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Design of Hydraulic Systems For Lift Tru PDF
Design of Hydraulic Systems For Lift Tru PDF
Second Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
All information contained in the first edition has been retained. Some
corrections and additions have been made to better serve the purpose of
the book.
First Edition
Published by Technical University- Sofia, Sofia 1000, Bulgaria
ISBN: 978-954-438-730-3
Printed in Bulgaria
Second Edition
Copyright 2011 by Ivan Gramatikov
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author.
For permissions e-mail: gramatik.publishing@abv.bg
ISBN: 978-1-257-01500-9
Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS
Chapter 1:
Introduction 1
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definitions for design and system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Systems of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Symbols used in formulae and hydraulic diagrams . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2:
Properties and parameters of the fluids 11
Properties
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Specific weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Compressibility of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Reynolds number and types of flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Parameters
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Flow and flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fluid velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Work and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Drag and pressure loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hydraulic shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
ii
Hydraulic Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Obliteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Stiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Torricelli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Chapter 3:
Hydraulic system components 33
1. Flow Restrictors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2. Pressure Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3. Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4. Reduction Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5. Pressure Compensated Flow Controls . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6. Directional Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7. Hydraulic Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8. Hydraulic Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9. Hydraulic Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10. Pressure Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11. Hydraulic Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12. Hydraulic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
13. Hydraulic Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
14. Hydraulic Lines, Fittings and Couplings . . . . . . . . . . 83
15. Manifold blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
16. Hydraulic Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
17. Fluid Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
18. Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Chapter 4:
Management and quality of hydraulic system
design process 101
Brief history of quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks iii
Chapter 5:
Hydraulic systems for high lift trucks 125
Elevating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hydraulic systems overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Hydraulic system with proportional manual directional valve 133
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Hydraulic system with electrically controlled proportional
valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Hydraulic system with emergency lowering . . . . . . . . . . 158
Energy recovery systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Hydraulic steering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Electro-hydraulic steering system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Integrated hydraulic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Smoothness of the lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter 6:
Hydraulic systems for low lift trucks 181
iv
Chapter 7:
Hydraulic systems for boom-type trucks 201
Hydraulic circuit for boom lift, extend and fork tilt . . . . . . . 202
Hydraulic lift & lower circuit for telescopic boom . . . . . . . 203
Hydraulic circuit with an automatic shut-off valve . . . . . . 207
High-speed extension of telescopic boom . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Chapter 8:
Selected topics 211
I. Servicing the hydraulic systems . . . . . . . . 211
Troubleshooting principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
System Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Safety Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Servicing the fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Servicing filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Servicing reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Servicing rotary pumps and motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Servicing hydraulic cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Servicing valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Servicing connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks v
Appendixes 231
Appendix A ITA classification
Appendix B Physical properties of common fluids
Appendix C Viscosity Classification of Industrial Lubrication
Fluids
Appendix D Coefficients of local resistance
Appendix E Decision Matrix and QFD house
Appendix F Hydraulic system calculation
vi
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Preface
The purpose of this book is to illustrate design principles and methods for
designing and calculating hydraulic systems for industrial lift trucks.
Determining the main parameters of these systems is based on principles
of hydraulics and mechanics. This book is to be used as a source of
information for mechanical engineers involved in designing, manufacturing
and servicing hydraulic systems for mobile lift trucks. This book can also be
used by engineering students in Industrial Truck Programs. To combine
these two purposes, there is an introductory chapter, “Properties and
Parameters of Hydraulic Fluid”, and a chapter on “Hydraulic Components”
describing the construction and the functions of components used in mobile
hydraulic systems. This book will also be beneficial for engineers working in
areas of design, fabrication and service of any other mobile off-highway
equipment.
It is more difficult to design hydraulic systems for smaller lift trucks. That is
because these systems must have the same performance as the bigger
trucks but they have to be put into a smaller space envelope. The smaller
design envelope is a major challenge to the design engineers. To meet this
and all other challenges through the design process, engineers have to
follow the principles of continuous improvement and design process quality.
Quality of the design process depends on the proper execution of each step
2 Chapter 1: Introduction
When designing a system, the engineer must focus on four main aspects:
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 3
Regulations
In some countries, such as Canada, the engineering profession is self-
regulated through provincial organizations. The governing body is
comprised of engineers chosen, through a voting process, by members of
the engineering organization.
In other countries, such as the USA, the state governments regulate the
licensing, the practices of the profession and approve the governing body of
the engineering organizations.
4 Chapter 1: Introduction
Calculations
Clarity and accuracy of the technical calculations are an important part of a
system design. All data, assumptions, mathematical and physical laws have
to be specified clearly. Calculations are an intellectual asset for a company.
Therefore any other engineer with the same background should be able to
understand and use them. This reduces the development time of future
projects and helps to bring new products to market in a shorter time. A
good practice is to put all calculations on a server in HTML or PDF format.
Systems of Units
Greek alphabet
α Angle [rad], [º]
β Angle [rad], [º]
γ Specific weight [N/m3]
δ Deviation
ε Angular acceleration [rad/s2]
η Efficiency
ϕ Angle [rad], [º]
µ Dynamic (absolute) viscosity [Pa.s]
ν Kinematic viscosity [m2/s], [St]
ν Specific volume (m3/kg)
ρ Density [kg/m3]
ρ SG Specific Gravity [-]
τ Shear stress [N/m2] and [Pa]
ω Angular velocity [rad/s]
θ Angle [rad], [º]
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 7
Hydraulic symbols
Flexible line
Plugged line
Venting
Reservoir, open
Reservoir, pressurized
Filter
Accumulator
8 Chapter 1: Introduction
Pressure gage
Thermometer
Flow meter
Foot operated
Hand operated
Spring operated
Electrical control
Check valve
Pressure switch
Torque generator
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 11
Chapter 2
Properties
Density
Density of the fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume containing the
mass.
m ⎡ kg ⎤
ρ=
V ⎢⎣ m 3 ⎥⎦
2.1
WO
m= [ slug ] , WO is the weight in pounds at sea level
32.174
1 ⎡ kg ⎤
ρ=
v ⎢⎣ m 3 ⎥⎦
2.2
Unlike gases, the density of the fluids depends little on pressure and
temperature. Densities of different fluids are given in Appendix B.
Specific Weight
⎡N⎤
γ = ρg ⎢ 3 ⎥ 2.3
⎣m ⎦
Specific weight is designated by the Greek letter γ (gamma). In the SI
system it has units of N/m3 or kN/m3. In the BG system the units for
specific weight are lb/ft³.
The intensity of the gravitational field is stronger at sea level and
diminishes farther away from earth which means that the gravitational
acceleration changes. For engineering application the variation of the
gravitation (g) is neglected therefore, only the variation in the fluid density
causes variation in its specific weight. Specific weights of different fluids
are given in Appendix B.
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of the
water at the same temperature.
ρ
ρ SG = 2.4
ρ H 2O
Specific Gravity is a dimensionless parameter and it has the same values
in both SI and BG systems.
Viscosity
du
τ =µ [Pa.s] 2.5
dy
Where, the constant of proportionality, µ (mu), is called dynamic (or
absolute) viscosity of the fluid. Fluids, for which the velocity gradient is
linearly related to shearing stress, are called Newtonian fluids (all
common fluids). Graphically, the slope of shearing stress vs. velocity
gradient is equal to the viscosity. The value of the viscosity depends on
the fluid chemical content and temperature. In most fluid problems,
viscosity is combined with the density in the equation:
µ ⎡ m2 ⎤
ν=
ρ ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ 2.6
Because of the small temperature difference, ISO grades are a little more
viscous than the corresponding ASTM grades in SUS units. Viscosity
grade classification is given in Appendix C.
Compressibility of fluids
dp ⎡ N ⎤
Ev = −
dV / V ⎢⎣ m 2 ⎥⎦
2.7
Where:
dp is differential change in pressure needed to create a differential
change in volume dV;
V is the initial volume of the fluid;
∆V/V is specific volume.
Because the specific volume is dimensionless, Modulus of Elasticity has
the same units as pressure. The negative sign shows that an increase in
pressure will cause a decrease in volume. In SI units Ev is given as N/m²
(Pa). In BG (English) units it is given as lb/in² (psi). Some values of Ev are
given in Appendix B.
In the case of using hydraulic oil, the value of ∆V/V is very small (large
Ev). For this reason, for the engineering applications we accept that fluids
are incompressible and disregard the compressibility factor. Large values
for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid needs a great amount of
pressure to make a small change in the volume. In other words, the
bigger the number is the bigger resistance to compression the fluid has.
Fig. 2.2
18 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
Fluid flow can be laminar, turbulent or a mixture of both. The factor that
determines which type of flow is present is the ratio of inertia forces (vsρ)
to viscous forces (µ/L) within the fluid. This ratio is expressed by the non-
dimensional Reynolds Number:
ρVL
Re = 2.9
µ
Where:
V is velocity characteristic
L is lineal characteristic
µ is the dynamic (absolute) fluid viscosity
ρ is fluid density
VD
Re = ρ 2.10
µ
µ
We can also express the equation with the kinematic viscosity ν =
ρ
VD
Re = 2.11
ν
This number is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), who
proposed it in 1883.
Laminar flow is characterized with smooth flow and parallel layers. It
occurs when the viscous forces are dominant (low Re number). Turbulent
flow is characterized with turbulent behavior and whirlpools in flow and it
occurs when the inertial forces are dominant (high Re number). For
Reynolds Numbers up to 2000, the flow is laminar. Above Reynolds
Number of 4000, the flow is completely turbulent. Between Re 2000 and
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 19
4000, the flow is transitional (between laminar and turbulent) and it has
elements of both flow types. For flows within circular pipes the critical
Reynolds number is generally accepted to be 2320.
Parameters
Pressure
Pressure is the normal force per unit area at a given point within the fluid.
For most engineering problems we assume that the fluid moves as a rigid
body (dealing with fluid at rest) therefore there is no shearing stress in it.
So, the only forces acting on the fluid are pressure and weight. This
allows us to obtain relatively simple solutions to most engineering
problems.
Pressure distribution (for incompressible fluids) is called hydrostatic
distribution.
p1 = γh + p2 2.12
Where:
h = z1 – z2 is the vertical distance from a point with pressure p1 to a point
with pressure p2. This distance is called pressure head and it is
interpreted as the height of a column of fluid of specific weight γ required
to give a pressure difference (p1 - p2). If we have a surface exposed to
the atmospheric pressure it is convenient to use a point on this surface as
reference point 2. Thus, we let: p2=p0.
In BG, units are lb/ft² or lb/in² (psi). The relationship between the metric
and the English systems is: 1 bar = 14.5 psi
20 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
Pressure measurement
Pressure at a certain point measured relative to the local atmospheric
pressure is called gage pressure. Absolute pressure, on the other hand,
is measured relative to the perfect vacuum (absolute zero). Absolute
pressure is always positive while the gage pressure can be either positive
or negative. A negative gage pressure is also referred as a vacuum.
Flow is the motion of the fluid molecules from one point to another. Since
the observation of all molecules is almost impossible, we are describing
the flow as motion of part of the fluid, called small volume (or unit
volume). Small volume contains numerous molecules. Flow is created
when a new fluid is pushed into a fluid conductor (pre-filled pipe or hose).
The molecules of the new volume push against fluid molecules already in
the conductor and displace them. Displaced molecules move by pushing
their neighbours and so on. So, the ejected fluid volume from the
conductor at the opposite end will be the same as the one entered. The
movement of fluid molecules causes a pressure wave traveling at the
speed of sound (about 1400 m/s). The speed of sound in fluids is:
Ev
c= 2.13
ρ
Where:
Ev is the modulus of elasticity (Pa)
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 21
For example, the speed of sound in hydraulic fluid (viscosity grade 32) is:
c = (1.7x 109 / 870)1/2 = 1398 (m/s)
The density values are given in Appendix B.
Unit _ volume V ⎡ m 3 ⎤
Q= =
t ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
2.14
Unit _ time
In SI units flow rate can be expressed either in cubic meters per minute
[m3/min] or litters per minute [l/min]. In BG units the flow rate is expressed
in gallons per minute [gpm].
In systems working with incompressible fluids we use volumetric flow rate
in the calculations. In our further calculations, we are going to use
exclusively this type flow rate.
Unit _ mass m ⎡ kg ⎤
q= = 2.15
Unit _ time t ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
22 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
Unit _ force F ⎡ N ⎤
GQ = =
t ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
2.16
Unit _ time
An example of flow rate distribution after the pump is shown at Fig. 2.3.
The deviation in the flow rate is defined as:
∆Q Q − Qmin
δ = × 100 = max × 100 _[%]
Qm Qm
Fig. 2.3
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 23
Fluid Velocity
Q ⎡m⎤
v=
A ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ 2.18
W = Fx [Nm] 2.19
F = pA [N ] 2.20
If we replace the force in the equation 2.19, work can be expressed as:
W = pV [Nm] 2.22
Where, V is the fluid volume.
In SI units work is expressed in Newton meters [Nm] or in Joules
( 1J = 1Nm )
pV
P= = pQ [W ] 2.24
t
Where:
V m3
Q= [ ] is the flow rate;
t s
p [Pa] is the pressure.
The most convenient form of this formula for calculating the input power
on the pump shaft is:
pQ
P= [kW ]
60η P 2.25
⎡ l ⎤
Q ⎢ is flow rate in the pump outlet
⎣ min ⎥⎦
p [MPa ] is pressure at the pump outlet
Drag is a force (in a direction opposite to the flow) due to the shear forces
along the fluid layers. As we know, any fluid moving inside hydraulic lines
(tubes or hoses) experience drag. Total drag is a function of the
magnitude of the shear stress, τ, and the orientation of the surface on
which it acts.
Pressure loss is the energy that hydraulic fluid loses to overcome the
friction between the moving fluid layers inside the hydraulic lines (pipes,
tubes or hoses). The pressure loss is quantified as a pressure drop.
Pressure drop is influenced by a number of factors such as: fluid velocity
through the hydraulic components and connectors, fluid viscosity,
hydraulic line inside wall roughness, etc.
26 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
Lineal pressure loss is the pressure loss of laminar flow (with Re<2320)
moving along the straight sections of the pipes. For laminated flow the
pressure loss (pressure drop) due to friction is calculated with the D'Arcy-
Weisbach equation:
l ρ 2
∆p L = λ (v ) 2.26
d 2
Where:
Local pressure loss is a result of turbulence in the fluid when the flow
changes its direction and velocity. This turbulence occurs inside hydraulic
fittings.
Local resistance occurs in the hydraulic fittings and it is a result of a
change in the flow speed and direction. The pressure drop is calculated
with the formula:
ρ
∆ pT = ζ (v )2 2.28
2
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 27
Where:
v = Q/A is the flow velocity at the outlet of the component;
ζ [Zeta] is the coefficient of local flow resistance.
Hydraulic Shock
Hydraulic Lock
One of the most common causes for failures in plunger type valves is
excessive frictional force between the plunger and the housing. Frictional
force (Fr) is due to uneven pressure distribution in valve clearances (fig.
2.4a). Different pressures on both sides of the plunger create a force
perpendicular to the plunger axis. This force pushes the plunger off its
center position against the housing increasing friction between internal
surfaces. Friction force higher than the control force causes seizing of the
plunger. This failure is called hydraulic lock. Valve designers add
balancing grooves to equalize the pressure distribution around the
plunger circumference (fig. 2.4b).
28 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
p1
Fr
pa pb
p2
[p] [p]
pa pa
p2 pm
p=p2-p1
pb pb
p1
x y distance x y
Fig. 2.4 a) b)
Obliteration
It has been determined experimentally that flow rates through very small
openings can gradually diminish and become zero. This phenomenon is
called obliteration. It is caused by the adhesion forces between metal
surface and the fluid which results in the buildup of layers of molecules on
the surface. Adhesion force is an interaction at an atomic level and
depends on the chemical composition of the fluid. Experiments show that
obliteration exists in openings smaller than 0.01 mm and causes both
surfaces to stick together plugging the opening. When the opening is
plugged, the plunger is seized. This condition appears in plunger type
hydraulic components with small internal clearances. To eliminate the
stickiness and seizure of the valve, the plunger is subjected to vibrations
with frequency higher than 30 Hz. The high frequency input to the valve is
called dither signal.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 29
Stiction
The term stiction is created by combining the words stick and friction.
Stiction occurs when the static friction force is higher than the moving
force. It measures the spool resistance to initial motion.
Cavitation
Cavitation in fluids is a process of formation and collapse of air or vapour
bubbles. This leads to micro jets of oil pounding and eroding adjacent
surfaces. Cavitation occurs when the absolute pressure of the fluid
becomes close to zero. Cavitation also occurs when the pressure drop is
enough that at a given temperature the air in the fluid starts to evaporate.
In this case we say that the pressure becomes equal to the vapor tension
of the fluid.
When cavitation is formed at the suction of the pump, several things
happen all at once.
• The system experiences a loss in capacity
• The system can no longer build the same head (pressure)
• The efficiency drops
• The cavities or bubbles will collapse when they pass into the
higher regions of pressure causing noise, vibration, and damage to
many of the components.
2. Suction-line leaks. Leaks between the tank and the pump can
introduce air into the system. Often this is associated with the shaft seal
at the pump that allows air to leak in.
3. Suction-line restriction. Sometimes suction lines are too long, too
narrow or they are plugged (e.g., a plugged suction strainer).
4. Water vapor. When hot oils become contaminated with water,
superheated seam will form vapor bubbles in the oil.
5. Insufficient head. Depending on oil viscosity and suction line
conditions, the pump must be located at a sufficiently low elevation to
enable oil to flow steadily from the tank to the inlet port of the pump.
6. Air release problems. As oils age and become contaminated, its air
release properties become impaired. This means that once air bubbles
are formed they stay locked into the oil and do not detrain out of the oil in
the reservoir. Moisture contamination and oxidation are the main
originators of this problem. ASTM D3427 is a test for air release
properties.
7. High viscosity. When fluid temperature in the reservoir is too low, the
viscosity may be too high to enable proper oil flow in the suction line and
into the pump. Any other cause of high fluid viscosity can lead to the
same problem.
The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total pressure (pT) along a
streamline remains constant (fig. 2.5). The assumption is that the fluid is
incompressible and steady. Therefore, if the equation is applied for gases
there will be an error built into it.
1
p+ ρϑ 2 + γz = pT = const. 2.29
2
First term p is the static pressure
1
Second term ρϑ 2 is the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure is
2
the kinetic energy of the particle.
Fig. 2.5
The Torricelli equation can be derived from the Bernoulli equation when
the equation 2.29 is applied to a stream in a vessel with one free surface
and one outlet nozzle (fig. 2.6)
Fig. 2.6
32 Chapter 2: Properties and parameters of the fluids
1 1
From, p1 + ρϑ1 2 + γz1 = p 2 + ρϑ 2 2 + γz 2
2 2
ϑ1 at the surface is very small therefore, ϑ1 becomes negligibly small
2
ϑ2 = 2 gh 2.31
This equation is called Torricelli's Theorem. It is named after the scientist
and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli who in 1843 proved that the flow
of liquid through an opening is proportional to the square root of the
height of the liquid.
Chapter 3
Hydraulic Components
Hydraulic components can be grouped according to their function:
I. Valves
Hydraulic valves are grouped into three general categories: pressure
controls, flow controls and directional controls. Some valves can have
multiple functions and can fall into more than one category. The most
important valve characteristics are flow and pressure drop in the valve.
Flow can be calculated based on the port diameter and the flow velocity.
Pressure drop is more difficult to calculate accurately. That is why it is
usually determined experimentally by the manufacturer.
Based on the construction, the valves can be plunger or cartridge.
Cartridge valves are a screw-in type, which offer the designers the
potential of incorporating the valves into manifold blocks or the body of
other hydraulic components, such as cylinders.
II. Actuators
This group consists of pumps, motors and cylinders. Actuators convert
fluid energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
III. Accessories
In this group are: Pressure and vacuum switches, accumulators, filters and
connectors.
V. Hydraulic fluid
The fluid is the single most important component of the hydraulic system.
Its main function is to transmit energy.
34 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
When the relationship between the pressure losses and flow rate is nearly
lineal, it can be expressed as:
∆p = RL Q 3.1
Where:
Q is the flow rate through the restrictor
The main flow restrictor characteristic is based on equations 2.26 and 2.28
and it is called: the flow-pressure drop characteristic. An experimental
graph of such a characteristic is shown in Fig. 3.1
36 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
20
18
16
Pressure drop (MPa)
14
12
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Flow (l/min)
Symbols:
Pressure relief valves (also called: relief valves) are pressure control type
valves. It is normally closed until it starts to operate. After the pressure is
increased, the valve opens and the plunger (poppet or ball) finds a balance
position. The balance is created between the pressure on one side and
spring force on the other. The valve plunger can have infinite positions
between closed and fully opened conditions. The relief valve’s main
function is to protect the system against excessive pressure. It is usually
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 37
installed between the pressure line, after the pump, and the return line
before the tank. Relief valves can be adjustable or non-adjustable. Valves
are adjusted by changing the spring pre-compression.
