FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

Prepared by

P.MURUGAN
LECTURER
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JIMMA UNIVERSITY
JIMMA
Course Objectives & Competences to be Acquired

The course is intended to enable the student to:

 Understand the fundamental concepts of hydraulics and pneumatics;

 Recognize component symbols and their construction, functioning and applications;
 Trace and analyze circuit diagrams of hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
1. FLUID POWER SYSTEMS AND FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Introduction to fluid power

1.2 Advantages of fluid power

1.3 Application of fluid power system.

1.4 Types of fluid power systems,

1.5 Properties of hydraulic fluids

1.6 Fluid power symbols.

1.7 Applications of Pascal’s Law

2. COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

2.1Sources of Hydraulic Power

2.2 Pump classification, construction and working of pumps

2.3 Variable displacement pumps.

2.4 Fluid Power Actuators: Linear hydraulic actuators

2.5 Hydraulic cylinders- Types and working principle

2.6 Fluid motors, Gear, Vane and Piston motors.

3. DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS

3.1Construction of Control Components

3.1.1 Directional control valve

3.1.2 Pressure control valve

3.1.3 Flow control valve

 3.2 Accumulators and Intensifiers

3.2.1 Types of accumulators

3.2.2 Accumulators circuits

3.2.3 Sizing of accumulators,

3.3 Intensifier

3.3.1 Applications of Intensifier

3.3.2 Intensifier circuit.

4. PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS 9

4.1 Pneumatic Components

4.1.1 Compressors

4.1.2 Filter, Regulator, Lubricator Unit

4.1.3 Air control valves

4.1.4 Quick exhaust valves

4.1.5 Pneumatic actuators

4.2 Fluid Power Circuit Design

4.2.1 Speed control circuits

4.2.2 Synchronizing circuit

4.2.3 Penumo- Hydraulic circuit

4.2.4 Sequential circuit design for simple applications using cascade method.

5. DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS

5.1 Servo systems

5.1.1 Hydro Mechanical servo systems

5.1.2 Electro hydraulic servo systems

5.1.3 Proportional valves

 5.2 Fluidics

5.2.1 Introduction to fluidic devices

5.2.2 Electro Hydraulic Pneumatic logic circuits

5.2.3 Ladder diagrams

]5.2.4 PLC applications in fluid power control

5.3 Fluid power circuits

5.4 Failure and troubleshooting.

Pre-requisites: MEng 2104 (Fluid Mechanics)

MEng 1062 (Engineering Mechanics II (Dynamics))

Evaluation Mechanisms:

Individual Assignment : 10 %

Mid-semester Exam : 30 %

Individual/Group Project : 20%

Final Examination : 40 %

References:

1. Eaton Fluid Power Training and Eaton Fluid Training, Industrial Hydraulics Manual, Jan 1, 2007.
2. Andrew Parr, Hydraulics and Pneumatics: A Technicians and Engineers Guide, Mar 8, 1999.
3. Ian Turner and Institution of Plant Engineers, Engineering Applications of Pneumatics and
Hydraulics, Dec 22, 1995.
4. Harry L. Stewart, Pneumatics and Hydraulics, Oct 1984.
 CHAPTER 1

FLUID POWER SYSTEMS AND FUNDAMENTALS

What is fluid power?

Fluid power is energy transmitted and controlled by means of a pressurized fluid, either
liquid or gas. The term fluid power applies to both hydraulics and pneumatics.
Hydraulics uses pressurized liquid, for example, oil or water; pneumatics uses
compressed air or other neutral gases. Fluid power can be effectively combined with
other technologies through the use of sensors, transducers and microprocessors.

How fluid power works

Pascal's Law expresses the central concept of fluid power: "Pressure exerted by a
confined fluid acts undiminished equally in all directions."

An input force of 10 pounds (44.8 N) on a 1-square-inch (6.45 cm2) piston develops a pressure of
10 pounds per square inch (psi) (68.95 kN/m2 or 68.95 KPa) throughout the container. This
pressure will allow a 10-square-inch piston to support a 100-pound (444.8 N) weight. The forces
are proportional to the piston areas.
The advantages of fluid power

Fluid power systems provide many benefits to users including:

 Multiplication and variation of force-Linear or rotary force can be multiplied from a
fraction of an ounce to several hundred tons of output.
 Easy, accurate control-You can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position
large forces with great accuracy. Analog (infinitely variable) and digital (on/off) control
are possible. Instantly reversible motion-within less than half a revolution-can be
achieved.
 Multi-function control-A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power
and control for numerous machines or machine functions when combined with fluid
power manifolds and valves.
  High horsepower, low weight ratio-Pneumatic components are compact and
lightweight. You can hold a five horsepower hydraulic motor in the palm of your hand.
 Low speed torque-Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce large
amounts of torque (twisting force) while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and air
motors can even maintain torque at zero speed without overheating.
 Constant force or torque-This is a unique fluid power attribute.
 Safety in hazardous environments-Fluid power can be used in mines, chemical plants,
near explosives and in paint applications because it is inherently spark-free and can
tolerate high temperatures.
 Established standards and engineering-The fluid power industry has established design
and performance standards for hydraulic and pneumatic products through NFPA, the
National Fluid Power Association and ISO, the International Organization for
Standardization.
Fluid power applications

 Mobile: Here fluid power is used to transport, excavate and lift materials as well as
control or power mobile equipment. End use industries include construction, agriculture,
marine and the military. Applications include backhoes, graders, tractors, truck brakes
and suspensions, spreaders and highway maintenance vehicles.
 Industrial: Here fluid power is used to provide power transmission and motion control
for the machines of industry. End use industries range from plastics working to paper
production. Applications include metalworking equipment, controllers, automated
manipulators, material handling and assembly equipment.
 Aerospace: Fluid power is used for both commercial and military aircraft, spacecraft and
related support equipment. Applications include landing gear, brakes, flight controls,
motor controls and cargo loading equipment.

Fluid power products

Fluid power products are sold as individual components or as systems for the original equipment
manufacturing, maintenance, repair and replacement markets.
A typical fluid power system includes the following components:
 Hydraulic pump or air compressor, which converts mechanical power to fluid power.
 Cylinder or motor, which converts fluid power to linear or rotary mechanical power.
 Valves, which control the direction, pressure and rate of flow.
 Filters, regulators and lubricators, which condition the fluid.
 Manifolds, hose, tube, fittings, couplings, etc., which conduct the fluid between
components.
 Sealing devices, which help contain the fluid.
 Accumulators and reservoirs, which store the fluid.
 Instruments such as pressure switches, gauges, flow meters, sensors and transducers,
which are used to help monitor the performance of a fluid power system.
BASICS OF HYDRAULICS
"What is hydraulics ?"

Hydraulics is the transmission and control of forces and motions through the medium of fluids.
Short and simple.
Hydraulic systems and equipment have wide-spread application throughout industry.

For example:
- machine tool manufacturing
- press manufacturing
- plant construction
- vehicle manufacturing
- aircraft manufacturing
- shipbuilding
- injection molding machines

Hydraulic to Electrical Analogy

Hydraulics and electrics are analogous, because they both deal with flow, pressure and load. The
components in each type of circuit perform similar functions and therefore can be related, a few
examples are listed below:
Various forms of energy are converted to accomplish mechanical movement in the injection
molding machine. Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy, which in turn
is converted to hydraulic energy to operate and control the moving components of the
machine. The hydraulic energy is converted to mechanical energy to achieve the final desired
result, which may be "mold clamping pressure" or "material injection". The figure above
summarizes the energy conversions for an injection molding machine. Click on the thumbnail
for a larger view.

Pascal's Law
Pascal's Law states that a pressure acting on a confined fluid is transmitted equally and
undiminished in all directions. In the figure below, a 10 pound force acting on a 1 square inch
area generates a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch (psi) throughout the container acting
equally on all surfaces.

This principle is important to remember, that the pressure in any portion of an hydraulic system
is equal throughout that system. This statement is valid with the omission of the force of gravity,
which would have to be added, according to the fluid level. Due to the pressures that hydraulic
systems operate at, this smaller
amount need not be considered e.g. a 32 foot head of water approximately equals 14.5 psi. (a 10
meter head of water approximately equals 1 bar.)
Area and Force
As the clamp piston is moved forward during the clamp close function, the pressure developed
acts upon the clamping piston which has a certain size or area.

A basic formula in hydraulics states that pressure multiplied by area to which that pressure is
applied equals force. i.e. pressure x area = force
pxA=F
The formula can be manipulated to calculate any one of the three variables p, A or F, if any of
the other two variables are known.

