B: No. You’re right.
Not: Not. You’re right.
No problem, no good, not worth
We use no and not in some common fixed expressions:
A: When you see Alan, can you give him this letter?
B: Yes sure, no problem.
She had no idea what time they were arriving.
It’s no good standing around watching. Do something!
You’ve got no chance of getting a ticket now. They’re all sold out.
It’s not worth taking a taxi. We can walk.

Nowadays, these days or today?

We can use nowadays, these days or today as adverbs meaning ‘at the present time, in
comparison with the past’:
I don’t watch TV very much nowadays. There’s so much rubbish on. It’s not like it used
to be.
Young people nowadays don’t respect their teachers any more.
Warning:
Take care to spell nowadays correctly: not ‘nowdays’.
These days is more informal:
These days you never see a young person give up their seat for an older person on the
bus. That’s what I was taught to do when I was a kid.
Pop singers these days don’t seem to last more than a couple of months, then you never
hear of them again.
Today is slightly more formal:
Apartments today are often designed for people with busy lifestyles.
We can use today, but not nowadays or these days, with the
possessive ’s construction before a noun, or with of after a noun. This use is quite
formal:

70
 DaoTran

Today’s family structures are quite different from those of 100 years ago.
The youth of today have never known what life was like without computers.
Warning:
We don’t use nowadays, these days or today as adjectives:
Cars nowadays/these days/today are much more efficient and economical.
Not: The nowadays cars / The these days cars / The today’s cars …

Open or opened?
We use open as an adjective to mean ‘not closed’:
I stopped the car when I realised that the door was open.
Not: … that the door was opened.
Opened is the past form of the verb open:
Can you open the window, please? (present)
She opened her eyes and immediately looked at the clock. (past)
Warning:
We don’t use open to refer to turning on taps and switches:
Please turn on the taps separately.
Not: Please open the taps …
Can you switch on the lights, please?
Not: Can you open the lights …

Opportunity or possibility?
We use opportunity to talk about a situation in which we can do something that we
want to do. Opportunity is most commonly followed by a verb in the to-infinitive
form, or of + -ing form:
I had the opportunity to go to university when I was younger but I didn’t. Now I wish I
had gone.
Not: I had the possibility …
A: I’ve been waiting for an opportunity to talk to you privately. Are you free now?
B: Yes. What is it about?
Not: … waiting for a possibility to …
This walk provides the opportunity of seeing some beautiful countryside.
We use possibility to talk about something that may happen or be true. Possibility is
normally followed by of + noun phrase or of + -ing form, or by a that-clause:
I had never even thought of the possibility of working in the USA until I was offered a
job there in 1998.

71
 DaoTran

Not: … the possibility to work in the USA …

The possibility that there is life on other planets in the universe has always inspired
scientists.
Warning:
We don’t say ‘have the possibility’:
I would love to have an opportunity to meet the Prime Minister.
Not: I would love to have the possibility to meet …

Opposite or in front of?

Opposite as a preposition means ‘in a position facing someone or something but on
the other side’:
Jake sat opposite Claire in the restaurant. (Jake and Claire are facing each other on
different sides of the table.)
Not: Jake sat in front of Claire …
In front of as a preposition means ‘close to the front of something or someone’:
There was a woman in front of me in the bus queue who was crying. (I was standing
behind the woman.)
Compare

We parked opposite the hotel. We parked in front of the hotel.

Other, others, the other or another?

Other
Other means ‘additional or extra’, or ‘alternative’, or ‘different types of’.
Other as a determiner
We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can
be obtained by calling the freephone number. (additional or extra information)
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of
music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from ‘Oliver
Twist’? (additional or extra books)
This one’s too big. Do you have it in other sizes? (alternative sizes)

72
 DaoTran

If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner
before it:
I don’t like the red one. I prefer the other colour.
Not: I prefer other colour.
Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school.
He got 100% in the final examination. No other student has ever achieved that.
There’s one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.
Warning:
Other as a determiner does not have a plural form:
Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.
Not: The others girls …
Other as a pronoun
We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form, others:
We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today.
I’ll attach two photos to this email and I’ll send others tomorrow.
The other
The other as a determiner
The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or
the opposite of a set of two:
This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.
A: D’you know the Indian restaurant in Palmer Street?
B: Yes.
A: Well, the gift shop is on the other side of the street, directly opposite. (the
opposite side)
The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a
group)
Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a
set – here six plates)
The other as a pronoun
We can use the other as a pronoun, especially to refer back to something which has
been mentioned already in the sentence:
He had his hat in one hand and a bunch of flowers in the other.
She has two kittens, one is black and the other is all white.

