SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK MASS QUALITIES *

BY

B. SJ0GREN,** A. 0FSTHUS ***, and J. SANDBERG ***

ABSTRACT
SJPIGREN, B., BFSTHUS, A., and SANDBERG, J., 1979, Seismic Classification of Rock
Mass Qualities, Geophysical Prospecting 27, 409-442.

Correlations between longitudinal velocities and rock mechanic parameters such as

fracture frequencies and “Rock Quality Designation” (RQD) values have been studied,
based upon velocity data from various rock types and different geographical locations.
The average relationship between longitudinal velocity and rock mechanics parameters
proved to be:

Velocity (m/s) 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

Cracks per meter 19 13.5 9.5 6.5 3.5
RQD (%) 25 45 63 78 8: 94
The dispersion of values at different sites studied is on average + 0.8 cracks per meter
and for the RQD values + 3.5 %. Within sites the dispersion of individual values relative
to the average for the site is f 1.0 - 2.0 cracks per meter and f 2 - 6% for the RQD
values.
The deviations are rather moderate, especially when considering the variation of
rock type involved in the studies: amphibolite, granite, gneiss, meta-anorthosite, peg-
matite, porphyry, quartzite, and mylonite. The studies thus confirmed earlier assumptions
that there is a strong correlation between longitudinal velocity and fracturing and that
the velocities can be used to give rather accurate predictions of the quality of rock masses
for construction purposes. The accuracy of the predictions increases if the velocity level
of the more competent rock is taken into account.
The correlation between velocity and fracturing is related to jointed but unweathered
igneous and metamorphic rock and cannot be applied without introducing serious errors
to a site where the rocks present a higher degree of alteration and weathering.
Comparisons between rock permeability and longitudinal velocity proved that a more
reliable general correlation is not likely to be found.
By comparing the elastic moduli EaZln, p, and k with o, Vp/Vis, and k/p, indications
have been obtained where the optimum rock conditions for a certain site are to be encoun-
tered. This has been verified by a similar comparison where the elastic moduli have been
replaced by fracturing values.
The,value of the longitudinal velocity as a means to evaluate rock quality increases
if the position of the velocity in the range of the Poisson’s ratio has been established.

* Received May 1977.

** Tv%spannsvagen 20, Jarfalla, Sweden.
*** A/S Geoteam, Gamle Drammensvei 48, 1320 Stabekk, Oslo, Norway. Address
inquiries to A/S Geoteam.
410 B. SJGGREN, A. QIFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

The average relationships between longitudinal velocities and the corresponding elastic
moduli proved to be:

YP (m/s) 3000 4000 5000 5500

Eavn @Pa) 18.3 30.5 52.5 64.5
Pa) 6.2 11.5 19.5 25.0
x W4 17.7 27.0 41.5 51.5
The values from each site differ from the average values with about k 2 GPa for Edyn
and about & I GPa for lo and k.
It was confirmed that in igneous and metamorphic rocks longitudinal velocities
< 4000 m/s generally indicate rock masses where heavier tunnel support will be needed.
This velocity limit corresponds to an average fracture frequency of about IO cracks per
meter and a RQD value of about 65 o/O, The prediction of the tunnel reinforcements
needed at a particular site will, however, be improved if the general velocity level of the
more competent rock is considered.

I. INTRODUCTION

During the last two decades seismic parameters, mainly longitudinal ve-
locities obtained through refraction investigations, have been widely used in
Scandinavia as indicators of rock mass quality. The reason for the ever in-
creasing application of the seismic method for rock quality determination
is the extensive use of bedrock in Scandinavia for various underground con-
structions such as hydro-electric power stations, nuclear power plants, tunnels,
air raid shelters, or oil and petrol storage.
From the beginning of the utilization of seismic data for detailed rock
quality determinations two demands arose: The first was to improve the
measuring procedure and to refine the interpretation technique in order to
enable the seismic interpreter to define the boundaries between the different
rock masses and their seismic velocities more accurately. The second was of an
analytical nature, namely to increase the understanding of the significance of
the seismic parameters. This paper deals with the second problem and is an
attempt to analyze some of the relationships between seismic variables and
their correlations with various physical properties of rock masses.
The article is based on a study carried out by A/S Geoteam, subsidized by
the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (NTNF)
(Sandberg, Sjogren, and Wfsthus 1975). A similar analysis, prepared for an
earlier paper (Helfrich, Hasselstrom, and Sjargren rgyo), is also included.
Data regarding rock mechanics and geological conditions have mainly been
provided by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI).

The objectives of the study were

a) the significance of the seismic parameters and their mutual relations;
b) the influence on the seismic parameters of varying geological conditions
such as jointing frequency, rock type, mineral content, and structure; and
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 411

c) correlations between seismic parameters and the amount of reinforcement

of rock excavations.

The seismic data used in these studies are taken from earlier investigations
in order to get a sufficient amount of comparison material. The total length of
seismic lines where the longitudinal velocities have been studied is about
113 km (IS sites) and the transverse velocities comprise about 5 km (5 sites).
The seismic velocities have been measured with a seismometer spacing of 5 m.
The elastic moduli and Poisson’s ratio have been computed in the usual
manner utilizing the longitudinal and transverse velocities and the densities
of rock samples. Data were mainly enquired with the ABEM Trio-68 and
the Dresser SIE VRO60 camera with taperecorder SIE PMR 20 and amplifier
SERCEL EX 626. Both recorders are equipped with twenty-four channels and
a time resolution of 0.2 ms.
35 mm diamond cores from seventy-four drillholes (8 sites) were logged
with respect to fracture frequency, RQD values, and rock type for a total
drilling length of around 2850 m.

2. LONGITUDINALVELOCITYVERSUS GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

As mentioned in the introduction, longitudinal velocity has been utilized

as an indicator of rock mass quality for about twenty years (Hasselstrom
1969). This has been possible because Scandinavian bedrock generally consists
of competent igneous or metamorphic rocks with rather high seismic velocities,
mainly within the range of 4800 m/s to 5800 m/s. Such rock is generally suitable
for construction purposes without presenting significant excavation problems
or requiring very much reinforcement. On the contrary the weaker parts of the
bedrock, such as shear zones, faults, jointed zones, fractured contact zones,
or upper zones of weathering, give considerably lower and-in the interpreta-
tion of the seismic measurements-easily recognisable velocities. To illustrate
this, the statistical distribution and cumulative curves of the longitudinal
velocities at Vardeasen, situated in a gneiss-amphibolite-granite region, are
given in fig. I. The velocity distribution here, with a concentration of higher
velocities and a smaller group of extremely low velocities, corresponds to solid
Precambrian rock masses intensely broken by Permian tectonics.
One of the purposes of this study has been to analyze closer the correlation
between longitudinal velocities and some rock mechanics parameters, such as
fracture frequencies and RQD (Rock Quality Designation) values, in order to
express previously vague concepts numerically and further to investigate
expected anomalies. In this connection the influence of rock types and mineral
content variations has been considered.
412 B.SJQIGREN, A.@FSTHUS, AND J.SANDBERG

% of the total profile length

100

90
M,j I 5450 m,s
q = 5180 -n-
0.3 I 5630 -u-
60 Q = 225 -u-

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 I I I I I I I I I t a I II
25 2.9 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 5.3 61 64
x loo m/s
Fig. I. Statistical distribution and cumulative curve of longitudinal velocities V, at
Vardehen.