There are three types of balancing/closing elements: ball, poppet and spool
(plunger). The balancing element used determines the type of the valve.
Valves can be divided into two groups –1) Ball and Poppet and 2) Spool
Valves.
• Ball and Poppet Valves
Ball and poppet valves are usually used for the construction of cartridge
valves. Cartridge valves are less expensive and have higher flow rates than
the same physical size spool valves. Ball and poppet valves are less
susceptible to fluid contamination because when closed, the valve moving
part is held tightly against a seat in the housing. On the other hand, they
are more sensitive to flow and pressure irregularity. Their positioning is less
balanced than spool valves, which leads to less accurate metering.
• Spool Valves
Spool valves are easier to control and can move at smaller steps because it
is easier to proportionally control the stroke of the spool. On the other hand,
they are more expensive and more susceptible to contamination. Spool
valves have higher leakage rates than poppet valves.
3. Check Valves
Symbol:
Check valves are unidirectional control valves. They have two positions:
ON or OFF. This valve has free-flow (open) and no-flow (close) direction.
When the flow pushes the ball (or the poppet) away, the valve opens and
permits free flow. Flow in the opposite direction pushes the ball against the
seat. The built-up pressure keeps the passage sealed and the flow is
blocked. These types of valves are designed to have a very small leakage
rate when they are closed. Usually, valve seats are hardened steel which
makes them more resistible to scoring from hard contaminants in the fluid.
38 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
The only difference between the check valve and the ball relief valve is the
spring. Check valves have light springs which are used only to return the
ball (poppet) to its seat when the flow stops. Because of the light spring, the
pressure drop in the valve during operation is very small (about 0.05 to 0.1
MPa). There are three general check valve designs: plunger, poppet and
ball design.
The check valve has a relatively small effect on system noise, vibration and
losses. When the check valve is built into another hydraulic component, the
pressure loss from it is included in the total pressure loss of the main
component. When we use an in-line check valve, it is acceptable to
disregard the pressure loss in it. Therefore, it is very important not to
undersize the valve. Undersizing it will increase the pressure drop, leading
to inaccuracy in the calculated pressure demand.
Check valves can have an internal or external pilot control. Fig. 3.2 shows
two valves with pilot ports.
outlet outlet
pilot
pilot
inlet inlet
Fig. 3.2 a) pilot-to-open b) pilot-to-close
p OUTLET + p SPRING
p PILOT = ,
r
Where:
pSPRING is the pressure on the poppet due to spring force
r is the pilot ratio. It is the ratio of pilot piston area to poppet area.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 39
Pilot-to-close also allows flow only in one direction in the absence of pilot
pressure. When pilot pressure is applied from the pilot port, it overrides the
free flow function and holds the valve closed. This feature is useful to
control regenerative flow in a cylinder circuit or in a hydraulic logic circuit.
p INLET − p SPRING
p PILOT = , r is the pilot ratio
r
4. Reduction Valves
Symbol:
Principle of operation
Flow passes through an opening between a balanced plunger (spool) and
housing. Pressure in the outlet is applied under the valve plunger through
internal connection. A spring force, acting on the other side, balances the
plunger. When the pressure in the outlet increases, the plunger is pushed
up and the opening is reduced which, in turn, reduces the flow through the
valve. Spring chamfer is connected to the reservoir therefore external drain
to the reservoir is required for this valve.
Symbols:
Pressure in point 1 must be higher than the pressure in point 3. When the
flow is reversed, from outlet to the inlet, the valve simply acts as a flow
restrictor.
Fig. 3.4 Two-way flow controls: a) balanced valve before the orifice, b)
balanced valve after the orifice.
The flow equation through the orifice is:
2
Q = µA ∆p 3.2
ρ
Where:
µ is the flow coefficient
A is the area of the orifice opening
∆p is the pressure drop in the orifice
The only variable in flow equation is the pressure drop (∆p). The purpose of
the pressure balanced valve is to maintain a constant ∆p which ensures a
constant flow rate (Q) through the orifice. The flow is as a function of the
pressure drop in the valve, Q = f ( ∆p ) which can be obtained
experimentally. Flow rate vs. pressure drop relationship determines valve
performance and it is called: Flow regulator static characteristic (shown in
Fig. 3.5). Because of the nonlinear relationship between the flow and the
pressure drop across the valve, the flow rate diverges slightly (the curve is
never perfectly horizontal).
42 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
In the hydraulic systems, the nearly constant flow rate is used to achieve
speeds of the hydraulic actuators which are independent from the pressure
variations. In mobile forklifts it is mainly used to maintain a constant
lowering speed of the load. A hydraulic system using this valve is described
in Chapter 5 (Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks).
50
40
Flow (l/min)
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Pressure drop, delta p (MPa)
Based on the neutral position of the valve plunger, there are three basic
valve configurations shown in Fig 3.6 (a, b, c)
• Open center, a), is when the plunger is at a neutral position and the
inlet flow is open to all ports.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 43
• Close center, b), is when the plunger is at a neutral position and the
flow is blocked.
• Tandem center, c), is when the plunger is at a neutral position and
the flow is unloaded to the tank.
Two other combinations of the first three, float center d) and open-to-three
port e), are also shown in Fig 3.6
Fig. 3.6
There are three types of spool valve laps (fig. 3.7): zero, positive and
negative. Valve lap is the distance the spool travels before valve opening.
Valves with large overlaps have less leakage but they have less accurate
flow metering.
A B A B A B
P P P
a) zero lap b) positive lap (overlap) c) negative lap
Fig 3.7 Spool laps
Port P (pump) is the valve inlet. Ports A and B are valve outlets. Valve is
shown in closed centered position.
Discrete positioning
Finite positioning is when the plunger is shifted from one discrete position to
another. For this reason these type valves are called discrete valves.
Plunger shift occurs in an instant, causing the fluid to rapidly accelerate or
decelerate. This causes fluid pulsations or in certain conditions it can cause
fluid hammer.
Switching time for these valves depends on the size of the coil. Actuation
time increases when the coil size and the valve size are increased. For
example the switching times of directional valves size 6 (20 l/min nominal
flow) with DC (direct current) magnet is about 40 milliseconds while the
switching time of size 10 directional valve (80 l/min nominal flow) is about
80 milliseconds.
Infinite positioning
In these valves, the plunger is shifted proportionally to the input signal. The
signal can be mechanical, electrical or hydraulic. The plunger can have
infinitive intermediate positions, which makes these types of valves ideal for
controlling speed and acceleration or deceleration of the actuators. Infinite
positioning is illustrated by adding two extra parallel lines indicating that the
plunger can slide inside the valve.
Proportional Valves
Proportional valves provide flow and pressure control proportional to the
control input device. The control device can be either mechanical or
electrical.
When an electric signal is used to control the flow rate, the flow rate
changes proportionally with the change of the signal to a solenoid. Inside a
spool type valve there is a spool (plunger), which is the only moving part.
Changing the electrical current, applied to the coil, changes the magnetic
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 45
field, which in turn creates a magnetic force on the armature and makes it
move. The coil is placed in a metal housing which helps to retain the
magnetic field. In most valves, a flat spring is used to resist plunger
movement. The spring retains the plunger until the magnetic force on the
armature exceeds the spring force. The main reason for the performance
variation from one valve to another is the mechanical and geometrical
tolerances that occur in the manufacturing process. Solenoid magnetic field
can be adjusted so that it compensates for mechanical tolerances.
Therefore, this valve can create a consistent relationship between the flow
rate and the electrical current to the valve.
Servo valves
Servo valves have a shorter response time than standard proportional
valves. They are always closed-loop valves. There is a mechanical
feedback link between the input command and the valve output. Servo
valves usually consist of a two-stage spool. The spool position is controlled
by two electromagnetic coils- one from each side. Manufacturing tolerances
of these valves are in the range of micrometers. The tight tolerance
requirements make them expensive to manufacture. Also, the reduced
46 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
clearances between the valve surfaces make this type of valve susceptible
to fluid contamination which can jam the valve. Because of the high cost
and the high fluid cleanliness requirements, servo valves are rarely used in
mobile hydraulic systems. Servo valves are used in applications where
short response time is critical. For this reason they are manufactured with
zero laps or near-zero overlaps.
Servo valves can have a response time as low as 0.0025 seconds (400
hertz). Where:
1
1Hz =
1sec
In contrast, standard proportional valves have a response in the range of
0.1-0.2 seconds (10 - 5 hertz).
∆p B
Q R = QOUT 3.3
∆p A
Where,
QR = valve's rated flow for our application
QOUT = output flow needed for application
∆pB = rated pressure drop of proportional valve
∆p A = actual pressure drop needed for application
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 47
It is recommended that designers use this method to check the flow rate of
their valve. In most cases, the flow rate they obtain through this method will
differ from the flow rate in the catalogue.
Load sensing priority valves are simply called priority valves. They have
infinitive positioning. There are two types of priority valves: static and
dynamic.
Priority valve with static signal Priority valve with dynamic signal
Load sensing priority valves are used to split the flow in open loop systems
where one branch must have a guaranteed flow supply. This valve senses
the flow requirements and provides metered priority flow to this port. The
valve has one inlet and two outlets. One of the outlets is for the controlled
fluid (CF) and the other one is for the excess fluid (EF).
Dynamic load sensing valves have faster responses than static valves.
They have a passage between CF and LS lines. This passage supplies a
continuous pressurized flow to the LS line even when the line is not used
which keeps the valve in a ready-to-respond position.
fluid to control the main valve. Some proportional valves with indirect
control have a course filter (screen) that protects the pilot stage. If a filter is
used, the filter should be replaceable or washable.
a) Symbol
P T
b) Detailed symbol
Fig. 3.8 Directional manual valve with indirect manual control
7. Hydraulic Pumps
Symbols:
Constant flow pump Variable flow pump
Pumps are mechanical devices that convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy. They draw fluid from a reservoir and send it to hydraulic
actuators. There are two main types of pumps: positive displacement (vane,
piston and gear pump) and non-positive displacement (centrifugal pumps).
Pumping element designs include gears, lobes, rotary pistons, vanes, and
screws.
Gear pumps
Gear pumps can have external or internal gear meshing. External pumps
have one or more sets of two spur gears while the internal have one or
more sets of spur and ring gear. In fork lift application external gear pump is
more popular because of the bigger selection and the lower cost.
A gear pump can include a built-in relief valve, check valve or both. The
relief valve can be internal, fig. 3.10a, (the fluid is returned to pump inlet) or
it can have external relief port, fig. 3.10b, (the fluid is returned to reservoir).
2 2
1 1
Fig. 3.10a Fig. 3.10b
Internal reliefs can be used in systems in which the pump works on request.
For steering systems in which the flow goes over relief 50% of the time,
internal reliefs are not recommended. They heat up the oil and the pump
and can cause leaks through pump inlet seals. When a system have an
internal relief valve, it is important to keep the fluid temperature in its
operating range. Overheating of the fluid can affect the relief valves
performance.
dPn ⎡ L ⎤
QP = ηV ⎢
⎣ min ⎥⎦
3.4
1000
52 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Where:
dP [cm3/rev] is the pump displacement. The displacement is a
measure of the pump size and is given by the manufacturer;
n [rev/min] is the shaft input rotational speed
ηV is pump volumetric efficiency.
P
T= ηm
2πn
pQ pd n
T= η m = P ηm
2πn 2πn
pd P
T = ηm ( Nm) 3.6
2π
Slip
Slip is a leakage of fluid from the pressure outlet back to the inlet. Slip
increases with increasing pressure and wear. Increasing slip is referred to
as a loss of efficiency. Slip can be reduced by constructing the pump for
pressure and wear compensation.
Pump Efficiency
Overall efficiency is:
Output _ Power
ηO = = ηV η M 3.7
Input _ Power
It is determined as the ratio between the hydraulic power at the pump outlet
and mechanical power at the driving shaft at nominal pressure, rotational
speed, and fluid viscosity (rated power). The overall efficiency has two
components: volumetric and mechanical.
Actual _ Flowrate
ηV = is the volumetric efficiency.
Rated _ Flowrate
The actual flow rate is the flow at the pump output when the pump is
working under load. It will vary at different pressures. Rated flow rate is the
theoretical flow at the pump outlet without volumetric losses. Volumetric
efficiency range is: ηv = 0.90 - 0.97. If volumetric efficiency is not known, for
initial calculations we can take the average values for gear pumps: ηv =
0.90 (low speeds ≈ 1000 rev/min) and ηv = 0.97 (high speeds ≈ 3000
rev/min)
54 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
The gear pumps overall efficiency is in the range of 82% to 88% depending
on the pressure and rotational speed. An example of pump overall
efficiency at different pressures is shown in Fig 3.11.
100
90
80
Overall Efficiency [%]
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Pressure [bar]
Fig. 3.11
A disadvantage of gear pumps is that they create pressure and flow ripples
(pulses) in the discharge port. Pumps are one of the biggest sources of
noise and vibrations in the hydraulic system. Every time the fluid between
two teeth is pushed out of the pump, a peak in the pressure appears. A
typical pressure distribution at a discharge port is shown in Fig. 3.12.
Pulsations (δ) can be expressed as the ratio of pulsations amplitude (∆p) to
an average value (p):
∆p
δP = × 100 [%] ,
p1
Where: ∆p is peak-to-peak amplitude.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 55
p [MPa]
p3
p2
p1
p
t [s]
Fig. 3.12
Where: P1 is maximum continuous pressure
P2 is maximum intermittent pressure
P3 is maximum peak pressure
Pump pressure pulsations travel along the hydraulic lines at the speed of
sound (about 1400 m/s in hydraulic fluid) until it is affected by a change in
diameter or direction. Therefore, pulsation amplitude depends on the
hydraulic lines (length and diameter) and fittings (type and size) in the
system. Although the direction valve, after the pump, smoothes the flow
and the pressure peaks, pulsations created by the gear pumps travel
through the system to the hydraulic actuators.
Internal gear pumps have smaller pressure pulses than external pumps
because the spur and ring gear set have more teeth meshing than two
external spur gears. Gear pumps are mainly used in systems with normal-
high pressures (from 15 to 25 MPa). For higher efficiency, they should be
driven at speed close to their rated maximum because internal leakage is
smaller at higher speeds. At low speeds, gear pumps have reduced
lubrication between side plates and gears. Pump manufacturers always
specify the minimum rotating speed.
Intermittent pressure is used for selecting lift pumps that work intermittently.
Continuous pressure is used for selecting steering pumps that have to run
continuously.
56 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Vane Pumps
There are two types vane pumps: balanced and unbalanced. In the
balanced design the rotor and the sliding ring surface are coaxial. In the
unbalanced design they are not.
Construction
Similar to the gear pumps, a driving shaft coming from primary power
source drives the vane pump. Inside the pump, the driving shaft is
connected to a slotted rotor that is placed eccentrically from the center of
the circular opening of a casting housing. Vanes placed in the rotor slots
slide in and out. Centrifugal force causes them to slide out and the contour
of the cavity pushes them back in. Tips of the vanes slide on the inside
pump surface and seal the passage between the suction and the pressure
ports. The vanes push fluid from the inlet to the outlet through the gap
between the housing and the rotor. Vane pumps have higher efficiency than
gear pumps because of less fluid leakage from the pressure outlet back to
the inlet. They have less slip (smaller volumetric losses). Also, the
efficiency remains constant over time. As the vane tips wear the slip
remains the same because the centrifugal force always keeps the vanes in
contact with the housing surface. Pump housing is made from the same
materials as gear pumps. Mechanical efficiency is a result of the friction in
the bearings and the friction between the cam contour and vane tips.
Rotary piston pumps have a rotational driving shaft. These pumps have
some advantages over gear and vane pumps. They are used in systems
with higher flow and pressure demands.
Features:
• High power-to-size ratio. We can get more hydraulic power out of a
piston pump than we can from the same size gear pump.
• High pressures: some pumps can maintain pressure up to 70 MPa.
• Low power consumption at stand-by.
• High overall efficiency: for most pumps it is about 96%.
Construction
There are two main types of rotary piston pumps: radial and axial.
In the radial type, pistons are placed in a cylinder block. Pistons move
radially in and out. The cylinder block (rotor) is located inside a fixed
housing (stator) and is rotated by a drive shaft. The rotor centerline is offset
from the stator centerline. The amount of offset determines piston stroke
and pump displacement.
In axial pumps (fig. 3.14), pistons move axially. They are placed into a
cylinder block which is rotated by the drive shaft. The piston ends are
depressed against a tilted disk (swash plate). The angle of the disk causes
cylinders to move axially. If the disk is perpendicular to the axis of rotation
(zero angle), pistons will not be compressed and there will be no flow
through the pump. The disk can have different angles. When the disc is
tilted to one side of the neutral, flow goes in one direction. When it is tilted
to the other side, flow direction is reversed. When the disc angle is fixed
the pump has fixed displacement. In pumps with variable displacement, the
disk angle is controlled by a yoke. The yoke can have mechanical, electric
or hydraulic control. At the released position of the yoke, the disk is
58 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
returned to neutral (zero) position and the pump stops delivering flow.
When the yoke is hydraulically controlled, a pressure compensator
maintains constant output pressure at different flow rates. Such pump is
called: pressure compensated pump.
8. Hydraulic Motors
Symbol: Hydraulic motor, constant displacement
Motors have the same pressure rating as pumps. Some of them are
available with optional built-on holding (multi-disk) brake, dynamic (drum)
brakes, flushing valves or speed sensors.
Motor selection is based on two characteristics: motor shaft speed and
shaft torque. The shaft torque is a product of motor volumetric displacement
and pressure drop in the motor. Required shaft speed is determined by the
flow rate and the motor displacement. Shaft rotational speed usually is
determined by the performance of the other components in the truck and is
given when calculating the hydraulic system. Motor displacement (dM)
versus required output shaft torque (TM) is published by the manufacturer in
charts or tables.
For a required shaft torque, the motor displacement (dM) can be calculated
with the formula:
62.83TM ⎡ cm 3 ⎤
dM = ,⎢ ⎥ 3.8
( ∆p )η M ⎣ rev ⎦
Where:
TM is motor shaft torque (Nm)
∆p is pressure drop across motor ports (bar)
ηM = 0.90 – 0.95 is motor mechanical efficiency
60 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
d M nM ⎡ L ⎤
QM = ,⎢
⎣ min ⎥⎦
3.9
1000ηV
Where:
dM is motor displacement (cm3/rev)
nM is motor shaft speed (rev/min)
ηV = 0.90 – 0.97 is motor volumetric efficiency
9. Hydraulic Cylinders
Cylinders convert fluid energy into mechanical energy in the form of linear
motion and force.
• Single-acting cylinders
In elevating systems, either single-acting telescopic or single-acting ram
type cylinders are used. Single-acting cylinders accept pressure fluid only
on one side of the piston. Volume on the other side can either be vented to
the atmosphere or connected to the tank. The return line to the tank is for
collecting eventual leaks through the seal. These types of cylinders are
called single-acting because the work done by the fluid is acting only in one
direction- for lifting. Weight of the load and the mast does the work in the
opposite direction. Ram type and telescopic type cylinders, shown in Fig.
3.15, are designed for applications where long strokes are required.
Telescopic cylinders (fig. 3.15b) have two or more stages. The outside body
is called: main cylinder and the smallest stage is called: plunger. When fully
extended, their stroke exceeds the length of the cylinder at fully retracted
condition. Collapsed length of a typical telescopic cylinder is about 20% to
40% of its extended length. Telescopic cylinders usually extend from the
largest to the smallest stage. This means that the largest stage inside the
main cylinder will start to extend first. There are telescopic cylinders that
are designed to have all stages extend at the same time. This construction
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 61
provides constant speed and constant push force throughout the extracting
and retracting.
INPUT INPUT
Hydraulic cylinders have four main components: cylinder, piston, piston rod
and seals. Cylinders are made from steel or ductile iron tube. Pistons are
made from: alloy steel or high-tensile strength ductile iron. Piston rod is
usually made from chrome plated and polished steel alloy. Inside surfaces
of cylinders are coated and polished. Coating can be electrodeposited
chrome or nitriding.
Electro-deposition is the process of producing coating by putting a
negative charge on the part and dipping it into a chemical solution that
contains the coating metal. The thickness of the electrodeposited layer is
determined by the duration of the process.
Nitriding is a surface hardening process that introduces nitrogen into the
surface. There are three nitriting technologies: ion, gas and salt.
At the end of the telescopic cylinders there are at least one seal and a
wiper. The seal is usually a U-cup lip seal. This seal relies on hydraulic
pressure to press the seal lips against the rod and seal groove. It is better
to use a seal with a pre-energized lip (by spring or O ring) in order to avoid
leaks when the cylinder is unloaded and pressure is absent. The wiper
prevents external contaminants entering the cylinder.