73
 DaoTran

Another
When we use the indefinite article an before other, we write it as one
word: another. Another means ‘one more’ or ‘an additional or extra’, or ‘an
alternative or different’.
Another as a determiner
We use another with singular nouns:
Would you like another cup of coffee?
You’ve met Linda, but I have another sister who you haven’t met, called Margaret.
I don’t like this place. Is there another café around here we could go to? (alternative or
different)
Another as a pronoun
We can use another as a pronoun:
The applications are examined by one committee, then passed on to another.
Other, others, the other or another: typical errors
• When other is a determiner, it does not have a plural form:
These boxes are for books. The other boxes are for clothes.
Not: The others boxes …
• When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the
plural form, others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global
warming; others disagree.
Not: … other disagree.
• Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular
countable noun. If the noun is indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we
use another:
I’ve posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package?
Not: What shall I do with other package?
After a month in Bolivia, I was ready to move to another country.
Not: … to move to other country.
• We write another as one word:
There is another car park a little further down the same street.
Not: There is an other car park …
• Another is singular. We don’t use it with plural nouns:
Other interesting places to visit include the old harbour and the castle.
Not: Another interesting places to visit …

74
 DaoTran

Out or out of?

We use out and out of to talk about position and direction.
We use out as an adverb to mean ‘not in a building or an enclosed space’:
[the speaker is outside talking to someone inside]
Don’t come out. It’s too cold.
[a phone call]
A: Is Billy there?
B: No he’s out. (not at home)
Why’s the cake out? Put it back in the fridge or the chocolate will melt.
We use out of as a preposition to talk about movement from within somewhere or
something, usually with a verb that expresses movement (e.g. go, come). It shows
where something is or was going:
You go out of the building and turn right.
He pulled a letter out of his shirt pocket, opened it and handed it to her to read.
When I reached the corner, I jumped out of my car and ran across the road.
Out is the opposite of in. Out of is the opposite of into:
We use out as a verb particle in phrasal verbs:
Look out there’s a car coming.
I thought I’d phone and find out how you are.
Out of: all gone
We use out of to say that something is all gone:
The printer is out of ink. We need to get some soon.
[at a restaurant]
I’m afraid, we’re out of soup.

Permit or permission?
The countable noun permit (pronounced /ˈpɜ:mɪt/) refers to an official document
that allows you to do something or go somewhere. The uncountable
noun permission refers to when someone is allowed to do something. It does not
refer to a document:
You need to have a work permit before you can work.
Not: You need to have a work permission …
I have a parking permit which allows me to park on the street outside my house.
Not: I have a parking permission …
We use the word permission with an infinitive with to:

75
 DaoTran

Could I have your permission to leave work early on Friday?

We applied for permission to build a house here but our application was refused.

Person, persons or people?

We use person in the singular to refer to any human being:
Joel is such a nice person.
She’s a person I have a lot of respect for.
Persons (plural) is a very formal word. We only use it in rather legalistic contexts:
[notice in a lift]
Any person or persons found in possession of illegal substances will be prosecuted.
To refer to groups of human beings or humans in general, we use people:
I saw three people standing on the corner.
Not: I saw three persons …
Jim and Wendy are such nice people.
People are generally very selfish.
Three people were interviewed for the job, but only one person had the right
qualifications and experience.

Pick or pick up?

Pick means ‘remove small pieces of something from something else, usually with
your hands’:
Let’s go into the garden and pick some flowers for the dinner table.
Not: … pick up some flowers …
She earned money during the summer picking fruit on local farms.
Pick can also mean ‘choose’:
Have a look at these photos of the walking trip. Pick the ones you want and give me
back the rest.
Pick up means ‘lift something up using your hands’:
I’m tired of picking up your clothes from the floor! Can’t you hang them up properly in
the wardrobe?
We can also use pick up to mean ‘go to a place and bring something or someone
back’:
Let me know what time your flight arrives. I can pick you up at the airport and take you
to your hotel.
You will find other meanings of pick and pick up in a good learner’s dictionary.