2.1 Correlation between long&&au1 velocity and fractming.

Fig. 2 depicts average correlation curves between fracturing, cracks per
meter, and RQD values obtained from bore cores, and the corresponding
longitudinal velocities VP measured in situ. The drillholes are located close
to or on the seismic measuring lines and the boring has generally been orientated
as perpendicularly as possible to the main tectonic structure or foliation to
obtain the highest fracture frequency present. Since the seismic velocities
refer to in situ rock conditions, attempts have been made to exclude secondary
cracks caused by the drilling operations. The rather limited depth penetration
of the seismic waves during shallow refraction investigations has also been
considered, and the drilling data, used in these comparisons, have been restric-
ted to the upper 25 m of bedrock. The inclined drillholes had the same direction
as the seismic lines, and the various longitudinal velocities have been compared
with the fracturing of the corresponding rock sections.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 413

100 , I 1 I I I Vp 7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x 100 m/s

Fig. z. Average regression curves of the correlation between longitudinal velocity I/, and
fracturing of rock masses, expressed in cracks per meter (I) and RQD values (2).

The average curves in fig. 2 are derived from corresponding curves from
five investigation sites with different types of igneous or metamorphic rock.
The original curves are based on seventy-four examples with a total core
length of 1670 m, logged with respect to fracture frequency, RQD values, rock
type, and filling of joints.
At the higher velocities, the curves are based on a sufficient number of
records, but at velocities below 3500 m/s greater changes can be expected with
increasing comparison material. It is also probable that the rock in this lower
velocity range is less favourable than indicated by the average curves; especial-
ly the relation between cracks per meter and velocity, as accurate logging of
these bore cores is difficult due to inadequate recovery of the highly fractured
rock.
The average deviation of the five original curves from the average curves in
fig. z is + 0.8 cracks per meter and + 3.5 yO for the RQD values. The greatest
Geophysical Prospecting 27 27
414 B.SJ@GREN, A.OFSTHUS, AND J.SANDBERG

variations from the average curves are to be found at velocities below 3500 m/s,
where the deviation increases to somewhat above + I cracks per meter and
the RQD value to about + 6 yb. Consequently, at higher velocities the figures
are lower, & 0.6 cracks per meter and about + 2.2 o/o for RQD. It is, however,
also of interest to study the scattering of the individual points around the
original correlation curves. Given as a simple arithmetical mean, the dispersion
of the points is about I 1.0 crack per meter in the higher velocity range,
increasing to + 1.5 to 2.0 for the lower velocities. The corresponding dispersions
of RQD values are + z to 3 o/o and + 5 to 6 %. These relatively moderate
deviations are remarkable, especially when taking into consideration the
different types of rock from which the examples are taken, i.e. amphibolite,
granite, gneiss, meta-anorthosite, pegmatite, porphyry, quartzite, and mylonite.
Thus, it is obvious that the average curves in fig. z may be compared with the
velocities of an actual investigation for a preliminary estimation of the probable
fracturing of igneous and metamorphic rocks before boring results are available.
In connection with this, however, there are some factors that have to be
taken into consideration. One of them is what may be termed the “natural
velocity”, i.e. the velocity of the unjointed rock mass in situ under natural
conditions regarding rock pressure and saturation. This velocity cannot be
obtained by shallow seismic investigations for civil engineering purposes,
since the upper rock layers seldom are joint-free. While unjointed rock is
encountered at greater depths there is a possibility of a velocity increase
caused by increasing rock pressure. An idea of the “natural velocity” at a
given site can, however, be obtained from the average velocity of the massive
rock and the highest velocities recorded. The magnitude of the “natural
velocity” causes systematic deviations from the curves in fig. 2.
From the average curves in fig. 2, it is obvious that variations in the fractur-
ing affect the velocities differently in the different parts of the velocity range.
Rather small variations of fracturing in the higher velocity range will cause
considerable velocity changes, but as the curves are more steeply inclined at
the lower velocities an increase in number of cracks will here decrease the
velocity more slowly. Thus, a velocity reduction from 5500 m/s to 5000 m/s
is equivalent to an increase of only 1.0 crack per meter, but a velocity decrease
from 4000 m/s to 3500 m/s increases the fracture frequency by about 4.0 cracks
per meter.
The regression curves in fig. 2 show the relation between velocities and the
average fracturing of the rock masses. However, in addition to the average
fracturing an estimate of the dispersion within the rock mass itself must be
known. When logging the bore cores, the fracture frequency and the RQD value
for each meter were calculated. The dispersion (in terms of standard deviation)
of these numbers for each meter of core in relation to the average of the entire
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 41.5

40.

30 15

. \.
20
: .
Scrm
x .
I-

10

"P
I T I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
x 100 m/s

Fig. 3. Dispersion of the fracturing within the rock masses in relation to longitudinal
velocity V, at Bekkelaget and Brenntangen. Sclm and SRQD are the standard deviation
of cracks per meter and KQD, respectively.

rock mass is correlated with the corresponding longitudinal velocity (fig. 3).
This study revealed, as anticipated, a strong correlation between increasing
dispersion of fracturing and decreasing longitudinal velocity. The dispersion,
which is + 3 to 4 cracks per meter at the higher velocities, increases to around
I~I12 at a velocity of 3500 m/s. In the same velocity range, it is to be expected
that the dispersion of the RQD values will tend to increase from + 4 yO to
+_II to 12 %. It is likely, however, that with further fracture increase the
dispersion will abruptly decrease; all the rock material is by then crushed and
fragmented.
Related to the fracturing is the water permeability of the rock masses.
It is logical to assume that the water flow depends on the jointing frequency,
joint opening and filling, and weathering. When comparing permeability test
results with fracturing or with longitudinal velocities, one is faced with a
416 B. SJQIGREN, A. OFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

number of paradoxes. DiBiagio and Myrvoll (1972) have expressed the opinion
that the permeability tests at Brenntangen generated more problems in
interpretation than they provided solutions to problems. There is, however,
a certain relationship between permeability and velocity but generally the
comparison points are very scattered. Gureev (1967 p. 183 fig. 8) has presented
a correlation between water absorptions and longitudinal velocities but,
also here the scatter is considerable.
In our study there are twenty-nine examples (four sites) altogether, where
the longitudinal velocities, fracturing, and permeability are known. The
borehole permeability tests were carried out according to the Lugeon method,
where the estimation of the water leakage is given in liter per minute per meter
at a constant pressure of I MPa. In fig. 4 the average Lugeon indices of the