As follows:
pxA=F
F/p=A
F/A=p
Pressure
Hydraulic pressure is generated when a flowing fluid meets resistance which is generally related
to the load that is being moved.
A force is applied via the lever to produce system pressure (p = F/A or F = p x A).
If more force is applied, the system pressure rises until the load moves, if the load remains
constant the pressure will increase no further. The load can therefore be moved if the necessary
pressure is generated. The speed at which the load moves will be dependent upon the volume of
fluid which is fed to the load cylinder. For example, as the mold is opening or closing, the
pressure generated in the system represents the resistance of the toggle lever to movement.
Adding to that resistance would be the weight (i.e. mass) of the mold and toggle lever and also
the friction between the toggle lever bushings and the tiebars. When the two mold halves touch
and the toggle begins to straighten out, the increasing pressure
represents that which is required to stretch the tiebars in the generation of a particular clamp
force. Similarly when injecting material into the mold the pressure generated in the injection
system represents the resistance of the injection ram to movement. Adding to that resistance
would be the mass of the injection ram and screw, the friction between all moving components
and the resistance of the plastic melt as it is forced quickly into the mold cavity.

Pressure Control
In order to safeguard the system, pressure relief valves are installed. The valves serve to limit the
amount of pressure that can develop in the hydraulic system since the various hydraulic
components are expensive and they are subject to pressure limitations before failure occurs. One
characteristic of fluid flow that is important to note here is that flow occurs always in the path of
least resistance. Pressure would continue to rise in the circuit consistent with the load being
moved. The pressure relief valve is always set to allow flow to travel through the relief valve
well before pressure rises above safe levels and causes damage to the system and its components.
In other words, the path of least resistance is employed here to safeguard the system after the
other movements have taken place.
Pressure Override
An extremely important concept to understand about pressure relief valves is their pressure
override characteristics. Pressure override is the difference between the pressure at which the
relief valve just starts to crack open and the pressure at the full open position. For direct acting
pressure relief valves this pressure differential can be as high as 30% and proportional pressure
relief valves range from
10% - 20%.
Pressure Intensification
Another important concept to keep in mind is that of pressure intensification. This law of
hydraulics is often forgotten when troubleshooting hydraulic circuits.

For example, if two pistons of different size are connected by a rod, the pressure existing on the
smaller area will always be greater. This principle also applies to the cap side and the rod side of
a normal double acting piston.
If P1 = 1,000 psi and A1 = 10 square inches, then F1 = 10,000 pounds of force.
If F1 = 10,000 pounds of force and if A2 = 5 square inches, then P2 = 2,000 psi.
Speed in Hydraulics
The speed of a hydraulic component can be calculated based on the formula below:

For example, given the conditions below the injection piston, therefore the screw, will move at
3.85 inches per second. However, this speed will not be possible if the pressure relief valve
opens.

Hydrodynamics
As well as understanding the concept of speed in hydraulics, it is also important to have some
insight into flow characteristics. For example, the drawing below shows that when oil is flowing
through different diameter pipes an equal volume flows in an equal unit of time. If that is true
and if the shaded quantity Q1 equals the shaded quantity Q2, then velocity V2 must be greater
than velocity V1.
As the diameter of the pipe decreases, the flow rate will increase. Specifically, if the pipe
diameter decreases by one half in the direction of oil flow, the cross sectional area will decrease
by four times, and visa versa. Oil flow velocity through different pipe sizes can be calculated
using the formula:

The same gallons per minute will have to travel 4 times faster through the smaller pipe.

Another important concept in hydrodynamics is how fluids flow based on certain critical flow
speeds or as the result of meeting restrictions to flow such as bends in the pipe or system
components.
One goal in the initial design of hydraulic power transmission systems is to encourage laminar
flow as much as possible since an increase in turbulence will increase flow resistance and
hydraulic losses as well. The diagram below illustrates the concept of turbulent flow.

Although turbulent flow is wasteful in most hydraulic applications, it is desirable to have

turbulence in the oil flow as it travels through the heat exchanger for cooling purposes. If
turbulence exists as the oil flows through the heat exchanger, more of the oil molecules come
into contact with the heat exchanger cooling tubes and more efficient cooling is the result.