76
 DaoTran

Play or game?
Play
Play as a noun means ‘a piece of dramatic writing for the theatre or radio or
television’:
The students performed a play by Shakespeare and sang some folk songs.
Radio plays are always much better than TV plays – you can use your imagination more.
Warning:
We use play as a verb when we talk about individual roles in a dramatic production,
but we say that someone acts in a play (noun):
Who played Hamlet?
Not: Who acted Hamlet?
McBride acted in over 40 plays.
Not: McBride played over 40 plays.
We use play as a verb to talk about doing sports, music and other leisure activities.
We usually don’t use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure
activities. We usually use an article when we talk about musical instruments:
I played rugby as a child; we never played soccer.
Can you play the piano?
I’ve never played poker. Have you?
We usually don’t use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure
activities. We usually use an article when we talk about musical instruments.
Game
Game is a noun. We use it to talk about sports or other entertaining activities:
Would you like a game of tennis? (or Would you like to play tennis?)
Not: Would you like a play of tennis?
The children invent some fantastic games to occupy themselves.

Politics, political, politician or policy?

Politics
Politics means the activities of the government or people who try to influence
the way a country is governed. We use a singular verb with it:
A lot of young people just don’t seem interested in politics these days.
Not: … interested in policy …
Politics is power in action.
Politics also means the study of the ways in which a country is governed:

77
 DaoTran

He studied Politics at university then got a job with the United Nations in New York.
Political
The adjective form related to the noun politics is political:
My friends and I are always having political discussions late into the night.
Not: … having politic discussions …
If I did a degree, I’d like to study Political Science.
Politician
A person who is involved in politics (e.g. a member of parliament or a member of the
government) is a politician:
Politicians rarely give straight answers to questions from journalists.
Not: Politics rarely give straight answers …
Policy
Policy means a plan of action or a set of rules agreed by a business, a political group
or a government, saying what they will do in a particular situation:
It’s not company policy to sell goods to persons under the age of 18.
The economic policy of the government is in ruins because of the global credit crisis.
Not: The economic politics of the government …

Price or prize?
Price /praɪs/ and prize /praɪz/ are nouns.
Price means ‘the amount of money you pay to buy something’:
The price of a hotel room includes breakfast in some countries.
Prize means something you win in a competition or game:
The first prize in the competition was a week’s holiday in California.

Principal or principle?
Principal as an adjective means ‘most important’:
The principal reason for the failure to take action was poor communication between
government departments. (the most important reason)
We can use principal as a noun to mean the head of a school or college (especially in
American English):
The college principal made a speech congratulating all the students who were
graduating in that year.

78
 DaoTran

Principle is a noun. It means ‘a rule or theory which explains how something is or

works’ or ‘a moral rule or guideline’:
The scientific principles behind even the most complicated computer are relatively
simple.
He seems to have no principles at all, and is only interested in money. (He has no moral
rules or guidelines.)

Quiet or quite?
Warning:
Quiet /kwaɪət/ and quite /kwaɪt/ are spelt and pronounced differently, and have
different meanings.
Quiet is an adjective meaning ‘making very little noise’ or ‘having little activity or
excitement’:
The children are very quiet. I wonder what they’re doing? Shall I go and see?
It’s a very quiet, peaceful village and we love living there.
Quite is an adverb which usually means ‘a little or a lot, but not completely’:
I’ve been quite busy this week. I hope things are not so busy next week.

Raise or rise?
Raise must have an object, as it is a transitive verb. It is a regular verb; its three forms
are raise, raised, raised:
Raise your hand if you know the answer.
Our favourite restaurant has raised its prices again. It’s getting very expensive.
Rise does not take an object, as it is an intransitive verb. It is an irregular verb; its
three forms are rise, rose, risen:
The sun rose at 5.30 this morning.
Rents have risen sharply in this part of town.

Remember or remind?
Remember
If we remember someone or something, we keep that person or thing in our mind or
we bring that person or thing back to our mind:
I will always remember you. You have helped me so much.
Not: I will always remind you.
Suddenly I remembered that I had promised to ring my mother.