62 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
F = ∆pAηCYL 3.10
Where:
∆p = p1 − p2 is the pressure (p2 = 0 for vented
cylinders)
p1 is the input pressure
A1 A2
p1
F
p2
Fig. 3.16
Double-acting cylinders can have single piston rod (Fig. 3.16) or double
piston rod. They are used for auxiliary operations such as tilting, side shift
and reach/retract operations. These cylinders accept pressurized fluid on
both sides of the piston. When the cylinder has a single-piston rod,
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 63
extension force is greater than retraction force (if equal pressures are used)
because the area of the piston side (A1) is greater than the area of the face
of the rod end side (A2).
The force equation acting on the piston rod (shown in Fig. 3.16) is:
F = ( p1 A1 − p2 A2 )η CYL [ N ] 3.11
Where:
πD 2
A1 =
4
[m ]2
is the larger area
π (D 2 − d 2 )
A2 =
4
[m ]
2
is the smaller area
At the same flow rate, the cylinder retracts faster than it extends. Faster
retraction is a result of the smaller volume at the rod end side.
Q ⎡m⎤
υE = ,
A1 ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
Extension speed
Q ⎡m⎤
υR = ,⎢ ⎥ Retraction speed
A2 ⎣s⎦
Q is the flow rate
The relationships between the piston diameter (D) and the piston rod
diameter (d) of double-acting cylinders are standardized and are given in
table 3.1, where: φ = A1/ A2
64 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
d (mm)
D (mm)
φ = 1.25 φ = 1.6
32 14 20
40 18 25
50 22 32
63 28 40
70 32 45
80 36 50
90 40 56
100 45 63
110 50 70
125 56 80
140 63 90
160 70 100
180 80 110
200 90 126
Table 3.1
Symbol:
There are two main types of sensors: 1) pressure switch and 2) electronic
pressure sensor (pressure transducer).
Pressure spikes that exceed the nominal system pressure can cause failure
of pressure sensors. Snubbers are installed before the sensors to protect
them. Some sensors have built-in snubbers. A typical snubber consists of
an orifice which suppresses and absorbs pressure spikes. Orifice diameter
determines the level of dampening. The diameter selection is based on:
• System pressure: higher pressure requires smaller diameter (greater
dampening)
• Fluid viscosity: higher viscosity requires smaller diameter
• Amplitude of pressure ripples: higher amplitude requires greater
dampening. The amplitude of the spikes depends on the sensor
location in the system.
Symbol:
Sizing Accumulators
The following case is when the accumulator is used as a power source.
The equation describing the gas in three different positions is (fig. 3.12):
n n n
p1V1 = p 2V2 = p3V3 3.12
Where:
p1 = gas pressure in the pre-charged accumulator (initial)
V1 = gas volume in the pre-charged accumulator (initial)
p 2 = gas pressure in the charged accumulator (at maximum system
pressure)
V2 = gas volume in the charged accumulator
p3 = gas pressure in the discharged accumulator (final) at minimum
system pressure
V3 = gas volume in the discharged accumulator (final)
When charging and discharging take place slowly, there is enough time for
the heat to dissipate. Then, we have an ISOTHERMAL process. In this
case n=1.
Fig. 3.17
V1 ( p1 )1 / n = V2 ( p 2 )1 / n = V3 ( p3 )1 / n 3.13
V2 ( p 2 )1 / n = V3 ( p3 )1 / n
Also, V3 = V2 + ∆V
Then
V2 ( p2 )1/ n = (V2 + V X )( p3 )1/ n = V2 ( p3 )1/ n + ∆V ( p3 )1/ n
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 69
V2 ( p2 )1/ n − V2 ( p3 )1 / n = ∆V ( p3 )1 / n
( p 3 )1 / n
V2 = ∆V
( p 2 )1 / n − ( p3 )1 / n
V1 ( p1 )1 / n = V2 ( p 2 )1 / n
( p 2 )1 / n
V1 = V2
( p1 )1 / n
Replace V2:
( p 3 )1 / n ( p 2 )1 / n
V1 = ∆V ×
( p2 )1 / n − ( p3 )1 / n ( p1 )1 / n
The devices for cleaning fluid can be classified as: filters, strainers and
magnets.
Filters are devices whose primary function is the retention of insoluble
contaminants from the fluid.
Strainers are course filters. Their filtration ranges from 50 to 300 microns
(most strainers are 125 microns).
Magnets function is to attract and remove iron from the fluid. They must be
placed where they will attract most particles- between the return and the
suction lines. Magnets can be installed inside the reservoir plug (magnetic
plugs).
There are five types of filters classified on the basis of their location and
function in the system.
• Suction filters
These are low pressure filters located in the suction line before the pump.
They are usually placed inside the reservoir. Suction or return filters can be
combined with a breather when they are installed at the inlet or outlet of the
reservoir. In order to determine what type of filter to use, we have to
consider the requirements of each component and the hydraulic system as
a system.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 71
• Pressure filter
These types of filters that are placed in the pressure line either immediately
after the pump or before a component with high fluid clearness
requirements. They are either high or medium pressure.
• Return filters
Return filters are installed in the return line. They can be placed outside or
inside the reservoir. It is recommended return filters have a bypass valve
which protects the filter element during cold start and pressure spikes.
Return filter which do not have a bypass valve mast be rated for pressures
higher that the system pressure. They can be subject to high pressure
when they are clogged.
• Reverse flow filters
Reverse flow filters are used when the flow direction is reversed in the
lines. This filter has to retain contaminants in one direction and prevent
returning the contaminants into the system when the flow is reversed. This
is achieved by having two parallel lines and check valves in each line. In lift
truck applications, reverse flow filters are used in hydrostatic transmissions
and energy recovery systems with reversible pump/motor.
• Air filters
Air filters are placed on the reservoir and they are usually combined with a
breather cap or a dip stick for fluid level indication. Breather cap air filters
range from 2 to 40 microns filtration.
Suction or return filters can be combined with a breather when they are
installed at the inlet or outlet of the reservoir. In order to determine what
type of filter to use, we have to consider the requirements of each
component and the hydraulic system as a system.
Disadvantages:
• Increase the resistance in the suction line, which may cause
inefficient suction by the pump. For this reason they are mainly used
in floated pump designs (the pump is located below fluid level of the
reservoir).
• When the filter gets plugged, the flow bypasses the filter through the
check valve and all benefits of the filtration are lost. It is
recommended to change the filter during preventive maintenance
after a number of hours and every time repair work is done on the
system. To reduce change time, the filter should be located at easy
to access location.
• Take extra space in the reservoir when the filter is places inside.
Filter efficiency
Filter efficiency is based on three parameters:
• Beta Rating
• Dirt holding capacity
• Pressure drop across the filter element
In the past, there were two efficiency ratings: nominal and absolute.
Currently there is no world standard describing nominal and absolute. If we
know only the nominal or absolute rating of a filter in microns, this really
does not quantify its retention efficiency at that size. If a filter is nominally
rated, 6-micron, it does not describe how many particles, 6-micron and
larger, are being retained by the filter. Also, there is a difference between
absolute and nominal rating. Absolute rating has 98.7% to 99.5% retention
efficiency, while nominal rating has a 50% to 98% efficiency. Most filter
manufacturers specify absolute rating at a 99.5% efficiency.
A better approach is to express the performance of filters with a Beta
Rating Number (ISO 16889). A Beta rating (6 microns for example) is a
measure of the number of particles greater than 6 microns upstream
(before the filter) divided by the number of particles greater than 6 microns
downstream (after the filter). Beta rating of 100 means that for every 100
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 73
particles larger than six microns entering the filter, one passes through. The
data given in the ISO standard or by the manufacturers are based only on
specific test conditions prescribed by the standard. Actual field conditions
may vary considerably.
Fine media filters can remove some additives from the fluid. Many types of
lubricants have de-foaming additives. These are suspended semisolid
particles in the 5-10 micron range and are filterable. Efficient 1-micron filters
can potentially remove sulphur and phosphorus additives that are not
dissolved as well as suspended solid anti-scuff additives.
Loop filtration
Off-line loop filtration is the most cost-effective method for cleaning the
fluid. Filter efficiency and dirt-holding capacity are at a maximum because
the fluid flow is steady. Off-line filtration can be installed permanently or it
can be a portable unit. The main benefit is that loop filters have a lower cost
per weight of captured dirt than in-line filters. Despite the benefits, loop
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 75
Start-up filtration
Although the hydraulic fluid and components are cleaned to the
recommended ISO levels, there is always contamination introduced during
handling and assembly. For this reason, systems with high cleanliness
requirements must be flushed after assembly and before start-up. During
flushing, the fluid circulates through an outside filter (usually remote filter
carts). The remote filter must have higher retention efficiency than the
system filters. Also, the system has to be flushed with a flow rate higher
than the maximum for the system. It is not recommended to flush the
system with compressed air from common factory lines. Air will blow away
bigger particles but it can bring in moisture and smaller contaminants. Air
flushing can be used before fluid flushing.
The flow
Designers must always consider all system parameters when selecting the
filter. When the fluid has cyclic behavior, the increase in flow can
dramatically alter the efficiency of the element during the flow pitch. If a
cylinder cycles at a fast rate, the filter is subjected to high flow and pressure
fluctuations. This can cause leakage over the bypass check valve.
The water
Water absorption filters usually have an element that combines a particle
removal media with water absorption material. Most water absorption media
are sensitive to flow rate. Their efficiency is higher when flow velocity is low.
It is common for these filters to be used on off-line circuits where the flow
rate can be controlled.
Filter media
The most commonly used materials for filter media are: wire mesh,
cellulose (wood pulp) and glass fiber. Wire mesh and cellulose are mainly
used for filters with lower retaining efficiency. Most high efficient filters have
high efficient glass fiber media.
76 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
For suction and return filters, a pressure switch which is connected only to
one point can also be used. The pressure drop in the filter can be obtained
from sensing one side because pressure at the other side is approximately
zero. When the filter has a bypass check valve, the pressure switch setting
has to be below the setting of the bypass valve. Disadvantage of using a
switch sensing only one side is that it works in narrow fluid viscosity range.
If the fluid viscosity goes outside of this range the switch will give a false
signal.
Mechanical clogged filter indicators are also used. They are constructed as
pop-up switches.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 77
Latest filter technologies have made possible filters with filtration as low as
one micron with minimum pressure loss across the filter. In this design, the
fluid is cleaned of ferrous particles by a magnet. This filter does not have a
filtration barrier and it has a smaller pressure drop. In hydraulic systems for
outdoor mobile equipment this filter is not used because most of the
contamination comes from the environment where the contaminants are
non-ferrous particles.
The reservoir has two main functions: to store the hydraulic fluid and to
keep the fluid within defined working temperature limits. There are two
types of reservoirs: open (vented) and pressurized (non-vented). In this
section, we are going to discuss only the vented type since it is primary
used in the mobile industrial equipment.
• Easy serviceability.
Main requirements include: accessible location of the hoses connected to
the reservoir, ability for quick discharge and refill and easy fluid level check.
• Flushing connection ports.
Flushing is a procedure for cleaning the reservoir from contamination using
turbulent flow. Flushing fluid must be compatible with the fluid used in the
hydraulic system. The reservoir can be equipped with special flushing ports.
There are three cases when having flushing ports is recommended:
1) The reservoir has to be flushed regularly.
2) Fluid oxidizes rapidly as a result of overheating.
3) There is a quick fluid contamination from outside.
For high lift fork trucks, it is also necessary to consider the maximum fluid
volume that the system needs. Maximum volume is the total volume of all
cylinders when they are fully extended and the volume of all connectors in
the system. The fluid volume in the reservoir is then increased to ensure
that a minimum fluid level in the reservoir is maintained.
In hydraulic systems which use air cooling for the reservoir, the cooling
surface is:
QL 3600 PL
S= = [m 2 ] 3.15
k (∆TMAX ) k (TMAX − TO )
Where:
Q L = 3600PL is the amount of heat as a result of losses in the
hydraulic system for a period of 1 hour
pQ
PL = (1 − η S ) is the lost power in the system
60η P
ηP is the pump efficiency
ηS is the system efficiency without the pump
⎡ kJ ⎤
k = 25 ⎢ 2 ⎥ when the reservoir has poor air circulation around the
⎣ m hK ⎦
reservoir.
⎡ kJ ⎤
k = 45 ⎢ 2 ⎥ when the reservoir has good air circulation around the
⎣ m hK ⎦
walls.
⎡ kJ ⎤
k = 90 ⎢ 2 ⎥ when the reservoir walls are subject to air cooling by a
⎣ m hK ⎦
fan.
Using the described requirements and method for calculating the optimum
reservoir surface, the fluid in the reservoir can be reduced significantly by
achieving the desired temperature and turbulence dissipations.
Different materials have a different coefficient of heat transfer, k. For
example, a stainless steel reservoir has half of the heat transfer capability
of a carbon steel reservoir.
Reservoir testing
In order to guarantee that all design requirements for the reservoir are met,
it is recommended that we measure some of the main parameters of the
system. It is a good practice to build one prototype reservoir with plexiglas
windows and a temperature gauge in it. This will allow monitoring of fluid
turbulence as well as the change of temperature during the required duty
cycle of operation. Achieving acceptable maximum oil temperature is the
best measure of good reservoir design. It means that the reservoir can
properly dissipate the heat generated by the system.
The headspace of many tanks maintains a continuous moist fog. This can
lead to a buildup of water in the oil, especially in cold storage applications
where the truck has to go in and out of a freezer. The moisture condenses
on the reservoir ceiling and walls and then drips into the fluid. Moisture
signs can be found either by looking for oxidations (rust) on reservoir ceiling
or by touching the inside ceiling with our fingers looking for moisture or rust.
Materials
• The most steel reservoirs are made from mild steel sheet metal.
Reservoirs with volume less than 100 litters are usually made from 1.5-2
mm thick sheets. Reservoirs are painted only from the outside. The
inside area above the oil can be a source of contamination. When
carbon steel reservoirs are used for fluid storage, their internal walls
must be coated against corrosion.
• Aluminized steel and stainless steel reservoir are designed to eliminate
the contamination concern. Aluminized steel is mild steel coated with
aluminum-silicon alloy.
• Stainless steel reservoirs are the most expensive to manufacture. For
this reason they are mainly used for storing hydraulic fluids.
• Aluminum alloy reservoirs are usually die-casting.
• Plastic reservoirs are usually made from polypropylene, polyethylene or
nylon. Resins used for reservoirs are usually rated for temperature
ranges from - 40 ºC to +120 ºC. Design of plastic reservoir must
consider coefficient of heat transfer (k) and the thermal deformation of
the material.
The most widely used material for plastic reservoirs is polyethylene (low-
density crosslinked or high-density linear). The name crosslinked shows
that the polyethylene structure consists of bonded and linked together
carbon chains at molecular level. Crosslinking of the molecules changes
the polymer properties from thermo-plastic to thermo-elastic. Thermo-
elasticity makes the material more resistant to ruptures and cracks. At
higher temperatures, thermo-elastic polyethylene will soften and become
more flexible. This softness allows impact energy to be absorbed easier by
the molecule chains. Crosslinking also improves the thermal properties of
the polymer.
Hydraulic (fluid line) tubing is a metal tube. The most commonly used
metals for hydraulic tubing are: low-carbon steel, stainless steel, alloy steel,
copper, aluminum and copper-nickel alloy. Steel tubing is normalized to
achieve softness necessary for ease of bending and flaring. Low-carbon
steel tubing has one or more corrosion resistant coatings. Hydraulic tubing
is produced to OD and wall thickness dimensions.
Pneumatic tubing can be made from metal or non-metal materials:
copper, aluminium, nylon, polyethylene or PVC. Nylon tubing is the most
popular because of its flexibility and low cost.
Mechanical tubing is steel tubing for structural applications. It can have
round, rectangular or a square shape.
Cylinders tubing is mechanical tubing with a finished inside diameter (ID)
manufactured to be ready to use for hydraulic cylinders. The ID has tight
84 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Mechanical and cylinder tubing will not be discussed in this book because
they are not used for connectors. When the term “tubing” or “tube” are
further used, they will refer only to hydraulic fluid line tubing.
Pressure
All hydraulic fluid lines have rated pressure. Lines (for medium, normal and
high pressure systems) are rated with a safety factor of four. That means
that their safety (burst) pressure is four times the working pressure.
Pressure rating varies in accordance with the different materials used. For
example: copper tubing rating is about 10 MPa, steel tube rating is more
than 25 MPa.
Fluid velocity
Fluid line size is selecting on the basis of fluid velocity inside the connector.
The fluid velocity affects the pressure drop and the fluid Reynolds number.
In general, pressure losses decrease when the diameter increases. In high-
pressure systems big diameters are not economical because of the
increased cost of the connectors, fittings and all other components. Bigger
pressure hoses are very stiff, require bigger bending radiuses and take
more space. Also, it is more difficult to deal with larger fluid volume
because it would require a larger reservoir. On the other hand, exceeding
recommended maximum velocity of the fluid may cause turbulence in the
flow. Small suction lines can increase the vacuum and create cavitation in
the pump inlet. The cavitation damages the pump surfaces and causes
noise and mechanical damages.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 85
• Pressure lines
Maximum Pressure Recommended velocity
p < 50 bar (5MPa) v = 4 m/s
p = 50 to 100 bar v = 4 to 5 m/s
p = 100 to 200 bar v = 5 to 6 m/s
p > 200 bar v = 6 to 7 m/s
It has been estimated that 80% of hose failures are caused by external
physical damage to the hose. In order to increase durability of the hose, the
hose manufactures use special hybrid compounds for the cover material
instead of standard rubber covers. This more durable compound increases
the service life, lowers the maintenance, and eliminates the need for costly
hose protectors such as guards and sleeves. The pressure ratings for
hoses are provided by the manufacturers.
Design principles
• Maximum pick pressure in the system must be below maximum
rated pressure for the hose. Hose burst pressure should not be used
for hose selection. The burst pressure is only for safety purpose.
• Hoses used for the suction line must be able to withstand vacuum
and pressure;
• Hose routing must ensure minimum length and number of bends,
avoid twisting and avoid external heat sources;
• Hose sizes (inside diameters) are selected according to
recommended velocity;
• Hoses have to be chemically compatible with the fluid in the system;
• Hoses must be protected from rubbing against metal edges or hard
objects, snagging, cutting, pulling, bending and twisting;
• Use proper end fitting;
86 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Connector restraining
Restraining is achieved by clamping the connectors to rigid surfaces of the
machine. Proper clamping increases the life of the tube and hose
assemblies.
Tube clamps can have non-metal (rubber or nylon) dampeners, which
protects the tube from vibrations and mechanical shocks.
Hose clamps are usually metal. The purpose is to protect the hose from
twisting and rubbing against other surfaces or edges.
Tubes and hoses can be attached to each other by a floating clamp. This
clamp ensures that connectors are not rubbing against each other by
creating a space between them. The clamp is called “floating” because it is
not fastened to a rigid structure.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 87
The couplings in mobile forklifts have to meet the requirements for high flow
and pressure, high and low temperatures and different fluids. Coupling
connection has to be able to handle pressure pulsations and spikes higher
than the rated pressure. These spikes appear when the work tool (the
forks) hit a hard object or cylinder piston hits the hard stop at the end of the
stroke. Tube fittings and adapters are cycle tested for endurance to 133%
of the work pressure and with minimum torque. If the fittings are over
tightened, their cycling endurance is reduced.
Flanged connection (four-bolt split flange type) is designed to avoid the use
of threaded connections. The fitting has two parts: a flanged head fitting
and a flange clamp (one-piece or sprit version). Flange connection has high
pressure capability because of the larger sealing surface and the lower
torque requirements. Flange heads and clamps are made of plated or
coated carbon steel. Flanged connections are designed to maximum inside
diameter of the hole. The sealing is achieved by O-ring or by seal-plate
which are compressed between the mating surfaces. This connection is
88 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Cutting face coupling is used for tube fittings. It has four components:
body, cutting ring, collar and a nut. The cutting ring has two cutting edges.
The ring slides on the tube. The ring geometry is design so that when the
nut is tighten, the front edge cuts into tube surface first and the second
edge follows. The collar ensures that all forces are equally distributed.
Flare tube end is used in tube connectors for low and medium (up to 200
bar) pressure systems. It has a flared tube which is clamped against a
flared nose fitting. Clamping is achieved by a tube nut screwed to fitting.
duty cycles, valves, port types, size, locations and materials. For systems
with pressure up to 25 MPa, manifolds are made from steel or aluminium.
For pressures above 25 MPa, it is more economical to have steel
manifolds. After machining, the manifold blocks must be washed, deburred
and surface finished against oxidation. Burrs and small particles are
removed thermally. Thermal deburring is a process where the manifolds are
put in a chamber filled with gas which is ignited. The temperature goes up
to 3500 ºC for about 20 milliseconds.
Seal compatibility
Incompatibility between seals and fluid can cause seal failure and oil leaks.