Lugeon
literlmin

. Bekkelogei
20 0 Brenntangen
x Berger
A Mongstod

15

10

oc
0 10 20 30 40 so 60 70
x 100 m/s
Fig. 4. Correlation between borehole permeability tests and longitudinal velocities.
(I) = Berger and Brenntangen, (2) = Bekkelaget, (3) = Mongstad.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 417

separate rock sections are plotted versus the corresponding longitudinal

velocities. The most outstanding deviations are to be found between the
different sites, while within the sites the scatter is considerably less. The
permeability in relation to velocity was of the same magnitude at Berger and
Brenntangen so those sites were treated together. The test data from Bekkelaget
and Mongstad followed their own patterns. At Berger and Brenntangen a
velocity lower than 3500 m/s yielded more than zo liter/min while at Mongstad
the same velocity corresponded to around I liter/min. The dispersion of the
values differed also between the different groups. At Berger and Brenntangen
(I) the dispersion at the lower velocities was about + 7 liters/min. At Bekke-
laget (2) the corresponding dispersion was + 1.2 liters/min and at Mongstad (3)
less than 0.5. At the higher velocities the dispersions were in all cases of the
same magnitude, less than 0.5 liters/min. The water flow rates and their
dispersions reflect, as was also discovered by other means, the degree of the
rock inhomogeneities at the sites investigated (sections 3.8.1, 3.8.2, and 4).
As a consequence of the strong correlations between fracturing and longi-
tudinal velocities the same pattern was repeated when comparing the perme-
ability with fracture frequency or RQD values.
The large scatter of the points and the divergences between the different groups
in fig. 4 indicate, in the case of unweathered rock, the determining influence on
rock permeability of the tightness of the joints and their filling. A more reliable
general correlation between permeability and seismic velocities, therefore, is not
likely to be found, but a comparison between water leakage and velocities can
yield additional information regarding tightness and filling of the joints.

2.1.1 Theoretical calculations of the correlation between longitudinal velocity and

fracturing.
When combining seismic investigations and drilling for the evaluation of
rock conditions for a project it is very common, on account of the ordinarily
limited amount of boreholes, that not all the seismic velocities recorded
(i.e. all rock masses) are represented by drilling results. In order to get average
fracture values for the velocities not covered by the drilling, an attempt has
been made to find a theoretical solution of the correlation. After having
established an empirical average curve as in fig. 2 from existing relations
between velocity and fracturing the following equation has been employed:
x/voy,+ (I--)/V1 = I/V,,
where I’1 is the velocity in the solid unjointed rock material,
VO is the velocity in the poorer rock material,
Ve is the average velocity recorded during the seismic survey,
and x is the length with the velocity VO.
418 B. SJ@GREN, A. BFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

In the equation x can be replaced by kin,

where k1 = a constant
n = number of cracks per meter.

The equation above will then be

km (VI - V’O)/V~VO = I/V, - I/VI

kl (VI - Vo)/V 1V o can be replaced by a new constant kz, so that the final
equation is
kzn = I/V,- I/VI

The two unknowns kg and VI are then calculated using actual measured
values for n and the corresponding V8 taken from the average curve mentioned
above. Number n of cracks per meter for chosen velocities is then calculated
using the following equation :

These theoretical calculations of average fracture frequencies have shown

a satisfactory agreement with those empirically obtained. The discrepancies
between them have on average been less than 0.5 crack per meter, thus provid-
ing a useful tool to complete the entire velocity register obtained. It ought
to be noted that the calculated velocity VI for the unjointed rock material
is a theoretical approximative estimation of the “natural velocity” (section
2.1). The aforementioned mathematical procedure can also be utilized to
calculate expected average RQD values. The results have also in this case been
acceptable. However, in the lower velocity range, the calculated RQD values
tend to be a few per cent higher than those empirically obtained.

2.1.2 Zone of weathering

The correlations between velocity and fracturing given in fig. 2 are related
to the rock masses below the zone of weathering. Already at an early stage
of the study it was evident that the relationships between velocity and frac-
turing in the weathered upper zone of the bedrock gave another pattern than
those obtained in the more competent rocks. As a consequence of this, in the
comparisons the two groups were separated. It was found that for the same
velocity the fracture frequency was about 2 to 4 cracks per meter less in the
weathered zone, indicating that there were factors beside the fracturing that
control the velocity magnitude. These factors are probably to be found in the
lower rock pressure in the upper layers, the wider and more open joints and
fissures due to the reduced stress, a higher degree of weathering, and lower
moisture content.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 419

2.1.3 Relation between longitudinal velocity and fracturing with depth

In the comparison of the longitudinal velocities with the fracturing of the
rock masses, drilling data have not been included for greater depths than can
be expected to have been penetrated by the seismic waves, i.e. 20 m - 30 m
below the surface of the more competent rock.
In order to study the validity of ground investigations with increasing
depth some post-excavation seismic measurements have been carried out.
The comparison between the original ground and the corresponding tunnel
measurements have indicated that at a depth of 30 m - 50 m the seismic
velocities have in general increased by 5 to 15 percent. The relative increase
is greatest for the lower velocities. In zones with velocities below 3000 m/s,
the increase of the velocities has sometimes been considerably greater than
stated above. In connection with the velocity increase in the weaker zones
of the bedrock, one has also observed a decrease of 40 to 60 percent in the
widths of the zones. The smaller low velocity zones with width below 5 m at
the bedrock surface, have generally disappeared completely at a depth of
30 m - 50 m.

2.1.4 Predictions of fracture frequencies

In fig. 2 an average general correlation between velocities and fracture
frequencies has been presented. In order to extend the applicability of this
and similar relationships-which refer to the rock masses in the vicinity of the
boreholes-throughout the investigated area a generalization has been attemp-
ted with the help oftthe seismic velocities so that the general distribution of the
rock mass quality to be expected can be estimated. To accomplish this, the
cumulative curve of the velocities measured at a site has been combined with a
correlation curve as in fig. 2. In this way it is possible to get an estimate of
the relative volume of the rock masses and their probable fracture frequencies.
The values thus obtained have then been compared with the statistical distri-
bution of the fracturing of the borecores.
At Berger, before the drilling was carried out, a prediction of the fracture
frequency was given. The estimate of the fracture frequency based upon the
distribution of the seismic velocities and a general average curve (see fig. 2)
of the relation between velocity and fracturing was that during drilling one
would encounter 2 IO cracks per meter in 25 o/O of the rock masses and 5-g
cracks per meter in 35 o/o of the rock masses. The logging of the cores from the
subsequently completed drilling showed that around 31 oh of the drilling
length of the rock masses had 2 IO cracks per meter and 38 yO had 5-g cracks
per meter.
This, and similar comparisons, has proved that correlations between longi-
tudinal velocity and rock fracturing can very well be extended to get an
420 B. SJ@GREN, A. @FSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

estimation of the mean rock qualities of the whole area investigated. Even
before any drilling has been carried out it is also possible to get an idea of the
fracturing to be expected.