79
 DaoTran

Remember + to-infinitive means that we don’t forget to do something:

Remember to save your work often, just in case your computer crashes.
Remember + the -ing form of a verb means ‘have a memory of something we did or of
something that happened in the past’:
I remember meeting her once. It must have been about five years ago.
Not: I remember to meet her once …
She said she didn’t remember getting an email from him.
We can also use remember + object + to when we ask someone to ‘give regards to’ or
‘say hello to’ someone:
A: Remember me to your parents when you see them.
B: I will. They always ask about you.
Remind
If a person or thing reminds you of someone or something, they make you think of
that person or thing, or they resemble that person or thing:
That song always reminds me of the time I fell in love with an Italian girl.
Not: … always remembers me of the time …
Jason reminded me of my father. They had the same eyes and the same way of talking.
Not: Jason reminded me my father.
If we remind someone to do something or about something, we make them
remember it or help them not to forget it:
He’s probably forgotten he was supposed to be here at 6. Shall I ring him
and remind him?
Remind me to email Tony today; otherwise I’ll probably forget.
Not: Remember me to email Tony today;

Right or rightly?
We use both right and rightly as adverbs, but they are used in different ways and with
different meanings.
Right is an adverb of manner. It means ‘correctly’ or ‘well’:
The calculation was wrong first time, but I did it right the second time.
Not: … I did it rightly …
When everything goes right, no one says thank you, but when things go wrong, they
start complaining immediately.
We use rightly to give an opinion or viewpoint on something. It usually comes in the
normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the

80
 DaoTran

modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb). It means ‘in the opinion
of the speaker, in a morally correct way’, and is more subjective than right:
He rightly took the money he had found straight to the nearest police station. (In the
speaker’s opinion, this was the morally correct thing to do.)
Climate change is rightly seen as the greatest threat to the world at the present time.

Rob or steal?
Rob and steal both mean ‘take something from someone without permission’.
Rob focuses on the place or person from which the thing is taken:
The gang robbed three banks over a period of six months, but were finally caught.
Our local post office was robbed early on Tuesday morning.
A young woman was attacked and robbed as she walked home from work last night.
Warning:
When we are talking about a house, we use burgle:
The house was burgled while they were all sleeping.
Not: The house was robbed …
Steal focuses on the thing that is taken:
The thieves entered the museum through the roof and stole three paintings worth more
than two million euros.
Our car was stolen from outside our house last week.
Warning:
We usually don’t say rob + object stolen:
He stole my wallet.
Not: He robbed my wallet.

Say or tell?
Say and tell are irregular verbs. The past simple of say is said, the past simple
of tell is told:
They asked if I was looking for work and I said yes.
Then he told me how he had got the job by lying about his age.
We use say and tell in different ways in reported speech. Say focuses on the words
someone said and tell focuses more on the content or message of what someone
said:
‘Hello,’ she said.
Not: ‘Hello,’ she told.
She told him they were going on holiday. (The focus is on the information.)

81
 DaoTran

We use say with direct speech. We don’t normally use tell in this way:
He said, ‘I’m not paying £50 for that.’
Say and tell with objects
Both say and tell take a direct object. The object is most commonly the reported
clause (the report of what someone said).

reporting clause reported clause (direct object)

She said ‘I don’t know what you mean.’

I told her why it had happened.

Tell normally takes an indirect object (one or more people = io) and a direct object
(the reported clause = do):
The boy told [IO]us [DO]he didn’t want any money.
However, we use tell without an indirect object with words such as the truth, a lie, a
joke, a story:
You should never tell a lie.
Not: … say a lie.
Come on Kevin. You’re good at telling jokes.
Say does not take an indirect object. Instead, we use a phrase with to:
And then she said to me, ‘I’m your cousin. We’ve never met before.’
Not: And then she said me …
Tell + indirect object + to-infinitive
We use tell with an indirect object and a to-infinitive to report a command or an
instruction. We don’t normally use say in this way:
They told us to come back the next day.
Not: They said us to come …
They told her to wait till the doctor arrived.
Spoken English:
But in informal speaking, we sometimes use say + to-infinitive to report a command
or an instruction:
I asked him if he wanted it today but he said to leave it till tomorrow.
Typical errors
• We don’t use an indirect object with say:
‘I’m in a hurry,’ he said to me.
Not: … he said me.

82
 DaoTran

• We don’t use tell without an indirect object when we report someone’s words:
Then a loud voice said, ‘Hello.’
Not: … a loud voice told, ‘Hello.’
She said she would wait for us outside.
Not: She told she would wait …

So that or in order that?

We use so that and in order that to talk about purpose. We often use them with
modal verbs (can, would, will, etc.). So that is far more common than in order that,
and in order that is more formal:
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called.
[on a website]
In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.
We often leave out that after so in informal situations:
I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a snack on the way.
When referring to the future, we can use the present simple or will/’ll after so that.
We usually use the present simple after in order that to talk about the future:
I’ll post the CD today so that you get it by the weekend. (or … so that you will get it …)
We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive on time for your
appointment. (or … so that you arrive on time … or … so that you’ll arrive on time …)
So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with the result that’:
The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them.