Seal manufacturers have done a lot of research because they serve a wide
range of industries with a broad number of applications. Seal manufacturers
can generally predict the chemical compatibility of a fluid and recommend a
suitable seal material. Although following their recommendations is a good
practice, the best verification is the system test at working conditions.
Water
Water in oil-based fluids leads to system damage and failure. The worst
threat of water contamination is its reaction with additives and the
damaging bi-products. Some anti-wear additives in presence of moisture
can decompose and transform into a highly corrosive acid (sulfuric acid).
When water is absorbed by hydraulic fluid, the fluid puffs up and creates
white slime. This slime causes clogging in the filter.
Water contamination is described in greater detail in Chapter 8-III (Common
Problems).
Specific gravity
When users want to replace conventional hydraulic oil with another fluid,
they have to take into account the specific gravity of the new fluid. If the
specific gravity is more, hydraulic pumps cannot the new fluid as easily as
the lighter one. For example: Conventional hydraulic oil has a specific
gravity of about 0.85, while water glycol is around 1.0 and phosphate ester
is 1.1. If a heavier fluid is put in the system and the design engineers don't
make special accommodations for heavier fluids, cavitation in the pump will
occur which will lead to excessive noise and failure of the pump. One way
to solve the problems associated with using a heavier fluid is to put the
reservoir higher than the pump. This arrangement is also called "flooded
suction". The pump does not need to work as hard to move the heavier
fluid.
Particle count
The particle count is a “catch-all” type test. Almost anything that goes
wrong in the machine will result, sooner or later, in an increased number of
particles. If misalignment in the components, overloading, water
contamination, viscosity breakdown, or bearing failure occurs, the particle
count will rise. The challenge of this test is the correct interpretation of the
test results. By definition, particle count is: the number of particles in the
fluid greater than a particular micron size per unit volume of the fluid. It is
often stated as particles larger than 10 microns per one milliliter (1mL).
Usually an optical microscope is used to count the particles. Filter and
hydraulic fluid manufacturers have recognized the importance of smaller
contaminants. As a result, they include particle count tests and evaluations
for particles smaller than 4µm.
Analyzing fluid samples for the finest contaminants (4µm) is included in the
latest ISO Cleanliness Code.
In order to evaluate the fluid, we have to know the threshold for various
performance characteristics. Test parameters for which threshold levels
may be established include:
• Dynamic leakage: external and internal
• Static leakage: external and internal
• Performance characteristics: pressure, flow rate, noise.
• Fatigue life of the hydraulic components. It is very difficult to
determine whether a hydraulic component failure is caused by the
fluid.
Synthetic fluids are a good choice for equipment that is used outside and is
subject to temperature changes. Synthetic fluids can handle a wider range
of temperature changes than petroleum-based fluid.
Thermal effect
The trend in the hydraulic systems design is to increase system power
while using the same physical space. Power is increased by increasing fluid
pressure and it results in increased operating temperature. Some systems
now run with 100ºC fluid temperature instead of the recommended
maximum of 80ºC. High temperature changes the viscosity of the fluid,
therefore when selecting the fluid type designers should select the ones
with greater resistance to change in viscosity as a result of temperature
change.
94 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
One of the most common causes of thermal failure in hydraulic fluids and
some lubricating oils is aeration (presence of air bubbles). These bubbles
can become rapidly compressed in hydraulic pumps and bearings. This
results in extremely high localized temperatures (adiabatic compression)
and leading to sudden formation of carbon fines. Hot surface carbonization
is another form of thermal failure. When oil degrades as a result of high
temperature, it creates problems associated with sludge, varnish, deposits,
viscosity change and additive decomposition.
Influence of additives
Industrial hydraulic fluids normally contain anywhere between 99% to
99.5% base oil and about 0.5% to 1.0% by additives. These additives are
important for the hydraulic system operation, particularly when the trend is
to use longer-life fluids. There are many different additive combinations that
can be used in fluids, and using the right additive combination is critical.
One of the main ingredients, which represents approximately 60% to 70%
of the additive package is a compound known as Zinc Dithiophosphate
(ZDP). Fluids containing this additive reduce the wear rate of the hydraulic
components. ZDP reacts with the metal and provides cushioning between
sliding surfaces. It also improves the oxidation stability of the fluid. A fluid
supplier can help identify what mix will provide the best performance for
your equipment. Despite all benefits of the additives, if the fluid is not kept
clean or it is overheated, the additives can be physically removed or
chemically decompose in service. Removing and decomposing the
additives is due to: oxidation, hydrolysis, thermal degradation or they can
be removed by the filter.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 95
Cleanliness code
Cleanliness code (per ISO 4406:1999) gives a number of particles greater
than a specified particle size per defined volume of 1 mL (0.001 litters).
requirements for the fluid. This relationship is given in table 3.5. The
cleanliness code is given only by the second and the third number
(__/YY/ZZ format). Quantity of particles over 4 microns is not provided.
Recommended fluid cleanliness requirements for some common
components at different pressures are given in tables 3.6 (pumps), 3.7
(valves) and 3.8 (actuators). Component internal clearances between
moving parts and system pressures are the main factors determining fluid
cleanliness. The data is based only on the specific test conditions
prescribed by the standard. For different field conditions, the actual fluid
cleanliness requirements may vary.
Recommended filtration
System Maximum Recommended (in microns)
Pressure cleanliness
for β (x) ≥ 75
p < 50 bar (5MPa) 19/16 15 to 25
p = 50 to 150 bar 18/15 12 to 15
p = 150 to 250 bar 16/13 10 to 12
p > 250 bar 15/12 5 to 10
Table 3.5
System
components Minimum recommended fluid cleanliness
Less than 14 to 20 MPa More than
Pumps 14 MPa (2000 to 3000 20 MPa
(2000 psi) psi) (3000 psi)
Gear- constant
20/18/15 19/17/15 18/16/13
flow
Vane- constant
20/18/15 19/17/14 18/16/13
flow
Piston 19/17/15 18/16/14 17/15/13
Gear- variable flow 19/16/14 18/15/13 17/15/13
Vane- variable flow 18/16/14 17/15/13 16/14/12
Table 3.6
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 97
Series motor
Armature and field (stator) windings are part of the same circuit. There are
three configurations shown in fig. 3.19
a) Series
Armature and stator winding are connected in series.
b) Shunt
Armature and stator winding are connected in parallel.
c) Compound
A compound motor has three windings: one armature and two fields. One of
the field windings is connected in series and the other in parallel. These two
windings create two magnetic fields. The current flowing through the rotor
and the field is the same.
I = IK I = IK + IB I = IK + IB
Fig. 3.19
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 99
IK IB
Fig. 3.20
AC induction motor
Only three phase motors are used in lift trucks applications. AC motors
require the use of an inverter which converts the DC to AC current. The
power can flow through the inverter in both directions from the DC battery
to the AC motor and vice versa. The inverter output voltage is always less
than the input voltage.
Knowing the characteristics of each motor, helps designers make better
choices when they are selecting the pump type for the hydraulic system.
Main advantages and disadvantages are listed in table 3.9
100 Chapter 3: Hydraulic Components
Hydraulic system
Type motor Advantages Disadvantages
application
Simple Require brush Systems with
construction motor maintenance constant pump speed
Series Difficult to
Low cost motor
control high
Low cost controller speed
Low system (motor Systems with two &
Expensive
& controller) cost three pump speeds
motor
Separately Easy speed Good for energy
Require brush
excited control. recovery systems
maintenance
It can have speed Good for integrated
feedback. systems
Low cost motor for
power under 1.5
Low power systems
Permanent kW Require brush
magnet maintenance Steering and small
No heat
low lift truck systems
generation in the
magnets
Best for systems with
variable pump
Simple speeds. AC
construction. motor/controller
system can
Low cost
Need DC to AC compensate for
No brushes. Low inverter increased load or
AC maintenance reduced battery
More complex
induction Highest efficiency voltage and maintain
controller
consistent speed.
Good rotational
speed control. It Best for energy
has speed recovery systems
feedback. Best for integrated
(lift and steering)
systems
Table 3.9
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 101
Chapter 4
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, a number of
companies saw the connection between the quality of their products and
their long-term success. Some of them started monitoring and controlling
quality in order to achieve higher market success. In 1887, the president of
the Procter and Gamble Company, William Procter, realizing the need for a
quality product told his employees, “The first job we have is to turn out
quality merchandise that consumers will buy and keep on buying.” At this
time the managers and the engineers did the planning and supervising
while the workers executed the production work. Later, in the 1940s, the
supervision of the quality was transferred to quality inspectors.
After World War II, Japanese companies used the tools of quality to
improve their products and develop a culture of continuous improvement.
The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) financed and
encouraged companies to educate their employees on quality management
practices. The Japanese recognized that inspecting a product does not add
value to the product because it does not change its properties. Instead,
they focused on improving the quality of the process which would lead to
increased quality of the product. The Japanese called it Total Quality
Control (TQC). For them, process control was equal to total quality. In the
late 1960s, Professor Shigeru Mizuno and Yoji Akao developed a
communication tool that converted customer needs to measurable design
characteristics. They called it Quality Function Deployment (QFD). Later,
the Japanese incorporated the value engineering principles in the QFD
matrix. In the 1970’s, the quality of the products made by Japanese
companies that applied the quality principles, started to exceed the quality
of their competitor’s products in other parts of the world. This resulted in a
penetration of the Japanese products into the Western markets.
102 Chapter 4: Management and Quality of Hydraulic System Design Process
don’t layoff their full-time workers. Instead, they have part-time hourly
employees. Part-time employees are given more or less hours depending
on the production volume.
Introduction
Quality of the design directly affects public welfare, health and property.
The safety requirement must always be the number one requirement for
any new product. To ensure an accurately designed product, in many
countries, the firms that perform engineering design work are required to
obtain a “Permit to Practice”. To obtain such a permit, the firm must satisfy
two conditions:
1. Identify the individuals responsible for the engineering design and
services. The responsible individuals are required to have a professional
engineering license.
2. Carry liability insurance. In addition to the company insurance, some
countries or states require all engineering personal to have secondary
liability insurance.
The United States was the first country to regulate engineering practice.
There are three main factors that determine the quality of any product.
First: quality of the final product is determined by the quality of the design
process.
Second: quality of the final product is determined by the quality of the
manufacturing process.
Third: quality of the design and manufacturing processes are achieved by
defining and measuring each step of the process.
and management tools, will ensure a quality of the design that is built into
the final product. During the process, the factual approach to measure the
progress will be used. Factual approach is when each factor or parameter
at each step is measured against a predefined value. ISO 9000:2000 states
that the factual approach to decision making is "effective decisions that are
based on the analysis of data and information."
Factors
• Leadership
Leadership is an ability to positively influence and motivate people to
achieve the team’s goals in an effective way.
• Engineering knowledge
Engineering knowledge is a base for any novel approach to new designs
and improvements. In order to design a hydraulic system for lift trucks, an
engineer has to know not only the hydraulic principles but also the
equipment principles of operation such as:
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 105
• Innovations
The generating and testing of new and novel ideas must be one of the main
goals of any engineering organization. Innovating spirit must be
encouraged and rewarded in order to become an organizational culture.
o One technique to generate new ideas is using old ideas and
adding something new to them. This strategy is called:
knowledge brokering.
o Another technique is to take an existing idea in one application
and use it in another application. This technique has been used
the most through-out the history of the technological
development.
Old ideas are the main source of new ideas therefore we need to educate
ourselves and learn the existing practices in order to generate new ones. In
this aspect, it is important that the organization has the means of collecting
such data and making it available to all employees.
• Motivation
There are a number of factors that motivate people. It has been proven that
the financial factor is not the main motivator because it has only short term
effects. Recognizing the individual as a valuable asset to the organization is
one of the biggest motivating factors for best performance and continuous
improvement.
• Focus on quality
Quality of the design process is measured by the quality of the final
product. The final product must meet customer expectations in term of
performance, service, cost of operation and other factors identified by the
customer.
Time-to-market and greater value for the customer are the main driving
forces for today’s companies success in the market.
106 Chapter 4: Management and Quality of Hydraulic System Design Process
Structuring the process will help us to be not only more productive but also
more predictive. Predicting the time for project completion allows the
company to better manage their planning and budgeting.
5. Define customer
requirements QFD,
Requirements
6. Define engineering Functional
definition
requirement decomposition
9. System design
Calculations
10. Benchmark 1
QFD, DFX
11. Evaluation
System FMEA
12. Design review 1
design Taguchi
13. Design documentation
Poke Yoke
tune up
Problem solving
Table 4.1
All tools are well described in the literature. In this book, I will only give
short descriptions of the tools.
Step one - find a single overall function that this system needs to
accomplish. For the hydraulic system, described in Chapter 5 (Fig. 5.1), this
function will be:
Design an electric forklift truck hydraulic system which will allow the
operator to manipulate the rated payload in all three degrees of freedom up
to the maximum height of the mast.
Step two - decompose the function into top level functions for the
system. The top level functions will identify what the system is supposed to
do.
Step three - decompose further any of the top level functions into
sub-function in order to refine the function as well as possible.
The process will go on until all functions become measurable and simple to
satisfy.
FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) is a technique for improving the
quality of a design and manufacturing process by first identifying and then
eliminating or minimizing the potential quality problems.
110 Chapter 4: Management and Quality of Hydraulic System Design Process
System design will be our main focus in the following chapters of this book.
Software development and tuning will not be described. This last step has
to be done after assuring that all components are working properly.
Step 10 - Benchmark 1
Benchmark 1 is a comparison of the calculated values against the
engineering requirements, review manufacturing and assembly processes.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 113
Step 11 - Evaluation
• Safety and human factors (Ergonomics)
• Novelty of design- Is the design patentable?
• Innovation- consider emerging technologies that can improve the
design
• Cost of the product- cost of components, assembly time & testing.
• Principle of operation
Our goal at this point is to verify the components and system parameters
over a period of time.
The best system performance is verified at 20 °C room temperature and 40
°C fluid temperature. The worst performance is tested at the extreme
conditions defined in the project specification. All test results must be
recorded and used in the next step.
Another factor is the supplied power. When the hydraulic system is
designed for an electric truck, a fully charged battery must be used. If the
battery voltage goes down, the motor speed also goes down. As a result
the truck performance is decreased and it goes outside the advertised
operating range. For example: if the battery charge goes down to 50%, the
lift motor speed can go down 10% or more during lifting.
Step 16 - Benchmark 2
Benchmark 2 has three sub-steps:
• Benchmark for conformance- verification of quality of the design by
benchmarking against engineering specifications.
• Competitive benchmarking- this comparison relates our future
product performance to the performance of an existing product.
• Manufacturing evaluation- In order to reduce the risk of having
manufacturing defects, improve productivity and reduce assembly
time, at this step of the process, we also evaluate the design based
on manufacturing capabilities.
Step 20 - Benchmark 3
Benchmark 3 compares the customer’s satisfactions against the initial
customer’s requirements.
Design guidelines
All design concepts, even if they are not used in production, are essential
intellectual property for the company. Documenting all design concepts is
necessary to prove the invention date if a company decides to seek a
patent protection for the new design. In the last section, I am going to give a
brief description of patents and the patenting process. General
understanding of the process will enable the engineers to communicate
more effectively with patent lawyers.
There are four failure rate distribution functions that are shown on Fig. 4.1.
Patents
There are three important parts which any patent must have: 1) a novel
idea, 2) usefulness to society (diligence) and 3) not obvious. There are two
types of industrial patents:
• Design Patent
Design type is a novel idea only in the appearance of an object. Its
protection is 14 years from issuing the patent.
• Utility Patent
Utility type is a novel idea that is useful to society. These types are
inventions of machines/mechanisms or processes (method of operation or
manufacture); articles of manufacture (casting, molding). Its protection is 20
years from filing.
The first step toward obtaining a patent is preparing and filing a patent
application. The application contains three main parts: a specification
(description of the invention and claims), drawings and an oath by the
inventor(s). The claims define the invention. When more than one person
works on a design, it is difficult to determine the inventors of the subject
matter described in the claims. The rule is that anyone who made a
significant contribution should be included as an inventor.
When filing for a patent, the timing is very important. In the USA and
Canada, the filing must be done within one year from the public disclosure
of the invention. For this reason, it is very important to have confidentiality
agreements with your business partners who have had any involvement
during the design process. The US and the Canadian patent offices apply
first-to-invent rule when they grant a patent, while the European offices use
first-to-file rule.
The government of the United States can stop any patent application from
publishing if it is considered it to be a danger to the national security. In
cases like this, they label the information as classified and instruct the
inventor/s not to disclose or publish the invention. The government is not
obligated to financially compensate the inventor/s.
Patent protection extends only over the country that issues the patent. If we
want to have protection in more countries, we have to file an application in
each of these countries in their official language and according to their
patents laws.
122 Chapter 4: Management and Quality of Hydraulic System Design Process
The first one is to use the patented idea. If they agree, we have to sign a
License Agreement and in most cases pay a loyalty fee which is usually in
the range of 1 to 5% of our product’s listed price.
The second approach is to design our product around the patent. In this
case, our focus will be to produce a similar product or design which does
not infringe upon the existing patent. Designing around a patent is a widely
used practice which usually results in more novel ideas or improvements.
There are few steps that should be done to ensure we successfully get
around the patent.
1. Read the existing patent. Claims are the most important part but they
are also the most difficult to understand even by a patent lawyer.
That why we should first concentrate on the “Description of the
Invention” section in order to become familiar with the details of their
idea.
2. Review other patents that are given as reference on the front page of
the main patent or make your own prior art search to obtain all
related patents. We have to find some of the other patents that are
expired. Expired patents are free from infringement and they can be
used by anyone.
3. Next we create a design based on a combination of ideas from one
or more expired patents or a combination between expired, non-
expired patents and our own contribution.
4. If we make an improvement to an expired patent, we can file for
patent protection for the improvement only. We can also make an
improvement and obtain a patent for this improvement to a non-
expired competitor’s invention if we want to prevent our competitor
from improving its design.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 123
The engineering design firm, on the other hand, has to prove that in their
design process they:
1. Properly applied engineering principles.
2. Anticipated modes of failure.
3. Provided correct specifications for the user.
4. Provided instructions for correct inspection and maintenance.
When the system design is completed, the design engineer should be able
to predict the behavior of the system for a defined period of time and
assume responsibility for the safe operation of the system.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 125
Chapter 5
Class 2 contains the narrow-aisle lift trucks. These trucks don’t need
counterweight because the load center is within the outline of the wheels.
They have smaller turning radius and are mainly used at indoor
warehouses with narrow aisles.
Class 3 trucks are also called low-lift trucks or trucks for horizontal
transportation. They can have walk-behind or ride-on operator. The
hydraulic system of this class is described in Chapter 6.
Classes 5 and 6 have the same construction as Class 1 but higher load
carrying capacity. They can have solid rubber or pneumatic tires. Solid
rubber types are made from softer core and harder outside layer and are
preferred for indoor applications with smooth floors. Pneumatic tires are
inflated with compressed air. Because of the better cushioning, they are
preferred for outdoor work and uneven floors.
Class 7 are rough-terrain lift trucks. They are used primarily for outdoor
material handling. Their elevating system consists of a telescopic lifting
arm. The hydraulic system of this class is described in Chapter 7.
126 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
In fig. 5.1 is shown a sit-down counterbalanced lift truck. This type is the
most common lift truck type. The weight the rear of the truck
counterbalances the weight of the load. The truck has two parts: mobile
(tractor) and elevating (mast). Tractor consists of chassis (containing the
battery, the counterweight and the controls), steering and drive units. Mast
frame is constructed from structural steel profiles. Hydraulic cylinders
mounted on the mast are used to lift the loads. Mast can have two or more
sections where the first section is always fixed while the others are
movable.
Elevating system
the fork carriage without lifting the mast profiles (fig. 5.2b). The main lift
cylinder (9) is mounted on the fixed carriage (1). It function is to elevate the
movable mast sections 2 and 3 (fig. 5.2c).
Vc = Vcarriage
Vd = Vcyl
Ve = 0
c d e
c d e
Vcarriage
Fig. 5.2
a) lowered position b) free lift, c) main lift
maximum
height
Components:
1. Main mast
2. Middle mast
3. Free lift mast
4. Free lift cylinder
5. Pulley 1 (free lift)
6. Chain 1 (free lift)
7. Pulley 2 (main lift)
8. Chain 2 (main lift)
9. Main lift cylinder
128 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
The purpose of the hydraulic system is to control and manipulate the load
functions such as: lifting, tilting, rotating, moving sideways, reaching and
retracting. The hydraulic system should be able to provide enough power to
accomplish some of these functions simultaneously when necessary. In
addition to achieving the prime functions, the hydraulic controls have to
provide smooth and fast motion.
There are two main types of hydraulic systems: open and closed.
Open systems are hydraulic circuits in which the pump draws fluid from a
reservoir and at the end of the work cycle the fluid is returned back to the
reservoir. These systems usually use non-compensated fixed displacement
pumps as a primary source for flow and pressure. Flow rate is controlled by
directional valves or by varying the speed of the pump motor. Maximum
pressure in this system is set by a relief valve and the working pressure is
controlled by resistance to the flow. When the system pressure exceeds the
relief valve setting, the pump flow is bypassed through the valve to the tank.