2.1.5 Geological conditiom

The correlations presented in fig. 2 are based upon investigations in jointed,
but unweathered, igneous and metamorphic rocks and cannot, therefore, be
applied to sites with other geological conditions. In fig. 5, in order to exemplify
this, the average curve from fig. 2 regarding the relation between velocities
and fracture frequencies is shown together with a similar curve based upon
thirteen examples from an investigation in the Andes in Chile (Helfrich,
Hasselstrom, and Sjmgren 1970). In the latter curve, the fracturing is consider-
ably lower for the same velocity. This mainly reflects a high degree of weath-
ering and alteration of the rock material itself, which-besides the fracturing-
Cracks per meter
20

15

10

"P
i-
Fig. 5. Comparison between fracture frequencies and longitudinal velocities V, under
different geological conditions. Curve (I) refers to the unweathered rock masses in figure 2
and (2) to weathered and altered rocks in the Andes, Chile.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 421

lowers the velocities. The rock types in this case-granite, granodiorite, and
andesite, may contribute to the low velocities, but the weathering and alteration
ought probably to be given the highest priority.

2.2 Influence of rock type and mineral content

The regression of the curves in fig. 2 shows a strong correlation between
degree of fracturing and longitudinal velocity. But these curves do not give a
complete answer. Questions like the scatter around the average and the dis-
persions between the different sites, mentioned in section 2.1, still remain.
It can be assumed that other factors, like distribution of rock types, mineral
content, bonding of the minerals, joint openings, weathering, alteration, rock
pressure, saturation, and chemical composition of the minerals, affect the
velocities to varying degrees. Together, these factors form a very complex
system, but it has been possible at least to get indications of the influence
that some of the factors exert on the magnitude of the velocities. These studies
are based upon the relations between velocities and fracturing, mapping of
rock types in the bore cores, sound measurements of the cores in the laboratory,
and mineral analysis of the rock samples.
As the data were obtained under rather similar geological conditions, some
of the factors mentioned above can be considered to have been reduced or
eliminated. The examples refer to unweathered rock masses lying below the
zone of weathering, but at a maximim depth of around 30 m. Therefore,
the influence of variations of rock pressure, joint openings, weathering, and
alteration have been neglected in the study below.
In order to estimate the influence of variations of rock type, the following
equation was employed :

i x/v, =100/v,

where Vz is the velocity measured in the laboratory for a certain rock type,
x is the relative length of the total bore core (in percent),
and Vm is the computed average velocity for the total bore core.

Differences between the computed velocities V, have been compared with

differences between the corresponding velocities measured in situ, taking
account of the effect of varying degrees of fracturing in accordance with a
correlation curve of the same type as that in fig. 2. These comparisons have,
in general, proved that the scatter of the points depend on variation in rock
type. As examples two cases from Bekkelaget with almost the same fracture
frequency but with different velocities can be mentioned. In one rock mass, the
velocity measured in situ is 5600 m/s and the fracturing is 2.97 cracks per meter.
The figures from the other record are 5300 m/s and 2.84 cracks per meter.
422 B. SJBGREN, A. @FSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

The explanation of this contradiction lies in the different rock composition.

In the first case 37 percent was amphibolite and the remaining 63 percent
mostly gneiss and, to a lesser degree, pegmatite. In the latter case, amphibolite
accounted for only g percent of the rock and gr percent being gneiss with some
granite and pegmatite. As the velocity of amphibolite is higher than those
of the other rock types involved, the calculations gave a 240 m/s higher velocity
for the first case, which is in good agreement with the 300 m/s velocity dif-
ference measured in situ.

2.3 Statistical analysis

Beside the more detailed studies of the longitudinal velocities and the
corresponding geological and rock mechanics parameters, a statistical approach
to the problems in the form of distribution and cumulative curves has yielded
valuable additional information.
% of the total profile length
100

90

60

i
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 “P
I f I I I I I I I I I I
25 26 31 3k 37 44 43 46 49 52 55 56 61 64
x 100 m/s
Fig. 6. Comparison between the cumulative curves of the longitudinal velocities VP
within gneiss areas at Varde%sen (I) and at M0rk (2). The curve (3) refers to an amphibolite
area at Vardegsen.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 423

An example of the statistical procedure has previously been given in fig. I

(Vardeasen) showing how the general tectonic structure is reflected in the
statistical velocity distribution curves. The seismic measuring lines in this
case comprise 11.8 km, and without a statistical analysis it would not be
possible to get an overall view of the velocities. There is also another advantage
in this procedure: at least some accidental errors in the measurements and
calculations of the velocities are eliminated, thus giving a more reliable picture
of the velocities at a particular site or for a particular direction in relation
to the geological structure. It ought to be noted, however, that systematic
errors in the velocity determination still remain.
Fig. 6 shows the cumulative velocity curves from the measurements at
Vardeasen (fig. I) and Mark (6.8 km. of seismic lines). The sites are situated
within the same geological area. The rock masses, consisting of gneiss, amphi-
bolite and granite, have at both places been subjected to approximately the
same degree of tectonic disturbance. Despite the distance of about 20 km
between the two measuring sites the cumulative curves of the gneiss areas
are very similar, indicating that the same general construction conditions are
to be expected.

3. BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE ELASTIC MODULI

In the previous discussions only the dependence of seismic longitudinal
velocities I’, on different physical properties of the rock masses has been
studied. In this section of the article other seismic parameters-transverse
velocities v/S, Poisson’s ratio CS,dynamic modulus of elasticity Eduln, rigidity
modulus p, and bulk modulus k-will also be included in the studies.
In order to facilitate the understanding of the relationship between seismic
parameters some simple mathematical principles have been reviewed. The
investigation at Bekkelaget has been employed to illustrate concepts and
correlations, and finally some conclusions have been made in which comparisons
from other sites have been included.

3.1 Relation between VP and V,

In fig. 7 the transverse velocities V, are plotted versus the longitudinal
velocities V, for the different rock masses at Bekkelaget. The dispersion of
the values is rather small, around 65 m/s (expressed in V,). The scatter of the
points around the average curve is related to variations of the Poisson’s
ratio TV.Points with low figures for c lie above the average, while consequently
those with higher figures lie beneath. With increasing or decreasing Poisson’s
ratio the points diverge from the average line. The values of the Poisson’s
ration at Bekkelaget (mean value around 0.28) are limited to a rather narrow
range with 84 percent of the value lying between 0.26 and 0.32.
424 B. SJPIGREN, A. QIFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

VS
40 x100 m/s

30

20

10

VP
0 I I I I ,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
xlOOm/s

Fig. 7. Relation between longitudinal velocities VP and transverse velocities P, at

Bekkelaget.

3.2 Relatzons between V, and Edyn, p, and k.

The dynamic modulus of elasticity Edyn, the rigidity modulus p, and the
bulk modulus k are plotted as functions of the longitudinal velocities V, in
fig. 8 (Bekkelaget). Regarding Edun and lo, points with high Poisson’s ratios
lie below the average and points with low values lie above. For k the pattern
is reversed. This is a consequence of the mathematical relation between Edyn
and k (k = Ed,,/3 (I - 20)). It is, therefore, obvious that with increasing 0, the
value of k will increase. The equation also shows that for cz = 1/3, k and Edyn
are equal and for CJ > 113, one has k > Edyn. Derivation of these relations
is given e.g. by Dobrin (1960). The scatter of the points around the average
curves depends on the dispersion of the a-values. The rather insignificant
dispersion of csat Bekkelaget, mentioned in section 3.1, is reflected in a small
dispersion of E au/n, p, and k (fig. 8) indicating rather homogenous rock masses.
This assumption has also been verified by other investigation methods. Later
on, this will be discussed in more detail.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 42.5
Edyn.u.k in GPCI
86-

Dispersion

70- Edyn = 1.8

P Y =1,0
Q k =I.2

60-

50-

LO-

30-

20-

IO-

“P
0 I I I I I I I 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
x100mls

Fig. 8. The elastic moduli Edyn, p, and k versus longitudinal velocities V, at Bekkelaget.
(I): -%m, (2): k, (3): t*.