Sometimes or sometime?
Sometimes means ‘not always or not often’:
We usually played football at school, but sometimes we played hockey.
I sometimes wonder whether I should give up my job and just travel.
Sometime means ‘at an unknown or undecided time in the future or the past’:
Why don’t you come over and have dinner with us sometime? (at an undecided time in
the future)
I knew I had met her sometime, but I couldn’t remember when.

Sound or noise?

83
 DaoTran

Sound and noise are nouns. We can use them both as countable or
uncountable nouns. Both refer to something which you can hear, but when a sound is
unwanted or unpleasant, we call it a noise:
There were lots of sounds in the forest. (countable)
It travels faster than the speed of sound. (uncountable)
She made a lot of noise. (uncountable)
There were some funny noises coming from the engine. (countable)

Speak or talk?
Speak and talk: uses
The verbs speak and talk both generally mean ‘say words’, but there are some small
differences in how they are used. Speak is more formal than talk.
Compare

Formal. It is possible that:

I need to speak to 1. – the speaker does not know you very well.
you. 2. – this is in a formal setting, such as work.
3. – what the person has to say is important/serious.

Informal. It is possible that:

I need to talk to 1. – the speaker is your friend.
you. 2. – the speaker is someone you don’t know very well, but
what they have to say is informal.

We usually use speak for more formal presentations and lectures, and talk for more
informal ones:
Dr Graham Foster will speak about the history of the region.
Kyle is going to talk us through the benefits of the software and then Liz will talk about
the marketing plan.
When we refer to languages, we use speak:
How many languages do you speak?
Not: How many languages do you talk?
I wish I could speak Italian.
Not: … talk Italian.
Speak usually only focuses on the person who is producing the words:
He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet.

84
 DaoTran

Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean ‘have a
conversation’:
I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company.
Not: I hope I can meet you to speak about my plans …
Compare

The focus is on his use of his voice to produce

He always looks down
words. Speak focuses only on the person who
when he is speaking.
is producing the words.

The focus is on the use of words as part of a

I was talking to Maria yesterday.
conversation with someone else.

We use speak on the telephone:

A: Is Rita there?
B: Who’s speaking?
A: My name’s Anna. I work with her.
Not: Who’s talking?
Hello, can I speak to Laura, please?
Speak and talk with prepositions
We usually use to after speak and talk. In more formal situations, people sometimes
use with:
I need to speak to you about this conference next week.
I was talking to Richard Moss the other day about the golf club.
May I speak with you for a moment? (rather formal)
Typical errors
• We don’t use talk when referring to foreign languages:
I can speak German and Spanish.
Not: I can talk German and Spanish.
• We don’t use speak to focus on conversation:
They can talk and get to know each other over dinner.
Not: They can speak and get to know each other …

Such or so?
Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of ‘very’ or
‘to this degree’:

85
 DaoTran

Those are such good chocolates.

Those chocolates are so good.
We use such + noun phrase and so + adjective or adverb phrase:
She is such a great cook.
Not: She is so great cook.
That was so unpleasant. (so + adjective)
Not: That was such unpleasant.
Why do you drive so fast? (so + adverb)
Not: Why do you drive such fast?
Compare

so + adjective such + noun phrase

You’re so kind. He’s such a kind person

It was so hot we couldn’t work. November was such a cold month.

So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:
So much food was wasted every day.
Not: Such much food was wasted …
In those days there were so few doctors in our area.
Not: … there were such few doctors …
Typical errors
• We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:
They’re such snobs! They won’t speak to anyone else in the village.
Not: They’re so snobs …
Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them?
Not: Those are so cool shoes.
• We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an:
This is such a wonderful kitchen!
Not: This is a so wonderful kitchen!
• We use so, not such, before adjectives:
Thank you. You’re so kind.
Not: You’re such kind.
• We use so, not such, before adverbs:
She always dresses so elegantly.
Not: She always dresses such elegantly.

86
 DaoTran

There, their or they’re?