Open systems usually cost less and provide more freedom in the design.
This type of system is used in most mobile applications for operating the
payload.
Closed systems are hydraulic circuits in which the fluid circulates between
the pump and the actuator in a closed loop. Actuator rotational (or lineal)
direction is reversed by using bi-directional pumps and reversing the flow.
Pumps can be either fixed or variable displacement. Closed systems often
use pressure compensated type pumps. The maximum pressure is
controlled by a pump compensator, which cuts off the flow when the
maximum pressure is reached. Supplied pressure continuously adjusts to a
value slightly above pressure demand from the actuators. Sometimes, this
system does not have a relief valve and there is minimum energy waste
while the pump is working. Disadvantages of closed type systems are the
high cost of the pump as well as energy waste in the form of generated
heat when the pump strives to maintain the working pressure at all
conditions.
The hydraulic systems can also be classified as: 1) full load sensing
systems or 2) systems with load sensing elements. The main focus of these
two types is energy efficiency.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 129
A full load sensing system can also be closed or open. Closed systems use
a pressure-flow compensated pump and at least one load sensing valve.
The pressure-flow compensated pump is a variable volume piston pump,
which senses the system flow and pressure requirements and delivers
variable flow at variable pressures per these requirements. The pump
stands by at a low pressure in order to save energy. In addition, this system
has a load sensing directional valve which has a pressure feedback. The
valve receives the pressure requirements from the actuator and sends a
pressure signal to the pump. The advantage of this system is the higher
power efficiency. A disadvantage of the system is its high cost. Because of
the high cost, full load sensing systems currently are not used for industrial
truck applications.
Instead of full load sensing, the hydraulic system can be designed as an
open type system which uses a non-compensated fixed-displacement
pump and at least one load sensing valve. This combination appears to
have the lowest cost-per-power ration. For this reason, these types are
becoming more popular and all new designs have elements of pressure
sensing feed back in order to improve efficiency. An example of systems
with a load sensing valve will be discussed in this chapter (fig. 5.13) and
next chapter (fig 6.4).
Design Principles
There are a number of design principles that need to be kept in mind during
the systems design.
130 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Design Requirements
The next step, “creating the hydraulic component layout”, will not be
described here because it is specific to and dependent upon truck chassis
construction. Some mounting and layout rules will be described for specific
components in Chapter 8 (Selected topics).
When going through the design process steps, from chapter 4, the designer
should keep in mind a few basic guidelines that may not be part of the
design requirements but are important for creating a good design.
132 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Circuit design
The hydraulic system should control different functions (lift/lower, side shift,
tilt or others) independently or simultaneously when necessary. Each
function is controlled by a directional valve. Valves could be independent
components or combined in a valve stack which consisted of different
sections. There are two main types of directional valve stacks: valves
sections connected in parallel (Fig. 5.3) and valves sections connected in
series (Fig. 5.4a and Fig. 5.4b). Valves have a bypass flow path which is
closed when fluid is redirected to the actuators.
The arrangement in figure 5.3 is the most popular directional valve stack
used in the mobile hydraulic systems. For this reason, only this system will
be used for further analysis and its operation will be described in details.
While the system operation is described, we will also discus the different
types of components and determine the ones that best fit our application.
The size of the components will be determined after we calculate the
systems pressure and flow requirements.
134 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Breather (1a) is mounted on the top of the reservoir. The breather allows
air to enter and exit the reservoir as the fluid level raises and falls. The
breather can have a filter or not. Our goal is to design a hydraulic system
that is able to work in a contaminated area. Knowing that the level of
contamination entering the pump is a critical factor for the life of the whole
system, we can install an air breather (1a) with a filter in it. There are
advantages for the whole system when filtering the air that enters the
reservoir. Using a filter with cellulose media is not popular in the hydraulic
systems for lift truck applications. The main reason is that moisture in the
air can clog the filter which means that it has to be replaced regularly. If the
filter in the breather is clogged, it can create a vacuum in the reservoir and
cause cavitation in the pump. Most breather filters are steel mesh type.
Suction filter (1b) is mounted inside the reservoir (filter head and fitting
ports are outside while the filter cartridge is inside). It is recommended to
mount the filter vertical above the fluid level. Oil flows from the reservoir
through the filter to the gear pump (4) in a flexible hose. A suction filter has
to be equipped with a bypass check valve (1c). This valve protects the
pump from cavitation by a providing parallel flow path and ensuring that the
pressure in the pump inlet stays above a critical value. The valve starts to
open when the filter begins to clog. It is fully open when the filter is fully
plugged. The valve also opens when hydraulic fluid has increased viscosity
because the truck has been parked in the cold or in sub-zero (freezing)
temperatures. The negative side of filters with bypass valves is that the fluid
will bypass the filters every time during cold start. In order to avoid this
condition, the designer can use clogged filter sensor instead of bypass
valve. The clogged filter sensor is a pressure sensor which gives signal to
the pump motor (3) and disables the systems operation until the filter is
changed. When a pressure sensor is used in addition to the bypass valve,
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 137
its pressure setting should be about one (1) bar lower than the valve setting
and its role is only to alert the operator.
The suction line is the ideal location for a filter because the filter prevents
contamination from entering the system. In some designs, suction filters are
avoided because they create pressure drop and increase the risk of forming
a vacuum in the pump inlet. A vacuum at the inlet can reduce up to 50% of
the life of the gear and vane pumps. To avoid vacuum creation we can
place the pump below the oil level in the reservoir.
Pump (4) delivers the necessary flow for all consumers in the system. For
systems with high pressure and high efficiency requirements, the first
choice is an axial-piston pump. For a cost sensitive system, the first choice
is a gear pump. In this system we are going to use a fixed-displacement
gear pump. When we have an IC (internal combustion) lift truck, the
hydraulic pump is mounted on the drive shaft of the IC engine and a
dedicated electric motor for the pump is not required. In the electric trucks,
the pump is connected to a dedicated electric motor (3). In this system, the
pump always starts before the directional valve opens. The reason is that
pump has to reach a minimum rotational speed and build up pressure first.
Pressure relief valve (5) is built into the directional valve (6). Its function is
to limit the maximum pressure in the system. We use an adjustable valve
when different applications require different pressures. The spring tension
is adjusted in order to provide the desired pressure level in the system. This
can be done by the valve manufacturer or by the hydraulic system
assemblers. The pressure level depends on the maximum load lifted by the
cylinders.
A relief valve has two positions that are controlled 1) when the valve starts
to open and 2) when the valve is fully opened. At the first position, the valve
begins to bypass part of the flow from the pressure line to the reservoir. The
pressure at which this happens is called cracking pressure. The cracking
pressure must always be more than the working pressure of the system. At
fully open position, the valve allows all flow to go back to the reservoir.
Usually the full relief pressure is 20% above the cracking pressure.
When the same valve or the same hydraulic system is installed on different
load- capacity trucks, assemblers on the production floor have to adjust the
relief valve. There are two adjustment procedures used to ensure that the
valve is fully closed during system operation. The first is when the relief
valve is adjusted to the cracking pressure with a load on the forks 10% to
20% higher than the maximum rated load. The second is when the valve is
138 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
adjusted with the maximum rated load on the forks. In the second case,
pressure readings are used to set up the valve. First, the assemblers
measure the maximum working pressure of fully loaded mast. Then,
unloaded mast is extended until it hit the stops and the flow is bypassed
through the relief valve. The valve spring is adjusted until pressure before
the relief is 10% above the maximum pressure recorded earlier. Correctly
adjusted relief valve does not affect the lifting times. Increased lifting times
indicates that part of the fluid is bypassed to the reservoir. Lifting time within
the design specification indicates that the valve setting is correct.
Check valve (6a), prevents backflow from the system to the pump. It is
placed before each section of the directional valve. The check valve can
also be built into the pump or it can be an in-line type valve.
outlets), the fluid will not go to all of them. The reason for this is that the
system has different pressures in the different branches and when the
operator shifts two or more sections at once, the fluid always takes the
lowest resistance path and goes to the outlet with the lower pressure first.
But, if the operator opens the ports, just a little, and creates back pressure
from each spool, then two or more sections can operate at the same time.
Orifice (7a) role is to restrict the flow from the lift cylinders to the reservoir
during lowering of the load. When lifting, the fluid going to the cylinders
passes through the check valve (7b). The check vale has very small
pressure losses and it allows more energy efficient lifting. When the
cylinder is lowered, the check valve (7b) closes and fluid is forced to pass
through the orifice (7a). The orifice cross section diameter has to be
calculated and properly selected in order to create enough back pressure to
achieve the desirable lowering speed.
Single-acting ram type cylinders (8 & 9) lift the payload to the designed
preset height. Cylinders (8) are called main-lift cylinder and their function is
lift the movable sections of the mast. They are mounted on the side or
behind of the mast. Both cylinders (8) are connected via a rigid cross bar so
that they always work together in tandem. Cylinder (9) is called free-lift
cylinder. Its function is to lifts the fork carriage without lifting the sections of
the mast. If there is only one free-lift cylinder, it is mounted in the middle of
the mast. The piston area of the free-lift cylinder (9) is larger than the
combined piston area of both main-lift cylinders (8). Therefore, when oil
pressure is applied, the pressure creates higher force (F= p*A) in the
middle cylinder and this cylinder starts to lift first. Free lift does not increase
the overall truck height and allows the truck to transport the load through
doors. This feature also allows faster lift speeds and requires less power.
When the cylinder (9) finishes its stroke, the flow starts to lift cylinders (8)
together. When the cylinders lower the load, their function is similar to a
weighted (gravity) accumulator. The pressurized fluid holding the load
accumulates potential energy which has to be released in a way that will
absorb the shock waves and provide a smooth lowering piston movement.
As we mentioned in chapter 2, when compressing and decompressing
large fluid volumes in hydraulic cylinders, we have to consider the
compressibility of the fluid factor. Compression of the hydraulic fluid
accumulates potential energy similar to the potential energy accumulated in
a compressed spring. Fluids that are less compressible absorb less energy.
When the fluid is decompressed, it releases this energy creating noise. We
have to control the decompression process otherwise the released energy
140 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Lift systems can have a lift speed limit switch that sends a signal to the
electric motor (3) in order to reduce the rotational speed when the load is
lifted above a certain pre-determined height. Reducing the motor speed in
turn reduces the flow rate from the pump and the lifting speed.
Safety valve (8b) is built into the inlet of the cylinder assembly (8). This
valve is a flow control which limits flow rate out of the cylinder to a pre-
determined maximum rate in case of failure in the support hydraulics or
disconnected hoses to the cylinder. The safety valve, shown in figure 5.2,
has two positions. The first position (free flow) has a larger diameter
ensuring free passage for the flow entering and exiting cylinder. The
second position has two components connected in parallel: a small
diameter orifice and a check valve which ensures flow only in one direction.
The free flow position of the valve is connected to a valve inlet so that the
pressure at the valve inlet acts on the plunger. In additions, there is a spring
action on the same side of the plunger. The other side of the valve is
connected to the cylinder input so that the cylinder pressure acts on the
other side of the plunger. During lifting or controlled lowering, there is little
pressure difference at both ends of the valve and the plunger is pushed to
the free flow position by the spring. When failure in the system occurs, such
as a broken hose or disconnected fitting, the pressure at the disconnected
end (valve inlet) becomes almost zero. Then the pressure from the cylinder,
acting on one side of the plunger, will create a force higher than the spring
force and it will push the plunger in the second position closing the free flow
passage. At this point, the fluid exiting the cylinder will be forced to pass
through the orifice which will restrict the flow and slow down the cylinder
speed to an acceptable safe level.
The safety valves (8b) at the lift cylinder port can be replaced with low cost
flow restricting (flow limiting) fittings. These fittings are placed at the end of
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 141
the hoses attached to the lift cylinders. They are designed to be inserted
into a hydraulic cylinder. The flow limiting fitting has a built-in valve which
restricts the flow in the event of a hose failure. The hose failure is detected
when the fluid flow exceeds a specified value. This fitting can control the
flow in one direction- when the flow exits the cylinder during lowering. The
flow is uncontrolled when it enters the cylinder.
Two double-acting cylinders (10) are used to tilt the load by tilting either
the mast or the carriage. The cylinder body is mounted to the chassis while
the piston rod end is mounted to the pivoted mast. These cylinders can
have built-in flow restrictors (10a) which limit the speed. Limiting forward tilt
speed is very important because a high tilt speed leads to instability of the
forklift truck. When the tilt cylinders don’t have built-in restrictors, an in-line
orifice or flow control is used to control the tilt forward speed.
Fluid lines and fittings are selected after choosing all other system
components. First, we select the type of connecting line. For mobile
system, it is best to use flexible hoses because they work better under
vibration and have better dumping properties than metal tubing. Second,
we select the inside diameter (ID) of the hoses based on their function,
pressure rating and inside flow velocity. Recommended flow velocities are
given in Chapter 3.14 (Hydraulic Connectors). Third, we select fittings
based on the hose sizes, components port sizes and component’s layout.
The fitting ID has to match the hose ID in order to minimize the local friction
losses between the fluid and the internal walls. Forth, if there is no available
component with the desired port size, a compromised based on minimum
pressure loss has to be made. It will require a calculation of local pressure
drops using different ID and type fittings to determine the best combination.
Pressure drop in the lines is calculated with formula 2.26, or it is determined
by using a selection chart. Pressure drop in the hydraulic fittings is
calculated with formula 2.28.
Often designers make a mistake of sizing the connectors by looking at the
component port. This approach usually results in under sizing of the
connectors which in turn causes larger pressure drops and more heat
generation.
142 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Filter selection
The life of the whole system depends on the life of each individual
component. The biggest contributor for component failures in the system is
the number and the size of contaminants (dirt, dust, hard particles, etc) in
the hydraulic fluid. The filter function is to limit the contaminants to an
acceptable level. There are two steps of filter selection. The first step is
selecting the location. Based on the location, the filter can be: suction,
pressure or return. Selecting the location of the filter is based on the
considerations described in chapter 3 (filters). The second step is sizing the
filter which is done at components selection level.
Filter sizing
higher than the crack pressure of the bypass valve. Filters without bypass
valves should have pressure switches which disable the system when the
filter is plugged and yield a “replace filter” message.
For a pressure line filter, designers have to select pressure ratings higher
than the maximum pressure setting of the relief valve. This higher pressure
rating is needed because of the pressure fluctuation in the fluid.
3) Fluid viscosity
Fluid viscosity depends on temperature. Temperature range for the filter
and the fluid should be the same. If a hydraulic system starts working at
cold conditions, increased fluid viscosity puts extra pressure on the filter
and can damage filtering element. If this risk exists, the filter has to be
tested at cold conditions.
control and process quality. The component with the least clearance I am
going to refer as: the most sensitive component.
If we do not have data from the manufacturer, we will determine the most
sensitive component based on ISO minimum cleanliness code. For the
hydraulic system shown in Fig. 5.3 we will use the ISO guidelines. First we
will use tables 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8 (chapter 3) and list all the components and
the corresponding cleanliness code for 25 MPa (≈250 bar) pressure. The
first number of the code is more relevant to precise servo systems and will
be omitted.
Minimum Recommended Cleanliness
System components
for 25 MPa system pressure
Fixed gear pump __/16/13
Check valves __/18/15
Proportional Directional valve __/15/12
Pressure relief valve __/17/14
Flow control (Orifice) __/17/14
Hydraulic cylinders __/18/15
Table 5.1
From the table 5.1 we see that the most sensitive component to
contamination is the directional valve.
•
Determine minimum filtration
o Select the retention efficiency and the corresponding β
number from table 3.2
For example: Select 98.7 % or β (x) ≥ 75
o Compare the recommended clearance for 25MPa system
pressure from tables 3.5 with the cleanliness requirements of
the most sensitive components from table 5.1 and use the
smaller numbers.
For example: /15/12 < /16/13
Directional proportional valve cleanliness requirement code 15/12 is smaller
and it will be used to determine filtration level.
o Select corresponding level of filtration from Table 3.5, column
3. The recommended filtration is 5 µm to 10 µm.
A proportional directional valve will require at least 10 micron filter at β (x) ≥
75. Let’s look for a number smaller than 10 microns (at β (x) ≥ 75) in the
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 145
L10 life of a component (for example L10 = 10,000 cycles) means that 90% of
the components are expected to fail after 10,000 cycles of service and 10%
of the components are expected to fail before they reach 10,000 cycles.
The method for filter selection does not take into account system failures
due to poor connections selection, improper assembly, system abuse or
operation under extreme conditions.
System Efficiency
The ultimate measure for system efficiency is the total pressure drop from
the pump to the hydraulic actuators. A large pressure drop in the hydraulic
components results in a requirement for higher input pressure. This
increases the load on the hydraulic pump and requires more power from
the drive motor. Even properly working pump loses its efficiency gradually
so, the efficiency loss must be considered then the system is designed.
146 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Calculations
2 LT
d= [m] 5.2
πp MAX η CYL
LT
pCYL = [Pa] 5.3
2 ASCη CYL
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 147
ASCϑ ⎡ m 3 ⎤
Q= ⎢ ⎥ 5.4
n ⎣ s ⎦
Where:
n = 2 is called polyspast number (or mechanical advantage of pulley
operated mast mechanism) and it is the ratio:
load _ lifting _ speed V
n= = C (see fig. 5.2)
cylinder _ lifting _ speed Vd
Knowing the flow rate and the maximum pressure, next we select the
hydraulic pump. Pump displacement (d) is calculated from equation 3.4
Q P ⎡ cm 3 ⎤
dP =
n ×ηV ⎢⎣ rev ⎥⎦
5.5
Where:
QP [cm3/min] is the flow rate.
n [rev/min] is the shaft input rotational speed
ηV is pump volumetric efficiency.
The next step is to determine the volume requirements of the system and to
select the components per these requirements. The components that most
affect the required fluid volume are the lift cylinders. As mentioned, for
lifting we use single-acting ram type cylinders; for tilting we use differential
(double-acting) cylinders; for a side shift we can use either differential or
non-differential cylinders.
148 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
H −a+∆
S CYL = [m] 5.6
n
Where:
H [m] is the height of the mast
a [m] is the fork thickness
∆ is the dimension tolerance compensation
n is the polyspast number. This is a reduction number due to
use of a pulley. In most cases, lift trucks have n = 2.
ρ
∆p LOC = ς V2 5.8
2
∆pCOM = ∆p 6 + ∆p 7b 5.9
Where,
∆p6 are the losses in the directional valve (6) and
∆p7b are the losses in check valve (7b).
Losses in the components at defined pressure and flow are given by the
component manufacturers.
8. Total pressure loss from the pump to the lift cylinder is:
To calculate the input from the drive motor torque, we use equation 3.6:
pd P
T= η m ( Nm )
2π
Where: p is pressure at the pump outlet
dP [cm3/rev] is pump displacement
ηm is pump mechanical efficiency.
Next, the electric motor is selected from the power and torque requirements
of the system.
Fig. 5.5 shows the pressure drop - flow (∆p – Q) characteristics of a flow
regulator and an orifice during the lowering of the payload.
Flow regulator characteristic has an initial steep flow increase due to the
spring force in the counterbalanced valve (valve is described in chapter 3).
152 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
After the pressure drop ∆p reaches 2 MPa, the valve closes and maintains
relatively constant flow. When the pressure drop across the valve
increases, the valve has to compensate more which produces a tailing off
effect. The tailing off effect tilts the graph up or down off its horizontal line.
Since constant flow maintains almost constant lowering speed, when a
constant lowering speed is required, we use a flow regulator. The flow
regulator does not maintain a constant flow only in the first part of the graph
for pressure drop where (∆p) < ∆pmin.
50
40
Flow (l/min)
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Flow Regulator
Orifice Pressure drop B->A (MPa)
Fig. 5.6
154 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Components:
1. Reservoir assembly
2. Flexible line
3. Electric motor
4. Hydraulic pump
5. Pressure relief valve
6a. Proportional directional valve for lift and lower
6b. Proportional directional valve for tilt
6c. Proportional directional valve for side shift
7. Check valve
8. Flow control
9. Lift cylinders
10. Tilt cylinder
11. Side shift cylinder
12. Check valve
Principle of operation
The main difference between this system and the first one (Fig. 5.3) is that
the directional valves (6a, 6b, 6c) have electric controls. Lift and tilt valves
(6a and 6b) are proportional type valves controlled by proportional electric
signal while the side-shift valve (6c) has an ON/OFF control.
Unlike the mechanical type where the control lever is mechanically linked to
the valve, electrically controlled valves are connected to the controller with
wires. Connecting components with wires allows more design freedom
because the valves can be placed anywhere on the truck.
A control lever (joystick) that includes buttons and switches can be used to
control the valves. Any movement of the joystick results in corresponding
movement of the work mechanism. Using a joystick design allows
designers to develop a more ergonomic operator’s compartment.