3.3 Edyn, p, and k as factions of CT,Vp/Vs, and k/p

The correlations between Edyn, p, k and CJare presented in fig. g (Bekkelaget).
The position of the points and the calculated average curves indicate a pro-
nounced decrease of the elastic properties with increasing cr. The mean curve
indicates that the dynamic modulus of elasticity Edyn increases when c decreases
towards 0.28. Similarly, Edyn assumes the optimum value for VP/V/‘, w 1.8
and k/p 5 2.0. The maximum values for k occur at higher values of 6, VP/V,,
and k/p. The corresponding comparisons using data obtained from the zone
of weathering do not coincide with those in the more competent rocks and
are therefore excluded here.
Similar analyses of seismic data from other sites have indicated that in
most cases o-values of the more competent rock masses varied from 0.25 to
0.28. In one case (Hamang-limestone and clay shale) an optimum o-value
426 B. SJplGREN, A. GFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

Edy#,k in GPa
60
1

' Edyn
70 AL4
Q k

60

50

10

30

20

10

I
al5 I
020
I
025
8
cm
I
a35
6
I
0.40

Fig. 9, The elastic moduli Edyn, p, and k versus Poisson’s ratios IS at Bekkelaget.
(I) : J&m (2): k, (3): p.

lying somewhat over 0.30 has been registered. The corresponding optimum
values of the ratios Vp/Vs and k/p, when 0 varied between 0.25 and 0.28,
were 1.70-1.83 and 1.70-1.95 respectively.

3.4 Checking the seismic parameters

In order to check the calculations of seismic parameters, we correlated
a-values with the ratios k/p and VP/V, and also k/p versus VP/V/,. Fig. IO
shows, as an example of these diagrams, the correlation between k/p and
Vp/V’s at Bekkelaget. Beside the fact that erroneous calculations are easily
detectable in these diagrams, they also offer additional information of interest.
It can be noted in fig. IO that the points refering to the zone of weathering
are more scattered than those obtained in the underlying, more homogeneous
rock masses.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 427

. Unweathered rock
@ Zone of weathering

I vp/vs
0 I I I I , t
1.5 1.6 1,7 1.8 0 2.0 2J 22
Fig. IO. Relation between the ratios k/p and VP/V, (Bekkelaget).

3.5 Fracturilzg vemuus CT,V,/Vl,, and k/p

In connection with the interpretations of the results from the investigations
at Bekkelaget, the correlations between fracturing and 6, VP/V,, and k/p
were studied. The intention was to determine the range of these factors for
which the rock conditions are most suitable from the viewpoint of fracturing.
In fig. II the fracture frequency and RQD (Rock Quality Designation) values
are plotted versus the corresponding a-values. The diagram indicates that the
minimum fracturing is to be encountered at Poisson’s ratio of around 0.28.
The correlation between the fracturing and the location in the o-range indicated
by the average curves may be a mere coincidence. An example with, for instance,
a high degree of fracturing but with a more central 0 position, would disturb
the system. For a more complete analysis, it would be necessary to have a
greater number of comparison points to enable an interpretation of the correla-
tion between fracturing and Poisson’s ratios for rather narrow longitudinal
velocity ranges. Some discrepancies may be observed in fig. II. The point
with a velocity of 5600 m/s (C = 0.28) has a little higher fracturing than that
with a velocity of 5300 m/s (CJ= 0.28). This anomaly is caused by different
rock composition. The amphibolite content in the first case is 4 times greater
than in the second. This question is more closely discussed in section 2.2. The
428 B.SJ@GREN, A. OFSTHUS, AND J.SANDBERG

RPO Cracks per meter

0 20

10 52 = Vp = 5200 m/s
. =RQD
x -Cracks per meter

20

15
30

40

SO

60

70

5
60

90

100
0;s

Fig. II. Mean fracture frequencies and RQD values for rock masses at Bekkelaget in
relation to corresponding Poisson’s ratios O. The numbers at the points refer to the
longitudinal velocities: i.e. 52 = 5200 m/s.

point with a velocity 3100 m/s shows more moderate fracturing than would be
indicated by the low velocity. This can be attributed to its location in the
zone of weathering.
In fig. 12 (Bekkelaget) the dispersion of the fracturing within the different
rock masses, expressed in standard deviations, has been correlated with
Poisson’s ratios. The points in this diagram correspond to those given in fig. II.
In this diagram there is also an indication that the optimum rock conditions
are to be found when r~is approaching 0.28. Similar comparisons with CJbeing
replaced by Vp/Vs and k/p have been carried out. The optimum rock conditions
could here be encountered when the ratio VP/V8 was between 1.8 and 1.85
and the ratio k/p around 1.95. These estimations of the rock quality in relation
to 0, VP/V,, and k/p are in good agreement with those previously given in
section 3.3, where an attempt was made to evaluate the optimum rock condi-
tions from purely seismic assumptions.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 429

. =%QD
x -SC/m

5 0.50 0,:s 0.b 0.55 &I

Fig. 12. Dispersion of the fracture frequencies and the RQD values at Bekkelaget.
The comparison points refer to those given in figure II. &I~ is the standard deviation
for cracks per meter, .SR~D the standard deviation for RQD values.

In order to check the conformity between these empirically estimated

optimum values of CS,VP/V’,, and k/p they have been plotted in fig. IO and
in the other diagrams proposed in section 3.4.

3.6 Combination of seismic parameters versus rock mechanic data

In fig. 13 some of the previously studied details at Bekkelaget have been
collected in order to present a more comprehensive picture of the correlation
between the different seismic and rock mechanics variables. The values of
Edyn and k are plotted versus the corresponding o-values. The numbers
attached to the points denote the longitudinal velocities VP (expressed in
units of IOO m/s, i.e. 52 for 5200 m/s). By connecting points with the same
longitudinal velocity we can study variations of Edyn and k as a function of CJ
at constant V,. The dashed lines refer to k and the solid lines to Edyn. Below
Geophysical Prospecting 27 28
430 B. SJ#GREN, A. @FSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

Edyn. k in G-.- Pn
.80- 52 = vp = 5 200 m,s
. =Edyn
O.k

70 -

60 -

50 -

40 -

30-

038
ROD Cracks per meter 6:;
20- 50 -I- 10

60

70
lo- 5
80
90
i d

Fig. 13. The values of Edyn and k versus Poisson’s ratios o at Bekkelaget. Points with
the same longitudinal velocity VP are connected with solid lines for Edyn and with dashed
lines for k. Below the seismic data the mean curves for fracture frequency and RQD in
fig. II are plotted. (I) : cracks per meter, (2) : RQD.