Directional Control
One of the main advantages of hydraulic based systems is that the oil flow direction is easily
controlled. The drawing below shows a piston being extended, held stationary and then retracted,
simply by changing the position of a directional valve. Even though the drawing is simple in
nature, it still demonstrates the principle involved in directional control. In addition to simple
directional control valves, we also employ proportional directional control valves on some
machines to control the clamp opening and closing function.
Reynold’s number

The Reynolds Number is a non dimensional parameter defined by the ratio of

dynamic pressure (ρ u2) and shearing stress (μ u / L) and can be expressed as

Re = (ρ u2) / (μ u / L)

=ρuL/μ

=uL/ν (1)

where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3 )
u = velocity (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)

ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

Darcy’s Equation

The frictional head loss can be calculated using a mathematical relationship that is
known as Darcy’s equation for head loss. The equation takes two distinct forms. The first form
of Darcy’s equation determines the losses in the system associated with the length of the pipe.
(3-14)

Hf = f L v2
D 2 g
where: f = friction factor (unitless)

L = length of pipe (ft)

D = diameter of pipe (ft)

v = fluid velocity (ft/sec)

g = gravitational acceleration (ft/sec2)

Example: Darcy’s Head Loss Equation A pipe 100 feet long and 20 inches in diameter contains
water at 200°F flowing at a mass flow rate of 700 lbm/sec. The water has a density of 60
lbm/ft 3 and a viscosity of 1.978 x 10-7 lbf-sec/ft2. The relative roughness of the pipe is 0.00008.
Calculate the head loss for the pipe.
 CHAPTER 2

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM & COMPONENTS

Pump types

There are essentially three different types of positive displacement pump used in hydraulic
systems.

Gear pumps

The simplest and most robust positive displacement pump, having just two moving parts, is
the gear pump. Its parts are non-reciprocating, move at constant speed and experience a uniform
force. Internal construction, shown in Figure 2.7, consists of just two close meshing gear wheels
which rotate as shown. The direction of rotation of the gears should be carefully noted; it is the
opposite of that intuitively expected by most people.
As the teeth come out of mesh at the centre, a partial vacuum is formed which draws fluid
into the inlet chamber. Fluid is trapped between the outer teeth and the pump housing, causing a
continual transfer of fluid from inlet chamber to outlet chamber where it is discharged to the
system.

Pump displacement is
determined by: volume of fluid
between each pair of teeth; number
of teeth; and speed of rotation.
Note the pump merely delivers a
fixed volume of fluid from inlet
port to outlet port for each
rotation; outlet port pressure is
determined solely by design of the
rest of the system.
Performance of any pump is
limited by leakage and the ability
of the pump to withstand the
pressure differential between inlet
and outlet ports. The gear pump
obviously requires closely meshing gears, minimum clearance between teeth and housing, and
also between the gear face and side plates. Often the side plates of a pump are designed as
deliberately replaceable wear plates. Wear in a gear pump is primarily caused by dirt particles in
the hydraulic fluid, so cleanliness and filtration are particularly important.
The pressure differential causes large side loads to be applied to the gear shafts at 45~ to the
centre line as shown. Typically, gear pumps are used at pressures up to about 150 bar and
capacities of around 150 gpm (6751 min-1). Volumetric efficiency of gear pumps at 90% is lowest
of the three pump types.
 There are some variations of the basic gear pump. In Figure 2.8, gears have been replaced
by lobes giving a pump called, not surprisingly

The Figure is another variation called the

intemal gear pump, where an extemal driven
gear wheel is connected to a smaller internal
gear, with fluid separation as gears disengage
being performed by a crescent-shaped
moulding. Yet another variation on the theme
is the gerotor pump of Figure 2.9b, where the
crescent moulding is dispensed with by using
an internal gear with one less tooth than the
outer gear wheel. Internal gear pumps operate
at lower capacities and pressures (typically 70
bar) than other pump types.
 Vane pumps

The major source of leakage in a gear pump arises from the small gaps between teeth, and
also between teeth and pump housing. The vane pump reduces this leakage by using spring (or
hydraulic) loaded vanes slotted into a driven rotor, as illustrated in the two examples of Figure
2.10. In the pump shown in Figure 2.10a, the rotor is offset within the housing, and the vanes
constrained by a cam ring as they cross inlet and outlet ports. Because the vane tips are held
against the housing there is little leakage and the vanes compensate to a large degree for wear at
vane tips or in the housing itself. There is still, however, leakage between rotor faces and body
sides. Pump capacity is determined by vane throw, vane cross sectional area and speed of
rotation.