There are two basic types of valve controls: electric and electronic:
An electric control is when the valve solenoid is controlled by changing the
input voltage by continuous analog signal directly from the control handle
(joystick). A potentiometer changes the value of the signal proportionally to
the handle movement. The solenoid armature motion is proportional to the
input voltage. Armature pushes the valve spool. Usually, proportional
valves have a voltage or a current control. Discrete (ON-OFF) valves have
a voltage control. Voltage is turned on and off by electric switch.
Voltage is a result of current and resistance. When the valve heats, the
valve coil resistance changes which leads to a voltage change. Valves that
need fine adjustments are controlled by changing the current because it
does not depend on the temperature
Signal modulation
Signal Signal
[Volts] [V]
100% modulation 50% modulation
V = 24
V = 12
t [s] t [s]
Switching frequency is the rate at which the signal is turned ON and OFF
and it is called PWM frequency. PWM frequency must always be higher
than the valve resolution. Then, the spool is too slow to respond to the
instantaneous ON-OFF switching and it responds to the average value.
Valve resolution is the smallest increment of input signal (input frequency)
at which the valve spool can respond.
The current to the valve solenoid will be:
I = V/R (amp)
Where: V is PWM average voltage and R is coil resistance
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 157
Dither signal
Dither signal is a high frequency input signal. Dither signal is added to the
control signal in order to achieve smooth spool motion. The dither makes
the valve spool vibrate at high frequency. This vibration makes the spool
movement smoother by diminishing sticktion in the valve. It is important to
choose a correct frequency and amplitude dither signal. Dithering reduces
the valve hysteresis and makes valve performance more consistent. The
minimum dither frequency is part of the valve specification and it is provided
by the manufacturer. Excessive dithering can negatively affects the static
and dynamic characteristics of the valve.
158 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
When the load is raised, the directional control valve can fail so that its
plunger can not be switched into the lowering position. In this case the load
has to be lowered by other means. In the previous examples, directional
valves with a manual override were showed. The manual override is a
manually operated control to switch the valve in lowering position. Another
solution for lowering the load is adding a line between the lift cylinder and
the reservoir. This additional connection is called emergency lowering
circuit.
Two systems (5.7a and 5.7b) with emergency lowering will be described.
In the first system (fig. 5.7a), the emergency lowering valve is independent
from the lift/lower valve. Independent load holding is required for lift
operator platforms or cabins. The lowering valve is always manually
controlled. It can be a directional type or screw-in type needle valve. The
screw type needle valve is more cost efficient. The needle valve has a
small orifice with a tapered seat and a needle-like plunger which closes off
the orifice when it is in the screwed-in position. This valve allows precise
regulation of the flow rate because it has a fine-threaded screw and takes
many turns to move the plunger from a fully open to a fully closed position.
The needle valves can either be opened with a lever or allen wrench.
Using a wrench is more inconvenient but it makes the valve fool-proof
against unintentional actuation.
When the valve can be activated by pushing/ pulling a button or lever, the
valve must be located out of the operator’s reach during his/her normal
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 159
In the second system (fig. 5.7b), the lowering valve has a manual override
which is used for emergency lowering. The lowering valve is normally
closed, ON-OFF type with electrical control. When the solenoid is de-
energized, the flow can go only in one direction: from the priority valve to
the lift cylinder. When the solenoid is energized, the valve is shifted and the
flow goes to the return line.
160 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
CF EF
LS
Fig. 5.7b System with lowering directional valve which has a built-in check
valve and a manual override for emergency lowering
When thinking about the efficiency of the power source, the first thing to
consider is the type of motor that drives the hydraulic pump. There are two
types of motors: 1) electric motors and 2) IC engines. Even a small
increase in efficiency of the motor results in increased efficiency of the
system and yields huge energy savings. When running continuously at or
almost at a full load, the annual energy cost for running a motor can be up
to 20 times its purchase price. In this regard, the increased price of a high-
efficient motor will be an insignificant factor in the motor selection decision.
When energy efficiency of the drive motor is one of the design
requirements, the following data has to be considered:
• Efficiency of an AC motor is about 96%
• Efficiency of a DC motor is about 90%
• Efficiency of an IC engine varies from 36% to 40%
• Lift motors operate less than 50% of the time
• Steering motors operate 100% of the time
• Electric motors for hydraulic systems are independent from the drive
motors. Therefore, their speeds can be controlled per the hydraulic
system flow requirements.
• IC engines run 100% of the time because they have to support all
systems at the same time.
In the next example, a system with one way pump and flow is described.
The returning from the lowering cycle fluid is utilized in order to generate
electric power. The returning flow is used for two functions: to supply other
hydraulic functions and to drive the hydraulic pump/motor. A schematic of
the hydraulic system is shown in Fig. 5.9.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 163
1 3
1 3
Fig. 5.9
Principle of operation
Hydraulic pump/motor (4) is coupled with an electric machine (3) that can
work as a motor or a generator. The electric machine (3) always works in
the same direction. The relief valve (5) is placed between the pressure line
and the return line. The return line has a return filter (2) with a check valve
connected in parallel. This hydraulic system has three main branches that
support three functions: lifting/lowering, tilt and side shift. Directional valves
(6 and 7) have controls independent from each other which allows the
operator to activate each of them separately or at the same time. Each
three-position directional valve has a neutral middle position. The middle
164 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
position has a bypass passage which ensures free flow from the pump to
the reservoir. There are two ways to control the speed of the lift cylinder:
flow resistance control and pump control. With flow resistance control, the
flow rate to the cylinder is controlled by changing the opening of the
proportional valve (6 or 7). When the proportional valve is partially open, it
allows the excess flow to go for auxiliary functions. Pump control is when
the flow rate is controlled by changing pump rotational speed. Pump
controlled lifting is more energy efficient because there are less hydraulic
losses. Disadvantage of it is that it has a longer response time.
The unique feature of this system is the lowering branch configuration. One
end of it is connected to the lift cylinder (11) inlet and the other end is
connected to the suction line between the check valve (8) outlet and the
pump inlet. This way, all returned fluid during lowering goes through the
pump. Flow rate of the return fluid can be controlled either by the
pump/motor (4) or by a flow control (9).
In the case of motor controlled lowering, valve 9 and 10 can be replaced
with one proportional directional two-position valve (not shown). The motor
has a speed sensor (not shown) which sends actual rotational speed to the
controller (not shown).
The flow control (9) has a constant flow through the valve at different
pressures in the lift cylinder. This constant flow provides lowering speed
that is independent from the load. It also limits the rotational speed of the
pump (4) and the electric machine (3) because pump rotational speed is
proportional to pump volumetric flow.
When the return fluid is not needed for another function, the pump/motor
acts as a hydraulic motor and the electric machine works as a generator
and recharges the battery. The fluid goes thought the bypass passages of
the valves (7) back to the reservoir.
When fluid is needed to move tilt (12) or side shift (13) cylinders, one or
both valves (7) shift and redirect the flow to the auxiliary functions. Then,
part of the flow goes to drive the auxiliary cylinders while the unused part is
bypassed to the reservoir. If the tilt or side-shift actuators require more flow
and pressure than supplied from the return line during lowering, the electric
machine works as a motor and rotates the pump to create the necessary
flow. In this case, in addition to the return fluid, the pump pulls out fluid from
the reservoir.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 165
In the energy recovery modes the return fluid is used for other functions
before going to the reservoir. If the fluid is too hot, it will have a negative
impact on its life and on the efficiency of the whole system. For this reason,
reservoir design that ensures proper cooling is essential for this design.
All hydraulic steering systems must have a hydraulic pump, a steering valve
connected to a steering wheel and an actuator which moves the steering
mechanism. The actuator can be a cylinder which converts the hydraulic
flow into linear motion (Fig. 5.10) or a motor which converts hydraulic flow
to rotational motion (Fig. 5.11). The type of actuator depends on linkage
design of the mechanical steering mechanism. The system usually has its
own filter that is placed either in the suction line before the pump (Fig. 5.10)
or in the return line (Fig. 5.11).
Steering valve (4) is selected on the basis of the steering wheel number of
revolutions. Our goal, per design requirements, is four revolutions. The
valve has to ensure that four full turns of the steering wheel will result in
turning the truck wheels from full left to full right position.
The steering valve has a built-in relief valve. When steering is performed,
the relief valve is fully closed and all flow is circulated though the Orbitrol.
When steering stops, the pressure increases and the valve opens. Then all
flow from the pump goes through the valve to the reservoir. Some steering
control valves have a return-to-center feature. The valve returns the
steering control to neutral position when it is released by the operator. This
returns the tires automatically to their center position.
Filter (2) is placed in the return line. It must have a check valve, connected
in parallel, which opens when the filter is plugged. The check valve will
ensure a continuous flow from the pump to the reservoir when the filter
fails. Continuous flow is necessary to guarantee truck steering.
Let us look at the system in Fig. 5.10. Pressure in the system is a result of
the steering force FS [N] acting on the piston in the cylinder. Steering force
is determined by the moment which is necessary to turn the wheels. The
pressure inside the cylinder is:
FS 1
pCYL = [ Pa] 5.11
ACYL ηCYL
Where,
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 169
D2 − d 2
ACYL =π [m2] is the cylinder area on which pressure is acting.
4
D is the piston diameter
d is the piston rod diameter
η CYL is the cylinder efficiency
∆p H are the pressure losses in the hoses and the fittings from the
pump to the cylinder.
VCYL ⎡ cm3 ⎤
dS =
N ⎢⎣ rev ⎥⎦
5.13
Where,
VCYL [cm3] is cylinder volume
N is number of steering wheel revolutions
dS [cm3/s] is steering valve displacement
N MAX (d S ) ⎡ l ⎤
QSP = ⎢⎣ min ⎥⎦ 5.14
K
Where,
170 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Example:
Determine the steering valve size and the required pump flow rate for a
steering system with a double-acting cylinder with piston diameter D = 80
mm and rod diameter d = 56 mm. The mechanism kinematics require a
cylinder stroke S = 140 mm. Design requirements specify from 3 to 5
steering wheel rotations from full left to full right turns.
Solution:
358.9 ⎡ cm3 ⎤
dS = = 89.7 ⎢ ⎥
4 ⎣ rev ⎦
N=
VCYL 358.9 cm 3
=
[ ]
= 4.5 [rev]
dS ⎡ cm3 ⎤
80 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ rev ⎦
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 171
N MAX (d S ) (105)(80) ⎡ l ⎤
QSP = = = 8. 4 ⎢
K 1000 ⎣ min ⎥⎦
Flow rate together with motor rotational speed are used to select the pump
displacement. The displacement is calculated from equation 5.5. The
process of pump selection is described in chapter 3 and in the example in
Appendix F (Hydraulic System Calculation).
This is a closed loop circuit because the controller receives required and
actual parameters for the hydraulic cylinder’s movement and adjusts its
output to a pre-calculated value. The controller has digital input and output
features so that it can accept input signals from electronic sensors (6 and 8)
and send output signals to the solenoid of the proportional valve (4).
The most common angular sensor for this application is the rotary encoder.
The encoder outputs information about steering wheel rotation such as:
rotation angle, turning speed, total numbers of turns and angular
acceleration. There are two types of rotary encoders: external and internal.
An external encoder has better resolution but it requires an adapter housing
which makes it a more expensive solution. An internal encoder is built
inside a bearing. This design is more compact and provides more design
freedom for the steering wheel location.
The hydraulic system, shown in Fig. 5.13, combines the hydraulic (lift and
auxiliary) and the steering circuits in one. In this design, one common
motor, pump and reservoir are used. A load sensing valve splits the flow
giving priority to steering over load manipulating functions. The system can
have either fixed or variable displacement pump. In electric industrial truck
applications, fixed-displacement gear pumps combined with variable-speed
motor is the most popular solution. In IC engine trucks, variable-
displacement, pressure-compensated pumps are preferred because the IC
engine has a constant rotational speed. The distinguishing feature of the
integrated systems is the use of a load-sensing priority valve to split the
flow into two different circuits.
The valve senses the flow requirements and sends the required flow to the
steering branch and the rest of the flow to the other branch. When the
steering valve is turned, it pressurizes the load sensing (LS) line to the
priority valve. The pressure in the LS line shifts the plunger to provide flow
for steering. The benefit of the priority valve is that it can maintain different
working pressures in both branches.
In an integrated system with priority valves, the excess flow (that is not
needed for steering) is supplied to the second branch. When there are no
flow requirements this flow has to be bypassed to the reservoir with
minimum energy losses. There are two ways: first is to use a relief valve
with external control which keeps the valve open when flow in the second
branch is not needed (fig. 6.4 and fig.6.5) and second is to use a open-
center directional valve (fig. 5.3) where the pressure line is bypassed to the
reservoir in its neutral position.
It is a common practice for the high lift truck operator to perform two or
more functions at the same time. In this case, both branches require flow at
the same time. The sum of the required (in both branches) flow rate will be
the maximum flow of the system. Therefore, we size the pump for the
maximum flow. Although the pump is sized for the maximum flow, to save
energy, we design the system to work continuously with the flow which is
required only for steering. Maximum flow is supplied only when both
functions are simultaneously required.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 175
One of the most important requirements for high lift trucks is the
smoothness of the lifting process. Often, when lifting at a low speed,
vibrations in the hydraulic cylinder cause a jerky motion of the whole
elevating system. In applications when light and unstable loads have to be
lifted high, any small thrust or vibration can make the load fall down. An
example of such a load is a pallet with empty pop cans. Any excessive
shaking of the elevation system would cause this light and unstable load to
fall down from the pallet resulting in lost of production time. For carrying
and lifting loads like this, smoothness of the lifting is crucial for the entire
forklift performance. There are many factors: electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic, operator skills, which can cause jerkiness in the elevating
system. In this chapter we will describe only the hydraulic aspect of the
problem and show few ways of achieving a smooth performance of the lift
mast.
During lifting, the lifting force ( Fd ) that drives the cylinder piston (or plunger)
acts against the resistance force ( Fr ) which consists of the friction force,
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 177
load reaction and the inertia of the moving parts. Moving parts are the mast,
cylinders, carriage, the load and all chains and hoses attached to the mast.
Fd = pA η
Where: A is the piston area
p is the pressure in the cylinder
η is the efficiency of the cylinder
Fr = FL + Fi + F f
Where: FL is the Static Force of the load
F f = Fcyl + Fmech
One of the reasons for jerkiness in the system is the different rate at which
the lifting force and friction forces are changing during the lifting process.
Prof. Komitovsky (Components of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems)
explains the origin of this jerkiness in the relationship between friction force
and piston speed, Fig 5.14
178 Chapter 5: Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks
Fig. 5.14
In the first speed range -I-, the friction force (FT) has its highest value. In the
second range -II-, FT is almost interchangeable and has its lowest value.
Within this speed range the hydraulic cylinder has its best performance in
terms of smoothness of motion and efficiency. When piston speed is in the
third range, we observe a gradual increasing of FT but the slope of the
curve is not as sharp as at the beginning. Let’s look in detail at the first
section of this graph because the most vibrations appear in this speed
range.
After we open the directional valve, the flow starts moving the piston. When
piston speed reaches a value v1, friction force is FT1. If a pulsation from the
gear pump appears at this moment, additional kinetic energy will be added
to the fluid entering the cylinder. This momentary kinetic energy increases
the piston speed to v2, which in turn decreases the friction force to FT2.
When the speed reaches v2, the momentary energy finishes and the friction
force increases to FT1, reducing piston speed to v1. When a new pulsation
appears in the cylinder, this process will be repeated and will make the
piston speed vary between v1 and v2. This speed variation of the cylinder
piston (or plunger) causes the jerky motion of the elevating system.
There are two general ways to reduce the piston speed variation.
The first way is to minimize flow variations (increase the “spring constant” of
the system) by adding a hydraulic pulsation damper to the system. A
damper is a hydraulic resistance between the direction valve and the lift
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 179
cylinder. There are two types of damping: active and passive. Active uses a
programmable controller which uses a cylinder position feedback signal to
control the directional valve plunger’s movement. This method is expensive
and is not used for forklift truck applications. Passive damping uses flow
restriction to reduce pressure oscillations in the system. The most popular
and cost effective damping element is the flow restrictor. On the other hand,
its use is not energy efficient because it increases the hydraulic losses by
converting hydraulic energy into heat. Another more efficient solution is
using a pressure compensated flow control valve.
The second way to minimize the piston speed variation is to reduce the
mechanical friction between the piston and the internal cylinder surface.
The most effective way to reduce friction is to use sliding non-metal rings.
The use of non-metal sliding rings can reduce the friction force up to ten
times, which comes from the difference in the coefficient of friction, f.
f teflon ≈ 0.01 , f metal ≈ 0.10
The friction force is:
Fcyl = nf teflonπDLp
Where:
n is the number of sliding rings, usually n = 2
D is the outside diameter of the ring
L is the width of the ring
p is the pressure in the cylinder
Two main materials are used to manufacture sliding rings- teflon based and
thermoplastic polyurethane materials. Optimal design is a combination of a
seal, a scraper and a sliding ring.
Pressure pulsations in the discharge port are created by the gear pump.
Every time the fluid, situated between two teeth, is pushed out of the pump,
a peak in the pressure appears. Pressure waves in the discharge port are
described in Chapter 3.7 (Hydraulic Pumps).
Fluctuation of both flow speed and pressure decrease with the increase of
the internal frequency of the directional valve. Higher frequency limits the
amplitude of the relevant variables velocity and pressure. Speed
fluctuations decrease with the increase of the switching frequency of the
valve. Pressure fluctuations also decrease with the increase of the
hydraulic capacity of the cylinder. Switching time of a normal solenoid valve
is in the range of 30 to 50 ms. Servovalves have a switching frequency of
10 ms from fully open to fully closed position.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 181
Chapter 6
There are three main configurations low-lift trucks: end rider, center rider
and walk behind (fig. 6.1 and 6.2). According to the Industrial Truck
Association (ITA), low lift trucks are class 2 (code 6 only) and class 3
trucks. ITA classification is shown in Appendix A.
The main feature of the low-lift trucks is that the fork attachment (fork
frame), which is designed to carry the load, is elevated only 150 mm (about
6 inches) above the floor. Therefore, these trucks do not require cylinders
with long strokes. They are also called pallet trucks or trucks for horizontal
transportation. In addition to the load, the fork attachment can carry the
truck battery or mechanical lift mechanisms. Low-lift trucks are manual or
electric powered because they are used inside warehouses and stores.
There is no difference in the hydraulic lift system requirements between
class 2 (code 6) and class 3 low-lift trucks.
The steering control can be a control arm (also called: tiller arm), steering
wheel or joystick. Lighter pallet trucks have a tiller arm mechanically
attached to one or more steered drive wheels (fig. 6.1). Heavier trucks have
electric or hydraulic power steering (fig. 6.2).
182 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
Fig. 6.1 Low-lift truck with manual steering and mechanical lift mechanism.
Fig. 6.2 Low-lift truck with power-assisted steering and hydraulic lift
mechanism.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 183
A two-circuit system that has independent power steering and lift hydraulic
circuits is shown in fig. 6.3.
The lifting circuit generates power only for lifting. It does not have auxiliary
functions such as side shift, tilt and attachments. The lifting circuit has few
hydraulic components and it is relatively simple. For this reason it is
constructed as a one power pack with four main components: a reservoir,
an electric motor, pump and a valve block. The valve block consists of a
manifold with hydraulic valves in it.
An advantage of systems with two circuits is that the lifting circuit can be an
off-the-shelf power unit. Almost all hydraulic valve manufacturers offer such
power units, which contain an electric motor, a hydraulic pump, a manifold
with valves and a reservoir. When selecting a power unit, we look the
combined performance of the pump and the electric motor from the
manufacturer. Lift cylinders (12) usually are single acting. They are
184 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
The steering circuit for low-lift trucks with a capacity below 3,000 kg is a low
pressure system- up to 5 MPa (50 bars) and for trucks with capacity above
3,000 kg it is a medium pressure system- from 5 to 15 MPa (50 – 150 bars).
The lifting circuit always has a normal high pressure from 15 to 25 MPa
(150 – 250 bars).
An integrated system which uses a load sensing priority valve (LSPV), item
4, as a flow divider is described below. LSPV can be:
• In-line type- the valve is built as a separate unit. It can be placed
anywhere on the truck.
• Cartridge type- screwed into a manifold and combined with other
hydraulic components into one power pack.
• Modular type (direct mounting)- assembled to the steering valve
(Orbitrol) or the pump
Components:
1. Reservoir
2. Suction filter with check valve
3. Pump
4. Load sensing priority valve (LSPV)
5. Lift power pack
6. Lift cylinders
7. Motor
8. Steering valve, type Orbitrol with LS feedback
9. Steering control
10. Hydraulic motor
11. Gear
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 187
A priority valve (4) is used in systems with two or more loops. One of the
circuits needs to have a controlled flow rate regardless of load pressure
changes. The valve has one inlet and two outlets. The outlet which supplies
the controlled flow is marked as CF (controlled flow). The excess flow (EF)
is delivered from the second outlet. The important characteristic of the
priority valve (4) is that it can maintain different pressures at its outlets.