the seismic data are drawn the average curves of the fracturing, previously
shown in fig. II. One ought to observe that these latter curves are based on
a rather limited comparison material (section 3.5). However, the diagram
apparently indicates a relationship between the average curve for Edqn,
the decrease of EdZln for the longitudinal velocities with increasing 6, and
the variations of the fracture frequency and RQD value.
As can be seen in the diagram, variations of Edyn. and k are more pronounced
at the higher longitudinal velocities where the lines are steeply inclined.
By contrast, in the lower velocity range the lines tend to be more horizontal.
One objection to these statements may be that the points in the figure lie
too close to one another to allow the slopes of the VP-lines to be drawn accu-
rately. The same pattern, however, was repeated at the other sites analyzed.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 431

The correlation with quality and character of the rock masses seems to be more
reliable at lower velocities-a fact of great importance as the lower velocities
indicate a project’s critical bedrock sections. Conversely, the significance of
smaller divergences between higher velocities or of a particular higher velocity
ought not to be exaggerated, as often is done, and especially not without
additional information, for instance, the o-values in relation to the optimum
value of G. The same studies have been performed by replacing B with V,/V/‘,
or k/p, and the same pattern was observed. These results, however, are not
included in this paper.
Poisson’s ratios-and consequently also the related ratios VP/V8 and k/p--
are determining factors for evaluating relations between seismic parameters
and their correlation to geological and rock mechanics data. It seems, however,
to be of a rather limited value to assume the magnitude of Poisson’s ratio
without any measurements, as one often encounters in the literature, and then
apply the assumed a-value to the registered longitudinal velocities for calcula-

0.08 -

0.07 -

0.06 - \

0x)5-

\.

0.04 -
\.

0.03 -

\
0.02 -

::,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x 100 m/s

Fig. 14. Dispersion of Poisson’s ratio o in relation to longitudinal velocity V,.

432 B.SJ@GREN, A.@FSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

tions of, for example, Edyn. A systematic error will very likely be introduced
and significant details will remain undetected.
The Poisson’s ratios of the rock masses studied by the authors varied within
a rather wide range, viz. from 0.15 to 0.39. The dispersion of o around the
arithmetic mean was about 0.05. The dispersion, however, was not uniform
but varied with the longitudinal velocity, increasing from 0.022 for about
5500 m/s to 0.065 for velocities below 4000 m/s. Fig. 14 shows the dispersion
of CJin different velocity ranges. , 2 5500 m/s, 5000-5400 m/s, 4500-4900 m/s,
4100~4400 m/s, and I 4000 m/s. The dispersion curve is based on seventy
points. There is a strong correlation between the increasing dispersion of (r
and the decreasing longitudinal velocity. This relationship confirms indirectly
the average curves given in fig. II, since there is a greater probability that a
low velocity with a corresponding high fracture frequency also has a less
favourable position in the o-range than a higher velocity (section 3.5).

3.7 Generalizatiow of the correlatiom

Fig. 15 depicts the general relationship between longitudinal velocities V,
and the elastic quantities Edgn, p, and k. The curves in the figure are based on
eighty examples from three different investigation sites situated in igneous
and metamorphic rock areas. Average curves for these relations have been
established for each site (fig. 8). These separate curves for each site differ
from the general ones in fig. 15 with around + 2 GPa for EdZln and + I GPa
for p and k. The dispersion, however, is not the same in the different parts
of the range of the longitudinal velocities. For Edvlz and lo the greatest dis-
persion is found at the lower velocities, while k has its greatest dispersion
in the higher velocity range.
A more general picture of the dependence of longitudinal velocities on their
location in the o-range is given in fig. 16. This figure shows the same relations
that have been analysed in connection with fig. 13. The general curves in fig. 16
are based upon results from four different sites.
The general correlation between longitudinal velocities I/, and the frac-
turing, expressed in cracks per meter and RQD values, has been presented
earlier, in fig. 2. Fig. 17 shows the same correlations, but I/, has here been
replaced by Edgn, p, and k.
In fig. 18, lines 1-7, the average relationships between the different seismic
and rock mechanics variables discussed in the present paper have been collec-
ted. Moreover, via the RQD values, an attempt has been made to correlate
these results with other rock quality designations, according to Deere, Peck,
Monsees, and Schmidt (1969). The adaptation of the system with the help of
the RQD values, however, forms a rather weak link as the location of RQD
on the scale depends on the type of rock.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

;::
434 B. SJP(GREN, A. OFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

RPO Cracks per meter

Edyn..u,k in G Pa
loo,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Fig. 17. Average correlations between elastic moduli Edyn, k, k and fracture frequencies
(solid lines), RQD values (dashed lines). (I): Edyn. (2): k, (3): p.

3.8 Some a&blications of the correlations

Below we give some examples of the utilization of the relations between
the different seismic parameters, partly in combination with drilling results.

3.8.1 Berger
At Berger, a granite and leptite area, the measurements gave a higher
mean longitudinal velocity V, in the northern part of the measuring site
than in the central and southern parts. A judgement only based upon the
longitudinal velocities could lead to the conclusion that the most suitable
location of the project, from a rock quality viewpoint, was in the northern
part. Taking into consideration the other seismic variables, this conclusion
seemed doubtful. The difference in the mean longitudinal velocities is about
300 m/s in favour of the northern part. On the contrary, the mean transverse
velocities are almost equal in the three parts of the area. As a consequence
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 435

of this, the calculated Poisson’s ratios are considerably higher in the northern
part. The mean values of the moduli of elasticity Edyn. and of rigidity p are
of almost the same magnitude, while the mean value of the bulk modulus K
is higher in the northern part. These factors taken together-higher values
of VP, 6, and k in the northern part, but scarcely varying Vs, Eduln, and p
values throughout the entire area-indicate that the differences are related
to variations of water content rather than to the rock quality itself. The rock
masses of the area, situated about IOO m above the sea level, are, according
to the drilling results, heavily shattered by tectonic disturbances and probably
well drained, at least in some parts of the area. The above assumption re-
garding the influence of the water content, may be verified by the sound
velocity measurements of the bore cores in the laboratory. The saturated
samples displayed velocities about 700 m/s higher than when they were dry.
An increase of 5 to IO percent of the longitudinal velocities with increasing
depth within the more competent rock masses was also observed, below the
outstanding zone of weathering.
To have concluded, as often is done, that the increased longitudinal velocities
corresponded to a decrease in fracturing, would have been questionable for
the Berger site. The increase of the longitudinal velocities might equally
well have been caused by an increased tightness of the joints and/or increased
water content (Gureev 1967, p. 183).