There, their and they’re are commonly confused in English, as they sound the same.
There is an adverb which refers to places:
The shop you need is over there.
We also use there to say that something exists:
There is a large oak tree outside the hotel.
Their is a possessive determiner which means ‘belonging to them’:
Their house is very small, isn’t it?
They’re is a shortened form of ‘they are’:
They’re too young to have a holiday so far away from home.

Towards or toward?
Towards and toward are prepositions. We can use both forms, but towards is much
more common than toward.
Toward(s) most often means ‘in the direction of something’:
The oil pollution is now moving towards the shore, and could threaten beaches and wild
life.
He stood up and moved toward the door.
We use toward(s) to mean ‘in relation to someone or something’. We don’t
use against or about when we talk about people’s attitudes, feelings and behaviour in
relation to one another:
She’s always been very friendly towards me.
He felt very angry towards her when she refused him.
Not: … angry against her … or … angry about her …
Toward(s): position
We use toward(s) to mean ‘near to or just before a time or place’:
Toward the late afternoon I always get sleepy and can’t work so well.
We sat towards the back of the room but we could still hear the speakers very clearly.
Toward(s): purpose
Toward(s) can mean ‘for the purpose of buying or achieving something’:
Would you like to make a contribution towards our new children’s playground? (Would
you like to give some money to help pay for it?)
The essays you do during term count towards your final grade.

87
 DaoTran

Wait or wait for?

Wait means ‘stay in the same place or not do something until something
else happens’. We can use it with or without for:
Put a tea bag into the cup, then add water and wait (for) a minute or two before taking
it out.
I phoned the head office but I had to wait (for) five minutes before I spoke to anyone.
We waited (for) hours to get the tickets.
Warning:
When we use a direct object after wait, we have to use wait for:
Wait for us outside the cinema. We’ll be there at seven o’clock.
Not: Wait us …
I waited for the postman every day last week hoping that your present would arrive.
Not: I waited the postman …
Wait with the to-infinitive
Wait can be followed by the to-infinitive:
All right, I’ll wait to hear from you, Adam, then I’ll ring Simon.
By 9 pm there were about 20 people still waiting to vote.
Can’t wait
When we are very excited about something that is going to happen, we use the
phrase can’t wait for + noun phrase or can’t wait + to-infinitive:
I can’t wait for tonight. I’m having a party! (I’m really looking forward to tonight.)
We can’t wait to go to Barcelona in June. (We’re really looking forward to going.)

Wake, wake up or awaken?

Wake and wake up are verbs which mean ‘stop sleeping or end someone else’s
sleep’. They are used in everyday language.
Compare

I woke (up) suddenly when the I woke (up) the children. (or I woke the
alarm clock went off. children up.) They had to be in school early.

The children were asleep; then I stopped them

I stopped sleeping.
sleeping.

Wake up has a similar meaning to wake. It is sometimes used as a stronger form

of wake. It can mean ‘stop sleeping’ and ‘make someone feel more awake’:

88
 DaoTran

The noise of the traffic wakes me (up) every morning.

She likes to wake up with a cup of coffee. (It makes her feel more awake.)
We use wake up! as a command:
Wake up! It’s time to get going.
Not: Wake!
The verbs waken, awaken and awake have a similar meaning but are used in more
literary contexts, often to refer to emotions or things as well as people:
Cautiously, trying not to waken him, Caroline stepped quietly out of the room.
Different images can awaken new emotions within us.
I awoke next morning to a brilliant pearly light, but when I went to the window, no sea
was visible.

Worth or worthwhile?
Worth and worthwhile are adjectives.
Worth is only used after verbs such as be, seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It
means ‘having a particular value’, especially in money:
A: I wonder how much the house is worth?
B: About half a million, probably.
To be worth doing something is a common expression. It means that something is
useful or important enough to do:
A: I haven’t had a reply to my email to Jane. Is it worth phoning her, do you
think? (Would it be useful to phone her?)
B: You could try, I suppose.
We decided it wasn’t worth going all the way to London to buy books we could get on
the Internet.
To be worth it means ‘to be of reasonable or good value for the price’:
A business class ticket cost £2,000, but it was worth it for such a long flight. It was very
comfortable.
We use worthwhile before a noun (as an attributive adjective) or after verbs such
as be, seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It means ‘useful’, ‘important’ or ‘good
enough to be a suitable reward for the money or time spent or the effort made’:
Do you think working in a supermarket is a worthwhile career for a highly intelligent
person?
We had thought of buying a bigger car, but we didn’t think it was worthwhile, since
there’s just the two of us.

89