Relief valves, installed in each circuit, limit the maximum pressure in the
branch. In this system, the relief valve in the lift circuit is built into an
assembly (5) and the steering relief valve is built into the steering valve (8).
The relief valve in the lift circuit also has an external electric control which
can keep the valve open when the solenoid is energized. The valve is kept
open when there is no request for lifting. This way, it is used as a bypass
valve. It allows the excess flow, not used for the steering, to go to the
reservoir. When lifting is requested, the valve solenoid is de-energized and
the valve closes. Then, it functions as relief valve to protect the system.
One of the biggest restrictions for class 3 trucks is the small available
space. The most space effective solution is when the priority valve is a
cartridge type built into a hydraulic power unit (fig. 6.5). Such power unit
contains: hydraulic manifold with cartridge valves, a reservoir, a pump and
an electric motor.
Fig. 6.6 Hydraulic system with dual pumps and a priority valve
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 189
In some cases the cost of the electronic controller is too high and it is more
cost efficient to connect the electric motor directly to a battery. Then, the
motor will have only a high speed and it will deliver the maximum flow at all
times. When only steering is required, a lot of the power will be wasted. For
this reason, when a one-speed motor and a fixed-displacement pump are
used, energy efficiency can be achieved by using a dual pump (3) to split
the flow. Both pumps work continuously but only the flow from one will
circulate through the system to support steering. The flow from the second
pump is used only when a lift is requested. If these is no lift request, the
flow is bypassed through a valve (8) and returned to the reservoir (1). When
more flow is needed for lifting, the directional valve (8) switches and re-
directs the flow to the priority valve (4).
This design is feasible only for low-lift trucks because of the short lifting
time (3 to 5 seconds) and the fact that the steering and lifting are rarely
used simultaneously. Steering control is connected to a steering valve type
“Orbitrol” (10). The valve and the control are detached from the steered
wheel (not shown).
190 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
When the operator steps on the dead-man pedal, the parking brake is
released and the motor (7) is turned on. Then, the pump (3) starts to supply
flow to the system. If the accumulator (9) is empty, it will take a few
seconds to fill up. If there is a steering request before the filter is filled up,
the flow from the pump will go to both the orbitrol (10) and the accumulator
(9). As soon as the accumulator (9) is fully charged and the pressure
reaches a pre-set value, the pressure switch (8) is activated and it turns off
the electric motor. From this moment, the accumulator will supply the oil
flow for the steering. When the accumulator is discharged to a pre-set
minimum, the pressure will drop and the pressure switch (8) will turn on the
electric motor.
Pump flow rate is selected to be a little more than the maximum required for
steering. This way even during steering, there will be extra flow for charging
the accumulator.
Example 1
Selecting an accumulator for the system shown in fig 6.7
∆V = (dS)(revolutions)
∆V = (80)(4) = 320 сm3
Where: ∆V = V3 – V2 is the difference in the volume of a fully charged
accumulator V3 (maximum pressure) and uncharged accumulator V2
(minimum pressure).
Then, the size of the accumulator, V1, is calculated by using formula 3.13
1/ n
⎛ p3 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
1 / 1.4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
V1 = ∆V ⎝ p1 ⎠ 9
= 320 ⎝ ⎠ 1 / 1.4 = 1615 [cm3]
1/ n
⎛p ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ 1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ 14 ⎠
Where:
p2 = 14 MPa is the maximum pressure in the steering circuit (fully
loaded accumulator);
p3 = 10 MPa is the minimum pressure in the system;
p1 = 0.9 p3 = 9 MPa is the pressure in the bladder when the
accumulator is no loaded.
Based on the above calculation we are choosing a standard size of 2000
сm3
Example 2
Calculate the energy saving
Calculate how much time the motor has to work in order to support the
steering during one work shift. Assume that one work shift consists of 400
TWC (truck work cycles).
Solution
An example of TWC is shown in fig. 6.8. In one TWC, the truck goes from
the load/unload area to the trailer (forks first), takes the load and drives
back (tractor first). The truck will make six turns (three in each direction).
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 193
Fig. 6.8 Steering duty cycle that requires three 90° turns in each direction
It is known that one 90° turn requires two steering revolution. One (TWC)
has six 90° turns = 12 steering wheel revolutions per truck work cycle or n1
=12 rev
It is estimated that in an 8-hour work shift an average operator makes a
maximum of 200 TWC (N = 200 cycles). Therefore, the total number of
steering wheel revolutions per 8-hour work shift is:
nT = n × N = 200 × 12 = 2400 rev
We are going to use 2000 cm3 accumulator (selected in example 1).
The usable volume ∆V will be:
1
1.4
⎛ p.3 ⎞
1−⎜
∆ V := V .1⋅
⎝ p.2 ⎠
1
1.4
⎛ p.3 ⎞
⎜
⎝ p.1 ⎠
∆V = 396 cm3
The steering revolutions (nA) per one accumulator charge with the chosen
2000 сm3 accumulator will be:
nA = ∆ V / ds = 2000/80 = 5
194 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
Therefore the electric motor will work only 32 minutes to support the
steering. In systems without accumulator this time is about 7 hours because
the electric motor runs continuously regardless whether steering is required
or not.
As described earlier, pallet trucks are used to lift and carry pallets. The fork
attachment moves up and down relative to the tractor. Long forks are
designed to transport three or four grocery pallets at the same time. Four
pallets (in line) require forks that are 4880 mm (192 inches) long and have
up to 4500 kg (10,000 lb) load capacity. Such forks must have high strength
and little deflection. The strength calculations of such fork are the same as
of a structural beam. The strength requirements are achieved by designing
a beam with high section modulus. The section modulus is the ratio of the
cross-section second moment of area to the distance of the surface to the
neutral axis. The most effective way to increase the fork section modulus is
to remove the mechanical lift links (push/pull rods) from the fork cavity and
design the fork profile as a closed rectangular tube with reinforcing bars
inside.
In addition to having high strength, the fork attachment is requirement to
move up and down parallel to the floor surface during lift and lower.
Short attachments have a linkage mechanism for pivoting the load wheels
downward when the forks are raised.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 195
For long attachments such design is not efficient because of the increased
cost and lack of space needed for the links. Also, the mechanical links have
to be different for each fork length. To eliminate these downsides, pallet
trucks with long forks have hydraulic cylinders pivoting the load wheel
downward. Such hydraulic lift system is shown in fig. 6.2 (component
layout) and in fig. 6.9 (schematics).
The system shown in fig. 6.9 has two main cylinders (5a and 5b) mounted
on the tractor and two slave cylinders (6a and 6b) mounted within the fork
profile and attached to the load wheels.
Fig. 6.9
196 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
Lowering
The weight of a battery or/and the fork frame (when the battery in mounted
on the tractor) is used to lower the forks. Directional valve (7) is energized
to direct the flow to the reservoir. Lowering speed is controlled by a flow
regulator (8). Because of the short strokes, non-proportional flow regulators
are used.
A1
A2
Class 3 pallet trucks usually have one steered drive unit. The drive unit
contains a drive motor, a gear box and a drive wheel. In most trucks, the
steering control is a tiller arm. Power-assisted systems use a hydraulic
actuator which links the steering control to the drive unit. Three common
designs are shown in fig. 6.11. All three have hydraulic torque generator as
an actuator.
• tiller arm control and drive unit with horizontal motor (6.11a)
• tiller arm control and drive unit with vertical motor (6.11b)
• steering control with steering ratio rs ≠ 1 (6.11c)
Components:
1. Hydraulic torque generator
2. Steering control (tiller arm or steering wheel)
3. Steered drive unit
4. Brake
5. Drive motor
6. Steered drive wheel
rs = Nc / Nw, 6.2
Where:
Nc is the number of revolution of the steering control
Nw is the number of revolution of the steered wheel
Steering ratio equal to one (rs = 1) means that the control (2) and the
steered wheel (6) rotate at the same time and at the same angles.
Fig. 6.12
Components:
1. Pump 9. Steered drive unit
2. Motor, electric 10. Reservoir
3. Priority valve with LS port 11. Filter with check valve
4. Relief valve 12. Relief valve
5. Gear 13. Directional valve
6. Tiller arm 14. Flow regulator
7. Gear, ring 15. Lift cylinders
8. Torque generator with LS port
200 Chapter 6: Hydraulic Systems for Low Lift Trucks
A load sensing priority valve (3) senses the flow requirements and supplies
the required flow to the steering branch with priority. Priority valves are
described in details in chapter 3.6 (Directional control valves).
The directional valve (13) has three positions. The left and right positions
are for lift and lower. The middle (neutral) position is open-to-tank. This
way, when steering and lifting are not required, the directional valve (13)
allows all flow to go to the reservoir. Thus, the system will not be
pressurized when it is not needed.
The flow regulator (14) has a parallel connected check valve. When lifting,
fluid passes through the check valve. During lowering, the flow passes
though the flow regulator.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 201
Chapter 7
5 6
2
1
The boom arm is pivoted at the rear side of the truck. It moves up or down
using the hydraulic cylinder (3). One end of the cylinder is attached to the
vehicle chassis and the other to the boom. Another hydraulic cylinder (4)
extends and retracts the boom. Cylinder (4) can be placed inside or outside
on the outer telescopic arm.
Examples of hydraulic circuits for lift mast fork attachments were shown in
chapter 5 (Hydraulic Systems for High Lift Trucks). In this chapter, we are
going to describe only hydraulic circuits for boom manipulation.
The main difference between a boom type truck and an in-door lift truck is
the work duty cycle of the material handling. A truck with a boom is
designed to move while carrying the load high in the air. When the truck
moves, the load jumps on the forks and causes oscillation of the boom and
the chassis. This oscillation can create an overloading condition which will
have a negative effect on the truck stability. Also, the load oscillation
interferes with the vehicle control, adds stress to the chassis and causes
the truck body to deflect. Overloading is determined on the basis of 1)
magnitude of the load and 2) length of the extension arm. Such conditions
can be prevented by limiting engine power and acceleration. In addition to
reducing engine performance, dumping the vibrations, created by the
bouncing load, is achieved by connecting an accumulator to either the lifting
or lowering side of the cylinder.
Fig. 7.2
The lift arm (boom) is almost horizontal at its low position. One end is
pivoted to the chassis while the other end is lifted by a hydraulic cylinder.
There are different circuit designs for boom lifting. Most of them use an
accumulator as a vibrations dumper. Two examples of hydraulic circuits
showing boom lifting and lowering are shown in Fig. 7.3 and Fig. 7.4.
204 Chapter 7: Hydraulic Systems for Boom-Type Trucks
Fig. 7.3 Hydraulic circuit for lifting and lowering a boom-type arm
1. Reservoir assembly
2. Hydraulic pump
3. Motor/ IC engine
4. Flexible line
5. Pressure relief valve
6. Directional control valve
7. Directional valve with a check valve
8. Directional valve
9. Accumulator
10. Double-acting cylinder (item 6 in fig. 7.1)
11. Load
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 205
Hydraulic pump (2) is usually a gear pump which is mounted on the drive
shaft of the IC engine.
Flexible lines (4) are an essential part of the system. They are required in
order to allow boom pivoting movements and to transport fluid in the most
efficient way. Hydraulic lines are sized and selected on the basis of the
maximum flow velocity and pressure. Tube and hose selection is described
in chapter 3.14.
Pressure relief (5) valve is required to protect the hydraulic system from
overloading.
Directional control (6) valve is a three position two directional type valve.
The first position is for lifting, the second position is neutral and the third
position is for lowering. The directional valve can be operated manually,
hydraulically or electrically. An electrically controlled valve is shown in this
design. When there is no input signal to the solenoids, springs at both ends
hold the valve in its neutral position.
turn minimizes the risk from breaking the connection. In most cases, metal
tubing is used to connect the accumulator to the cylinder.
Load (11) consists of the weight of the boom, the boom attachments and
the maximum payload.
During lifting: the directional valve (6) is in position 1, valve (7) is de-
energized and it has the check valve section connected to the line allowing
oil flow to the cylinder.
During lowering: the direction valve (6) is in position 3 and valve (7) is in
position 2 forcing the fluid through an orifice in order to create a back
pressure and smooth the lowering.
During lifting or lowering, valve (8) is not energized and the spring force
keeps the valve in closed position. Then, the accumulator (9) is
disconnected from the system because the built-in check valve does not
allowing flow to the accumulator.
During transportation (with or without a load): the control valve (6) is
switched to the neutral position, valve (7) is switched to position 1
preventing flow to the reservoir and valve (8) goes to position 3 connecting
the accumulator to the lift arm support cylinder. Now, the pressure in the
accumulator (9) will support the weight of the boom and will act as a
vibrations dumper. When the load bounces, it forces the fluid from the
hydraulic cylinder into and out of the accumulator. It is necessary for the
accumulator to have the same pressure as the lifting side of the cylinder at
the time it is connected to the system. To avoid pressure spikes, valve (8) is
constructed as a proportional type. The valve solenoid is energized
proportionally and it moves the plunger from position 1 to position 3 while
going through the orifice (position 2). Switching at a slow rate allows the
system to equalize the pressure before the valve is fully open. If the
pressure in the accumulator is lower, a sudden lowering of the boom may
occur. To avoid this effect, a small size accumulator is preferred for this
application.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 207
Fig. 7.4 Hydraulic circuit (with an automatic shut-off valve) for lifting and
lowering a boom
1. Reservoir assembly
2. Hydraulic pump 7. Check valve
3. Motor 8. Directional valve, proportional
4. Relief valve- main 9. Accumulator
5. Relief valve 10. Cylinders
6. Directional valve 11. Load
208 Chapter 7: Hydraulic Systems for Boom-Type Trucks
Design Requirements:
• Fast extension, when the boom is unloaded.
• Slow extension, when the boom is loaded.
Principle of operation
Directional valve (1) has three positions. Position 2 is neutral. When the
valve is in position 1, the cylinder extends and lifts the boom. When it is in
position 3, the cylinder retracts.
When the cylinder (4) is extending an unloaded boom, the pressure under
the piston will be low and the relief valve (6) will be closed. Then, the return
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 209
flow (Q1) will pass through check valves (5) and join the flow from the pump
(Qp). Combined flow (Q1 + Qp) will go through the check valve (3) to the
cylinder (4). When the boom is loaded, the pressure under the piston
increases and the valve (6) opens. Then the return flow from the cylinder
will go through the valve (6) to the reservoir (T).
During cylinder retraction, the flow from the pump goes through the check
valve (7) and enters the piston rod side of the cylinder. The return flow
passes through the pressure-compensated flow regulator (2). The flow
regulator (2) will maintain a constant lowering speed regardless of the load.
Fig. 7.5
QP + Q1 ⎡ m ⎤
υE = ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦ 7.1
A1
210 Chapter 7: Hydraulic Systems for Boom-Type Trucks
Where:
Qp [m3/s] is flow rate coming from the pump
⎡ m3 ⎤
Q1 = A2υ E ⎢ ⎥ is flow rate coming from the cylinder
⎣ s ⎦
πD 2
A1 =
4
[m ]2
is the larger piston area
π (D 2 − d 2 )
A2 =
4
[m ]
2
is the cylinder rod side piston area
QP ⎡m⎤
υE =
A1 − A2 ⎢⎣ s ⎥⎦
7.2
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 211
Chapter 8
Selected Topics
I. Servicing Hydraulic Systems
In the last few years, the service sector has grown rapidly as more services
are offered by manufacturers and companies are focusing more on the
quality of the service. High quality service leads to customer perception of a
high quality product, which results in higher customer satisfaction and more
orders. The American Management Association has estimated that
companies lose as many as 25 percent of their customers each year
because of poor customer service. Also, service is a very big revenue
generator because it has higher turnover rate and higher profit margins
than the original equipment. Studies show that having loyal, long-time
customers can increase profitability by 100 percent even without increasing
the market share. For these reasons, all organizations have service
departments with trained professionals whose main objection is achieving
maximum customer satisfaction.
Service is an activity that does not create a new product. Its main function
is to repair, maintain or increase the life of the existing equipment.
For hydraulic systems, service means: 1) monitoring the system
parameters within pre-defined limits; 2) repairing and replacing failed
components and 3) preventive maintenance such as filter and fluid change.
Troubleshooting principles
System life
As mentioned in the introduction of this book, one of the aspects of a good
system design is: design for service and inspection. The main goal of this
approach is to increase the overall life of the system and maintain a high
efficiency throughout its life cycle.
The expected life of individual components within a hydraulic system varies
and is influenced by a number of factors. These factors include the type
and construction of the component, circuit design, operating load and duty-
cycle. Forklift manufacturers determine the expected service life of
components within a particular system by considering these variables in
combination with historical data on achieved service life. Component life is
normally available from the manufacturers upon request. This information is
typically provided to long-term customers who have their own service
departments. To minimize the chances of hydraulic components failing
during service, the system manufacturers recommend expected service life.
The service life is used for scheduling component replacements.
All system components (valves, pumps, hydraulic lines) are flushed in order
to have a certain cleanliness level. But regardless this fact, in the first hours
after start up, the components continue to release small particles. In order
to protect the system from the initial contamination, it is recommended the
first filter change be done after 50 hour of operation.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 213
Safety Rules
Fluid tests
• RPVOT test (per ASTM D2272)
RPVOT (Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test) is a test that determines
the oxidation stability of the oil. RPVOT measures the actual resistance to
oil oxidation. Results from the test are compared to the test results of the
new oil. The new oil base line can be used to convert RPVOT readings to
remaining useful life (RUL) as a percentage of the new oil life (100%).
Typically the caution limit is at 40% RUL and the critical limit is at 25% RUL,
but this varies by application. This test is recommended for large fluid
volumes that have long change periods and severe-duty applications.
• FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) test
FTIR can detect chemicals and oxidants. Data is collected and converted
from an interference pattern to a spectrum which allows this test to be
computerized.
• Acid number test
This tests method is standardized in ASTM D 3339. It covers the
determination of acidic constituents in petroleum-based products and
lubricants.
• Viscosity test
The manufacturers usually specify the kinematic viscosity. When viscosity
of the fluid is measured with a viscometer, two measurements are
recommended: one at room temperature and one at operating temperature.
Then, we compare the data to the manufacturer’s spec. The new fluid can
vary within certain limits due to density change (see Appendix C). Fluid
degradation, oxidation, contamination and other events cause the change
in density. When fluid viscosity is reduced 20% or more, the fluid has to be
replaced with new fluid.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 215
Abbreviations
TAN (Total Acid Number) measures the level of acid and acid-products
present in the oil.
KV (Kinematic Viscosity) is a measure of oil thickness. Viscosity is
considered abnormal when it has decreased by 10% or increased by 20%
of the base line value.
AF (Analytical Ferrography) is a method for visual observation of lubricant
degradation. When a lubricant works beyond its carrying capacity, friction
polymers are observed. When a lubricant is degraded, amorphous films are
observed.
Fluid temperature above 82°C (180°F) damages the seals and reduces the
life of the fluid.
A pressure relief valve should be set at higher pressure than the working
pressure in the system. Using the relief valve to control the working
pressure increases the pressure losses in the system and creates heat.
When the hydraulic system starts to overheat, it has to be shut down. Then
we troubleshoot to find the problem and fix it. Running a hydraulic system
with fluid temperature above 82°C is not recommended because it
damages the components. It is similar to operating an IC engine at over-
heating conditions.
Storage
Servicing filters
Servicing reservoirs
The first requirement for having a clean reservoir is proper packaging and
capping all ports to prevent contamination from entering the reservoir
during storage.
Regular reservoir service includes: fluid level check, moisture check and
airflow around the reservoir check.
The water in the system comes from humid air entering the reservoir
through the breather. The temperature changes cause humidity to
condensate into water droplets on the inside reservoir walls. Moisture in the
reservoir forms rust on the inside metal walls. Vibrations, during operation
of the system, knock the rust particles into the oil, where they are picked up
by the pump and distributed throughout the system. New rust particles form
where the old ones fell off which makes the contamination an endless
process. Changing filters and off-line filtration are not solutions to the
problem. Flushing or replacing the reservoir is sometimes the most cost-
effective solution. When the reservoir is flushed, a turbulent flow is required
for more effective cleaning.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 217
When a pump is installed above fluid level, it is recommended its inlet port
to be at the bottom. If the pump has a built-in air bleeder, it has to be
connected to the reservoir below the minimum fluid level.
Before the first start-up of the system there are a few procedures to be
followed:
1. Pump mounting bolts have to be tightened per the manufacturer’s
recommendation.
2. Inlet and outlet fittings have to be properly installed.
3. Never start up a dry pump. Pump case has to be filled out with fluid
before the start.
4. After pump is installed, run the system for 2 to 4 minutes unloaded
before pressurizing and then increase the pressure gradually.