3.8.2 Bekkelaget and Brenntangen

The measurements at Bekkelaget and Brenntangen, situated about 35 km
apart in a gneiss-granite-amphibolite area, resulted in higher longitudinal
and transverse velocities and higher values of the elastic moduli, especially
Eduln, at the latter site. Conversely, the drilling results at Brenntangen indicated
a somewhat higher degree of fracturing than indicated by the velocities.
The dispersion of the fracturing is also more pronounced at Brenntangen.
This contradiction between seismic and drilling results may nevertheless be
explained by other features in the seismic parameters. The dispersion of the
seismic parameters is greater at Brenntangen than at Bekkelaget. A study
of the Poisson’s ratios at Bekkelaget revealed that they are concentrated
around what has been estimated as the most suitable position in the o-range
for this site. The dispersion of the a-values, and consequently that of the
elastic moduli, is on the other hand larger at Brenntagen, indicating less
homogeneous rock masses, an assumption that agrees well with the drilling
results. Once again, a conclusion based only upon the longitudinal velocities
might have been erroneous. The more complete seismic analysis as well as
the drilling results indicate more homogeneous rocks at Bekkelaget, while
the lower values for the seismic parameters there are probably related to a
436 B. SJBGREN, A.OFSTHUS, AND J.SANDBERG

lower “natural velocity” caused by the relatively high mica content of 25 to

30 percent.

4. COMPARISON BETWEEN LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY AND TUNNEL SUPPORT

Our studies have also included some comparisons between seismic para-
meters, in particular the longitudinal velocities, and tunnels support require-
ments. The comparison material is still limited, but some trends are already
evident. It ought to be pointed out beforehand that there are a lot of sources
of errors and approximations involved in these studies. Moreover, a one-
parameter description of the rock conditions giving an average picture along
longer rock sections is only able to give preliminary estimations of the degree
and type of support required. By way of comparison one can mention that
Barton, Lien, and Lunde (1974) in their rock quality classification system
have had to utilize six different parameters, most of which are inaccessible
by seismic measurements.
Factors that make comparisons between seismic data and tunnel support
difficult are: Dimensions and purposes of the excavations, the disagreement
between the widths of the low velocity zones and those of the tunnel sections
with support, differences in the thickness of the rock cover for the different
projects, the decrease with depth of the widths of the low velocity zones
(section 2.1.3), support requirements caused by poorly executed drilling and/or
blasting, different support practice, etc.
From the beginning of the utilization of the longitudinal velocities (in 1956)
as a detailed measure of rock quality, it was obvious that the repeated pattern
in igneous and metamorphic rocks, with a dominant group of high velocities
and a secondary concentration of low velocities, separated by easily dectect-
able boundaries, gave a clear indication of the rock quality. Within a few
years an approximate classification of the velocities in relation to rock mass
quality and tunnel support requirements was established by correlating the
seismic data with geological ground observations and subsequent tunnel
excavations. This classification was as follows: Velocities below 4000 m/s
were found to be related to faults, contact zones, etc. with highly fractured
rock, where in general a higher degree of reinforcement was necessary when
tunneling. In contrast, velocities above 5000 m/s were considered to indicate
competent rock masses with in general little need of reinforcement. The
transition values between 4100 m/s and 4900 m/s were divided into two groups.
Rock sections with velocities from 4100 m/s to around 4400 m/s, generally
proved to need more extensive support measures, while in the velocity range
between 4500 m/s and 4900 m/s a continuous improvement of rock quality
could be observed. Extremely low velocities-below 3000 m/s-were con-
sidered to indicate cavities in the bedrock filled with soil, or completely crushed
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 437

and fragmented rock material. It ought to be noted that this classification

of the longitudinal velocities was related to hard crystalline rock masses;
in less consolidated rocks the same pattern was observed, but at lower velocity
limits. If we compare these velocity limits with the corresponding fracture
frequencies in fig. 18, we can note that the velocity 4000 m/s corresponds to an
average of about IO cracks/m and velocities 2 5000 m/s to less than 5 cracks
per meter. The extremely low velocities (below 3000 m/s) are obtained in
rock material with pieces smaller than 5 cm.

I Very Poor I ROW I Fair 1 Good I Excellentl Diagnostic

description
1 0’ 1p 20 30 L/l 5p 60 70 80 90 10 ROD

2 -2p -1 19.2 6,7 L+ 3,4 Cmcks per meter

3 ? -7 1p 15 27 29 ~ne;;c~‘e length

4 30 315 Lp 45 sp 55 x 100 m/s bp

5 - l&O 22.7 30,3 3Q,7 5133 6$5 GPa Edyn

6 178 22.2 27.1 3$7 41.2 59.7 G Pa k

7 95 6<7 11,) 15.2 lg.0 24.7 GPo LI

Jointing close mod. close wide

Bedding and foliation thin medium thick Deere 1963
8
broken blocky Coates 1965
9
“ass 4 3 2 1 Scott and
10 I ’ Carroll 1967
11 5 10 20 Fracture spacing

12 5 1p 15 20 2p Fracture spacing,
Geoteam
Fig. 18. Relationships between average seismic parameters and rock mechanic
classifications.

This velocity classification, however, ignores the variations in the general

level of the higher velocities of the more competent rock masses. An improve-
ment in this respect came when Cecil (1971) proposed the application of a
multiplication constant of 0.8 to the higher velocities measured at a site in
order to get the critical velocity limit, below which one could expect greater
problems with rock quality, resulting in more extensive support measures, e.g.
concrete lining or cast concrete arches. The influence of the general level of the
higher velocities has also been observed in our fracture frequency studies.
For a generally high velocity level at a site, the velocity 4000 m/s, mentioned
above, generally corresponded to II-I:! cracks per meter, and conversely the
fracturing was lower (8-9 cracks/m) when the velocities for the massive rocks
were lower.
In the present analysis we have also attempted a more general correlation
438 B. SJ0GREN A. OFSTHUS, AND J. SANDBERG

between velocities and tunnel support. Fig. rg depicts the relationship between
mean longitudinal velocities (represented by the median Md) and the fraction
of lengths of the excavations, where shotcrete or concrete linings has been
applied. The main rock types at the different sites are: I) Mongstad: meta-
anorthosite, meta-anorthosite gabbro, and amphibolite; z) Torp: slightly
metamorphosed clay shale and limestone; 3) Hamang: clay shale and limestone;
and 4-8) Rendalen: sparagmite, and quartzite. As can be seen in the diagram
there is a clear correlation between the mean velocities and the amount of
tunnel support.

% 6 76 5 4 3 2 1 number

100

60

I
40 45 sb 65
Xl00 m/s

Fig. rg. Relation between mean longitudinal velocities, median Md, and percentage
tunnel support measures, shotcrete, and concrete lining. Number (I) : Mongstad, (2) Torp,
(3) : Hamang, (4-8) : Rendalen.