More than 90% of hydraulic pump failures can be attributed to the three
common causes listed below:
• Mechanical: broken shaft, broken gear or cracked housing
• Worn-out pump: worn-out pump has a high leakage path which
results in pressure losses.
• Wrong fluid type: the fluid must be selected per outside temperature
conditions. Using a wrong type can cause premature pump failure.
Cylinder failures:
Leaking cylinders is the most common failure. Leaks can be internal or
external. There are two main failures: seal damage or mechanical failure.
Seal’s damage can be caused by a contamination (external or internal),
mechanical damage to the piston rod (surface finish or straightness) or
improper seal selection.
New cylinder must be inspected for leaks. The leak test consists of five
steps:
• Set up
• Pressurize to maximum pressure
• Hold the pressure for 1 to 2 minutes
• De-pressurize
• Check for leaks
When a cylinder leaks after being used, each part has to be checked in
order to find the cause of the problem. There are a few basic steps in the
troubleshooting sequence:
1. Remove cylinder from the truck
2. Visual observation of the cylinder’s outside surfaces.
3. Disassemble cylinder
4. Visual observation of all components and inside surfaces
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 219
Servicing valves
The most common valve failures are: malfunction as a result of
contamination, spring failure and O-ring failure.
A typical contamination failure is a seizure between the spool and the valve
bore. This seizure is called: silt lock. Silt lock occurs when the silt force
exceeds the force available to actuate the valve. The most sensitive
hydraulic components to seize are components with small internal
clearances such as: priority valves and servo valves. In order to avoid
locking the valves, we can install a filter in the pressure line before the
valve.
Most failures of the pilot control valves are due to contamination. Pilot
(indirect) operated valves are less tolerant to contamination than directly
operated valves. If a pilot stage of indirect control valve is plugged by
contaminants, the failure can result in unintended fully open or fully closed
position. If directly operated valve is contaminated, it is more likely to have
an increased leakage or “sticky” plunger. For these reasons, every time a
valve is serviced because of contamination, the hydraulic fluid has to be
changed with new fluid.
All valves have to be properly marked and stored lubricated in plastic bags.
Sometimes the valves are performing normally but make excessive noise.
Most common reasons for noise in the valves are:
220 Chapter 8: Selected Topics
Servicing connectors
Usually hose assemblies fail without warning. They will age and harden
even under normal operating conditions. Therefore, they have to be
inspected regularly for cracks, leaks wear and excessive corrosion of the
fittings. Major causes for connectors’ failures are improper selection, use,
routing and assembly.
If hose failure occurs, the operator must immediately shut down the
machine, move away from it and call a mechanic to de-pressurize the
system. Then the hose is disassembled and examined for damages. A
failed hose must not be repaired; it must always be replaced with a new
one. Failures such as: high speed discharge of pressurized fluid, flying
connector or wiping hose can endanger a person’s life or cause permanent
injuries.
Tubes are easier to service than hoses because they can be cut and flared
in the field.
Hoses have to be removed if welding or torch cutting is performed close to
the hose.
Cleanliness of the new hoses is very important. Replacement hoses must
have both ends caped. Any hose contamination decreases the life of the
other components.
Seals
Filters
• External in-line filters should be rigidly mounted to the truck body.
• Filters should be easily accessible for change.
Pumps
• The pump should be easily accessible for maintenance and
replacement
• Pump fitting should be replaceable without removing the pump from
the truck
• Pumps and motors are noise and vibrations sources, so they have to
be mounted to a rigid surface. Vibration dampers could be placed
between the mounting surface and the pump motor.
• Pump body, pressure fitting and hose should not touch covers or any
flexible parts.
Valves
• In-line valves should be rigidly mounted and independent from
connector mounting
• Use locknuts when valves are mounted in-line
• Easy to adjust, replace or repair
• Sufficient clearance for wrench manipulation around valve fittings
• Sufficient space for electrical connection to valve solenoids
• Avoid using connections with pipe threads which require the use of
sealing compound
• Manual overrides should be easy to access and would not require
removal of any valve component other than cover
• Valve solenoids must have enough spaces between them so that the
magnetic field of one valve will not interfere with the magnetic field of
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 223
There are two types of leaks: external and internal. External leaks are easy
to see and repair. Internal leaks are caused by mechanical damage in the
hydraulic components, damaged seals or pressure buildup.
When fluid moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
without performing useful work, there is a pressure loss which decreases
the component’s efficiency and the component generates extra heat. This
means that any component in the hydraulic system that has abnormal,
internal leakage will increase the heat load on the system and can cause
the system to overheat. This could be anything from a cylinder that is
leaking pressurized fluid through the piston seal, to an incorrectly adjusted
relief valve. Any heat-generating components need to be identified and
changed. One way to quickly locate an internal leak is to measure the
temperature of individual components. The hottest component in the
system can lead us to the problem.
First, locate the leak and determine whether it is through the housing, seal
or thread. Second, look for things that may cause the leak. Leaks are often
caused by pressure buildup. Look for plugged vents, overfilling and
elevated heat levels.
224 Chapter 8: Selected Topics
Overheating
Together with the heat generation, the system has heat dissipation. The
amount of dissipation will determine the fluid temperature. If the
temperature goes above the design value we say the system is
overheating. To avoid overheating we should design a system with
minimum pressure losses and size the reservoir according to system power
loads. Design of the reservoir is described in Chapter 3, section 13.
If the pump does not have enough fluid in the intake, it cannot deliver the
required flow rate. Three basic checks are required: 1) check if the reservoir
is filled to the correct level; 2) the suction strainer or filter (if fitted) is not
clogged, and 3) the pump intake line is unrestricted.
• Pump internal ware and reduced efficiency
• Reduced rotation speed of the drive motor as a result of reduced
motor efficiency.
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks 225
Sources of contamination
There are four major sources: built-in, environmental, generated and
new fluid.
Built-in is contamination in the new components that is left over from the
manufacturing process. They are: weld spatter, chips, burrs, sand, dust,
sealant, rubber, fiber.
Environmental are contaminants from the surrounding environment
entering the system through the reservoir air breather or through the
cylinder wipers. They are: water, moisture, dirt, dust.
226 Chapter 8: Selected Topics
Water contamination
Water contamination is considered the second most serious contamination
problem after hard particle contamination.
228 Chapter 8: Selected Topics
There are three states of water when it enters a hydraulic fluid: dissolved,
emulsified and free. Usually all three states are presented at the same time.
Dissolved state is when a water molecule is captured by oil molecules and
becomes part of the fluid. Dissolved water can only be removed from the oil
chemically by using a Vacuum Dehydrator. A Vacuum Dehydrator machine
can remove about 80% of dissolved water. Dissolved water contamination
is the least harmful of the three states.
Emulsified state is when water and oil are homogenously mixed.
Emulsified water can be removed physically by using a moisture absorbing
filter.
Free water state is when water is in a free state. Because it is heavier, it
settles to the bottom of the reservoir. Free water is the most damaging of
the three states, because it can displace the oil and allow metal to metal
contact of sliding surfaces and cause hydraulic component mechanical
failure. Most of free water is settled on the bottom and can be removed
simply by draining it.
Water contamination accelerates the aging process resulting in oxidation,
hydrolyses, additive depletion, reduced lubricant film strength, corrosion
and damage to components. In addition it can cause cavitation. Hydraulic
and lubrication fluids are best operated with a water content of 50% below
the vapor tension.
Contamination in the fluid increases the pressure losses and it is one of the
most important factors negatively affecting the hydraulic system operation
and reliability. One method of evaluating fluid cleanliness is to measure the
motor current. The motor current draw will go up when the hydraulic system
has more pressure losses (lower efficiency) due to resistance in the fluid.
The environment contributes greatly to system contamination.
Contamination enters the system via the fluid reservoir (air breathers and
access covers), and any sealing pairs (cylinders seals, pump and motor
seals). It is estimated that about 50-60% of contaminants enter via the
cylinder seals and it can be expected that the amount of ingression will
increase with seal wear.
wear trend, the fluid sample has to be taken after the valve (downstream of
the valve).
A measure for contamination is the clearance code of the fluid. It is
described in chapter 3, section 16.
For servo systems and high quality proportional valves, it is recommended:
• 10µm or 15 µm (β15>75) high pressure filter without bypass just
before the servo valve or 3 to 5 µm (β3>75) low pressure filter in the
return line
• A breather filter as fine as the finest filter in the system (procedure is
described in chapter 5)
The aim is to limit the fluid contamination to the recommended level by ISO
4406 maximum limits 19/16/13 (18/15/12 for long life servo system).
Inspection
When draining oil from a reservoir, we have to look for the presence of
sediment and sludge on the bottom of the reservoir. A good practice is to
check the water content in the oil on a regular basis. We can use a device
which can detect water in oil. Since water and oil have different dielectric
properties, this device detects the water by sensing the change in the fluid
dielectricity. One of the best tools for inspecting fluid contamination is
analyzing the particles caught by the filter. Typical tests include ferrography
and elemental analysis.
In the first half of the 20th century industrial trucks had mechanical elevating
systems. Then, within a period of 50 years the mechanical systems were
replaced by hydraulic systems. The first hydraulic systems were
mechanically controlled. Later, some mechanical controls were replaced by
electrical. Today, we have computer controlled systems. The performances
of mechanically and electrically controlled systems depend greatly upon the
system design and selection of the right components. Every year
manufacturers add more intelligence to the electronic controls to better
control the performance of hydraulic systems. By using computers, we can
change the performance of the system by simply changing the software.
230 Chapter 8: Selected Topics
Appendix A
Source: Industrial Truck Association
Class 1
Class 1
Lift Code - 1
Counterbalanced Rider Type, Stand Up
Class 1
Lift Code - 4
Three Wheel Electric Trucks, Sit Down
Class 1
Lift Code - 5
Counterbalanced Rider, Cushion Tires,
Sit Down
Class 1
Lift Code - 6
Counterbalanced Rider, Pneumatic or
Either Type Tire, Sit Down
A2 Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
Class 2
Class 2
Lift Code - 1
High Lift Straddle
Class 2
Lift Code - 2
Order Picker
Class 2
Lift Code - 3
Reach Type Outrigger
Class 2
Lift Code - 4
Side Loaders, Turret Trucks,
Swing Mast and Convertible
Turret/Stock Pickers
Class 2
Lift Code - 6
Low Lift Pallet and Platform
(Rider)
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A3
Class 3
Class 3
Lift Code - 1
Low Lift Platform
Class 3
Lift Code - 2
Low Lift Walkie Pallet
Class 3
Lift Code - 3
Tow Tractors (Draw Bar Pull
Under 999 lbs.)
Class 3
Lift Code - 4
Low Lift Center Control
Class 3
Lift Code - 5
Reach Type Outrigger
Walk behind operator
A4 Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
Class 3
Lift Code - 6
High Lift Straddle
Walk behind operator
Class 3
Lift Code - 7
High Lift Counterbalanced
Class 3
Lift Code - 8
Low Lift, Walk Behind (Walkie) or
Rider Pallet Truck
Class 4
Class 4
Lift Code - 3
Fork, Counterbalanced (Cushion Tire)
Load capacity above 8000 lb (3636 kg)
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A5
Class 5
Class 5
Lift Code - 4
Fork, Counterbalanced (Pneumatic Tire)
Load capacity above 8000 lb (3636 kg)
Class 6
Class 6
Lift Code - 1
Sit-Down Rider (Draw Bar Pull Over 999
lbs.)
Class 7
Class 7
Lift Code - 1
Variable Reach Rough Terrain Fork Lift
Truck
A6 Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
Appendix B
Approximate physical properties of common fluids
Specific Kinematic
Temper. Density
Weight Viscosity
Grade/
Fluids name
Applications
t ρ γ υ
ºC kg/m³ kN/m3 cSt
-3
Air at 1 bar 20 1.21 11.8 x 10 15.1
Automatic Automatic
Transmission 32/46 40 867 8.5 185 transmission
Fluid (ATF) Steering systems
Synthetic AMSOIL 40 850 8.33 36.8 Automatic
Automatic transmission
Transmission
MAX 40 835 8.19 58.8 Steering systems
Fluid (ATF)
5W20 40 859 8.42 33.4
Steering fluid Steering system
PENNZOIL 40 874 8.57 37.3
130 at
-40ºC
Brake fluid Castrol SRF 16 1058 10.3 Brake system
3.5 at
100ºC
Engine
Engine oil SAE 30 16 912 8.95 420
lubrication
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A7
Appendix C
VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL FLUIDS
Appendix D
Coefficients of Local Resistance
Customer
Requirements
3000 kg capacity
Lift height 3600 mm
Lifting speed 30 cm/s
Lowering speed 33 cm/s
Stop lifting in case of failure
Limit lowering speed in case
of failure
Monitor load weight and
position
Minimize vibration during
lifting
Minimize vibration during
lowering
Tilt and side shift option
Optimize system efficiency
Ergonomic controls
Time between failures
Max. system noise level
Clearance between lift
cylinders
Temperature range: -30°C to
+80°C
In the first column we can list the Engineering Parameters. In the second column we list the importance/ weight
of these parameters. In the last column we can list the points that our benchmark design has. For benchmark
we have an existing design. It could be our design or a design of a competitor.
Design Concepts
Engineering Requirements Weights
I II III Datum
1 3000 kg capacity 10
2 Lift/lower pallets at 3.6 m height 10
3 Stop lifting in case of failure 10
4 Limit the maximum lowering speed 10
5 Monitor load position, speed and weight 10
6 Minimize vibration during lifting 9
7 Minimize vibration during lowering 9
8 Lifting speed 30 cm/s +/- 10% 8
9 Lowering speed 33 cm/s +/- 10% 8
10 Tilt and side shift option 7
11 Optimize system efficiency 7
12 Ergonomic controls 7
13 System reliability (time between service calls) 6
14 Minimum system noise level 5
Appendix E
Appendix F
Calculate the hydraulic parameters and power requirement of a
hydraulic system (hydraulic circuit fig. 5.3) for the elevating system
shown in fig. 5.2
cm
v1 := 30⋅ Lift speed with maximum load (+/- 5 %)
s
cm
v2 := 40⋅ Lift speed empty (+/- 5 %)
s
6 Maximum pressure in the system
pmax := 26⋅ 10 Pa
Mast construction- one free lift cylinder and two main lift cylinders
m
g = 9.807 Gravitational acceleration
2
s
Gpiston := 26⋅ kg
Gmast1 := 136⋅ kg
Calculations
Selecting cylinders
( )
Lmax := n ⋅ Gmax + Gcarrige + 2 ⋅ Gfork + Gmast1 + Gcyl.m + 2 ⋅ Gm.chain + Gmast2 + 2 ⋅ Gpiston + 2 ⋅ Gex.chain
3
Lmax = 7.076× 10 kg
Lmax⋅ g
d1_min := 2⋅
π ⋅ pmax⋅ η cyl ⋅ η mast
d1_min = 0.042m
We select standard size piston diameter bigger than the calculated minimum
d1 := 45⋅ mm
A2_min := 2 ⋅ A1
d2_min := d1 ⋅ 2
d2_min = 63.6⋅ mm
There are two main parameters which will be calculated first: follow and
pressure.
In order to have two lift speeds (one for empty lift and one for lift with
maximum load), the system requires two flow rates.
Mast construction has two stages (free lift and main lift) with different cylinder
areas which produce different pressures.
Therefore, the system has four main work points:
Work point 1. Free lift without load (Maximum flow - minimum pressure)
Work point 2. Free lift with maximum load
Work point 3. Main lift without load
Work point 4. Main lift with load (Minimum flow - maximum pressure)
Calculating required flow rate for desired lift speed
A2 ⋅ v2
Q1 :=
n
L
Q1 = 42.3⋅
min
Work point 2 (flow rate in free-lift cylinders, maximum load on the forks)
A2 ⋅ v1
Q2 :=
n
L
Q2 = 31.7⋅
min
A-14 Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
2 ⋅ A1 ⋅ v2
Q3 :=
n
L
Q3 = 38.2⋅
min
Work point 4 (flow rate in main-lift cylinders, maximum load on the forks)
2 ⋅ A1 ⋅ v1
Q4 :=
n
L
Q4 = 28.6⋅
min
Calculate pressures
( )
L1 := n ⋅ G0 + Gcarrige + 2 ⋅ Gfork + Gmast1 + Gcyl.m + 2 ⋅ Gm.chain
L1 ⋅ g
p1 :=
A2
6
p1 = 2.38× 10 Pa
p1 = 23.8⋅ bar
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A-15
(
L2 := n ⋅ Gmax + Gcarrige + 2 ⋅ Gfork + Gmast1 + Gcyl.m + 2 ⋅ Gm.chain)
L2 = 6854kg Load on cylinders for work point 2
L2 ⋅ g
p2 :=
A2
6
p2 = 19.1× 10 Pa
p2 = 191⋅ bar
( )
L3 := n ⋅ G0 + Gcarrige + 2 ⋅ Gfork + Gmast1 + Gcyl.m + 2 ⋅ Gm.chain + Gmast2 + 2Gpiston + 2 ⋅ Gex.chain
3
Lmax = 7.076× 10 kg Maximum load was calculated earlier
Lmax⋅ g
p4 :=
2 ⋅ A1
6
p4 = 21.8× 10 Pa
The system power requirements must be based on minimum two work points.
Work points one and four are both extreems. Therefore, in this example only
these two points will be considered.
Select components
Pump displacement
Pump displacement is function of pump flow delivery and shaft rotational
speed.
Gear pumps have best performance and reliability in the range of 1000 to
3000 rev/min.
Electric motors have best performance and reliability in the range of 1500 to
5000 rev/min
Based on this, we will target rotational speed of 2200 rev/min.
Given
L
Q3 = 38.2⋅ Maximum flow rate (lift empty)
min
L
Q2 = 31.7⋅ Minimum flow rate (lift with maximum load)
min
1
n := 2200⋅ Rotational speed - target
min
Q2
dmin :=
n ⋅ η vol
1
ne = 2434⋅ Maximum pump shaft rotational speed (empty lift)
min
Q2
nl :=
dpump⋅ η vol
(The diameters of the fluid lines are based on recomended fluid velocity, see
Hydraulic Connectors, Chapter 3)
Suction line
m Maximum recommended fluid velocity inside suction hose
vs := 1.5⋅
s
Q1
AS :=
vs
AS
dS := 4⋅
π
Pressure line
m
vp := 6 ⋅ Recommended fluid velocity inside pressure hose
s
Q4
Ap :=
vp
Ap
dP := 4⋅
π
Recommended diameter
dP = 10.1⋅ mm
Return line
m
vr := 2.5⋅ Recommended fluid velocity inside pressure hose
s
Q1
Ar :=
vr
Ar
dR := 4⋅
π
Hydraulic Losses
Calculate pressure losses in two work points of the system (WP1 and WP4)
Known
L
Q4 = 28.6⋅ Flow rate during lift with maximum load
min
L
Q1 = 42.3⋅ Maximum flow rate (lift empty)
min
2
ν := 32⋅ 10 ⋅ stokes Fluid viscosity in viscosity grade 32
A-20 Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
6
∆p fc2 := 1.5⋅ 10 ⋅ Pa Pressure drop in the flow control when lowering.
There are two types losses in the hydraulic lines which result in a pressure drop:
lineal (due to friction along the walls) and local (due to change of direction of the
flow). Lineal losses occur in straight tubes and hoses. Local losses occur in the
fittings.
kg
ρ := 880⋅
3
m
64
λ :=
Re
2
ds Cross area of the hose
AH := π ⋅
4
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A-21
2 2
⎛ Q1 ⎞ ρ Ls ⎛ Q4 ⎞ ρ Ls
∆p s1 := ⎜ ⋅λ ⋅ ⋅ ∆p s4 := ⎜ ⋅λ ⋅ ⋅
⎝ AH ⎠ 2 ds ⎝ AH ⎠ 2 ds
2 2
⎛ Q1 ⎞ ρ Lp ⎛ Q4 ⎞ ρ Lp
∆p p1 := ⎜ ⋅λ ⋅ ⋅ ∆p p4 := ⎜ ⋅λ ⋅ ⋅
⎝ AP ⎠ 2 dp ⎝ AP ⎠ 2 dp
∆p L4 := ∆p s4 + ∆p p4 + ∆p r4
∆p L1 := ∆p s1 + ∆p p1 + ∆p r1
∆p L4 = 5.56⋅ bar
∆p L1 = 12.15⋅ bar
6 6
∆p t1 = 3.66× 10 Pa ∆p t4 = 3 × 10 Pa
These two points (p.1 and p.4) will be used to determine the power
requirements of the system
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks A-23
Pemp = 4.3⋅ kW
Pmax = 13.4⋅ kW
Pemp = 6 ⋅ hp
Pmax = 18⋅ hp
Pemp
Te := Pmax
( ne) ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ η m Tmax :=
( nl) ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ η m
Te = 19⋅ N·m Tmax = 70.4⋅ N·m
Notes
Design of Hydraulic Systems for Lift Trucks
References
Notes