The greatest interest is, however, attached to the velocity limit, where
more extensive tunnel support requirements and consequently also the greatest
excavation problems are to be expected. Our studies gave results that in
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 439

general agree with the earlier assumptions mentioned above. There are,
however, some indications in our comparisons material that the constant 0.8
(Cecil 1971) is really a variable. For high velocities, i.e. a high “natural velocity”,
Cecil’s constant ought to be lowered to about 0.75, and for generally low
velocities it seems to approach 0.85. Because of the limited comparison material
this proposal to modify Cecil’s number should be regarded as a working
hypothesis rather than a final statement. One ought to be careful, however,
when using such an approximate method to estimate the critical velocity
limit, especially if the distribution of rock types is not known. The result
will be erroneous if a multiplication constant corresponding to higher velocities
(for instance, to amphibolite) is applied and the critical velocity limit thus
obtained is then used for a gneissic section of the investigation area (see fig. 6).
At Rendalen (numbers 4-8 in fig. rg) tunnel sections where concrete lining
has been used correspond to velocities around 4200 m/s. In contrast at Mong-
stad (number I) depending on the high natural velocity, the critical limit prob-
ably lies at 4500 m/s or possibly somewhat higher. This higher velocity limit at
Mongstad is in accordance with the discrepancy between the velocities versus
fracturing curve of this site and the corresponding general curve given in
fig. 2. For a certain fracture frequency the velocity is 300-500 m/s higher at
Mongstad.
The varying rock covers for the projects also make comparisons difficult.
At Torp rock sections with velocities varying from 4300 m/s to 4500 m/s
were excavated without any need of reinforcement, while at Sundsbarmsvatn
a rock section with the velocity 4500 m/s needed support. The difference
probably lies in the locations of the projects below the bedrock surface: 50 m
at Torp but only about 20 m at Sundsbarmsvatn (for the relevance of seismic
ground measurements as indicator of rock conditions at greater depths see
section 2.1.3).

5. CONCLUSIONS
The objectives stated in the introduction have mainly been achieved, but
questions still remain. Some earlier assumptions regarding correlations between
seismic parameters and rock mechanics or construction data, based upon
less exhaustive comparison material, have been confirmed or revised, and
some new viewpoints have been obtained.
The systematic treatment of the seismic data, for instance in the form of
statistical distribution analysis, has yielded valuable additional information
and thereby increased the applicability of the seismic measurements. The
statistical analysis of the longitudinal velocities exemplified in this paper,
has also been used for the other seismic parameters-Poisson’s ratio G, Edyn,
p, and k-and for the rock mechanics parameters fracture frequencies and RQD
440 B.SJBGREN, A.BFSTHUS, AND J.SANDBERG

(Rock Quality Designation), in order to get a comprehensive picture of the

rock conditions and also to reveal details of interest (sections 2.3 and 3.8).
The conclusions of this study may briefly be summarized as follows:
5.1 There is a strong correlation between fracturing and seismic parameters
(section 2.1 and 3.7). However, these relationships do not just give an average
value for the fracturing but also include the averaged effects of other factors
such as rock type, mineral content and so on. In igneous or metamorphic
rocks the dispersion of the fracturing versus longitudinal velocity regression
curves is small for the different rock types, generally lower than 1.0 crack per
meter in the bore cores (section 2.1). The relationships between fracturing
and seismic parameters presented in this paper, for instance, are obtained in
jointed but unweathered rock masses and therefore cannot be applied to the
zone of weathering (section 2.1.2) or to other geological conditions (section
2.1.5).

5.2 The significance of smaller divergences of the longitudinal velocities

in the higher velocity range ought not to be overestimated. Insignificant
variations in rock type composition or fracturing-from the viewpoint of the
project-affect to a high degree the higher velocities (sections 2.1, 2.2, 3.6,
and 3.7). A higher velocity, however, is a more reliable measure of the quality
of a rock mass if the position of the corresponding Poisson’s ratio csin relation
to the optimum value of r~is known for the site (sections 3.6 and 3.7).
5.3 Theoretical calculations of the relationships between fracturing and
longitudinal velocities have proved to be a useful tool for obtaining estimates
of the average fracturing of rock masses not included in the drilling results
(section 2.1.1). It ought to be observed that in thesecalculationslocaldifferences
such as the composition of rock types, mineral content, etc. are averaged.
These calculations also can give an idea of the “natural velocity” of the
unjointed rock (sections 2.1 and 2.1.1).
5.4 The seismic results can very well be utilized to predict the fracturing
of the rock masses (section 2.1.4). Before any drilling data are available a more
general correlation between fracturing and longitudinal velocities according
to fig. 2, can be employed in combination with the cumulative curve of the
longitudinal velocities from the actual site. In order to improve prediction
accuracy, the “natural velocity”, in practice the general level of the velocities
of the more massive rock masses of the particular site, ought to be considered.
At a later stage, when boring results are available, the seismic data can be
used to check the validity of the drilling results for the entire investigation
area, thus overcoming the main shortcoming of the drilling operations-the
extremely limited volume of rock investigated.
 SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS 441

5.5 There is a tendency for the seismic velocities to increase by 5 to 15

percent at a rock depth of 30m- 50m and the velocity spread widths of the
low velocity zones decrease by 40 to 60 percent at the same depth (section
2.1.3). In the extremely low velocity zones, however, the velocity increase is
usually far greater.

5.6 In unweathered rock masses variations of the magnitude of the longi-

tudinal velocities are mainly caused by the degree of fracturing and by the
composition of the rock. Remaining anomalies are probably related to varia-
tions of mineral content, joint openings, etc. (section 2.2).

5.7 There is a certain correlation between water permeability and longi-

tudinal velocities, but it is not likely that any more reliable general correlation
is to be found (section 2.1).

5.8 The more comprehensive seismic measurements, with determinations

of Poisson’s rations and the elastic moduli, have proved to yield additional
information which has greatly facilitated the analysis of rock conditions
(section 3.8).
- The dispersion of the Poisson’s ratio, and that of the elastic moduli, gives
an indication of the homogenity of the rock masses (section 3.8.2).
- There is a strong correlation between the increasing dispersion of the
Poisson’s ratio and decreasing longitudinal velocities (section 3.6).
- By plotting the moduli of elasticity of the different rock masses in relation
to their corresponding Poisson’s ratios c-or V#, or K/p-it becomes
possible to indicate where the optimum rock conditions for an actual site
are to be encountered (sections 3.3 and 3.5).
- The significance of the longitudinal velocities as indicators of rock quality
increases if the position of the velocities has been established in the range
of the Poisson’s ratio in relation to the optimum value of G (sections 3.6
and 3.7).

5.9 The earlier assumption regarding the limit of the longitudinal velocities
below which heavier tunnel support is to be expected has in general been
confirmed by Cecil (1971) and by the present studies (section 4.). In evaluating
this limit one ought, however, to take into account the general level of the
higher velocities of the actual investigation site. The velocity limit for less
extensive support works seems to lie some hundreds of meters higher than
that for heavier tunnel support, but it is unlikely that a more definitive
statement regarding this latter limit ever will be attained; determining rock
factors for such evaluations are not accessible by seismic measurements.
442 SJBGREN, OFSTHUS, SANDBERG, SEISMIC CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research for the permission to publish the results contained
in this paper. We also wish to express our gratitude to Messrs. T. Loken,
R. Lien, and J. Lunde at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, and to Mr.
A. M. Heltzen at the Kontor for Fjellsprengningsteknikk for their guidance
and assistance in revising our studies and for their contributions of geological,
rock mechanics, and tunnel driving data from the different investigation
sites. Thanks are also due to Mrs. A. Boge and Mrs. A. Bohagen for their
kind co-operation in preparing the original studies and the present manuscript.

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