The difference in pressure between

outlet and inlet ports creates a severe lo ad
on the vanes and a large side lo ad o n the
rotor shaft which can lead to bearing failure.
The pump in Figure 2.10a is consequently
known as an unbalanced vane pump. Figure
2.10b shows a balanced vane pump. This
features an elliptical cam ring together with
two inlet and two outlet ports. Pressure
loading still occurs in the vanes but the two
identical pump halves create equal but
opposite forces on the rotor, leading to zero net force in the shaft and bearings. Balanced
vane pumps have much improved service lives over simpler unbalanced vane pumps.
Capacity and pressure ratings of a vane pump are generally lower than gear pumps, but
reduced leakage gives an improved volumetric efficiency of around 95%.
In an ideal world, the capacity of a pump should be matched exactly to load requirements.
Expression 2.2 showed that input power is proportional to system pressure and volumetric flow
rate. A pump with too large a capacity wastes energy (leading to a rise in fluid temperature) as
excess fluid passes through the pressure relief valve.
Pumps are generally sold with certain fixed capacities and the user has to choose the next
largest size. Figure 2.11 shows a vane pump with adjustable capacity, set by the positional
relationship between rotor and inner casing, with the inner casing position set by an external
screw.

Piston pumps

A piston pump is superficially similar to a motor car engine, and a simple single cylinder
arrangement was shown earlier in Figure 2.2b. Such a simple pump, however, delivering a single
pulse of fluid per revolution, generates unacceptably large pressure pulses into the system.
 Practical piston pumps therefore employ multiple cylinder and pistons to smooth out fluid

delivery, and much ingenuity goes into designing multicylinder pumps which are
surprisingly compact.

Figure 2.12 shows one form of radial piston pump. The pump consists of several hollow
pistons inside a stationary cylinder block. Each piston has spring-loaded inlet and outlet valves. As
the inner cam rotates, fluid is transferred relatively smoothly from inlet port to the outlet port.
 Actuators

A hydraulic or pneumatic system is generally concerned with moving, gripping or applying

force to an object. Devices which actually achieve this objective are called actuators, and can be
split into three basic types.

Linear actuators, as the name implies, are used to move an object or apply a force in a
straight line. Rotary actuators are the hydraulic and pneumatic equivalent of an electric motor.
This chapter discusses linear and rotary actuators.
The third type of actuator is used to operate flow control valves for process control of gases,
liquids or steam. These actuators are generally pneumatically operated and are discussed with
process control pneumatics in Chapter 7.

Linear actuators

The basic linear actuator is the cylinder, or ram, shown in schematic form in Figure 5.1.
Practical constructional details are discussed later. The cylinder in Figure 5.1 consists of a
piston, radius R, moving in a bore. The piston is
connected to a rod of radius r which drives the load.
Obviously if pressure is applied to port X (with port Y
venting) the piston extends. Similarly, if pressure is
applied to port Y (with port Z venting), the piston retracts.
The force applied by a piston depends on both the
area and the applied pressure. For the extend stroke, area A is
given by "A'R2. For a pressure P applied to port X, the
extend force available is:
Fc-P7rR e . Fig A mass supported by a cylinder
 The units of expression 5.1 depend on the system being used. If SI units are used, the force
is in newtons.
Expression 5.1 gives the maximum achievable force obtained with the cylinder in a stalled
condition. One example of this occurs where an object is to be gripped or shaped.
In Figure 5.2 an object of mass M is lifted at constant speed. Because the object is not
accelerating, the upward force is equal to Mg newtons (in SI units) which from expression 5.1
gives the pressure in the cylinder. This is lower than the maximum system pressure; the pressure
drop occurring across flow control valves and system piping. Dynamics of systems similar to
this are discussed later.
There are five basic parts in a cylinder; two end caps (a base cap and a bearing cap) with
port connections, a cylinder barrel, a piston and the rod itself. This basic construction allows fairly
simple manufacture as end caps and pistons are common to cylinders of the same diameter, and
only (relatively) cheap barrels and rods need to be changed to give different length cylinders.
End caps can be secured to the barrel by welding, tie rods or by threaded connection. Basic
constructional details are shown in Figure 5.9.

The inner surface of the barrel needs to be very smooth to prevent wear and leakage.
Generally a seamless drawn steel tube is used which is machined (honed) to an accurate finish.
In applications where the cylinder is used infrequently or may come into contact with corrosive
materials, stainless steel, aluminium or brass tube may be used.
Pistons are usually made of cast iron or steel. The piston not only transmits force to the rod,
but must also act as a sliding beating in the barrel (possibly with side forces if the rod is subject
to a lateral force) and provide a seal between high and low pressure sides. Piston seals are
generally used between piston and barrel. Occasionally small leakage can be tolerated and
seals are not used. A beating surface (such as bronze) is deposited on to the piston surface then
honed to a finish similar to that of the barrel.

The surface of the cylinder rod is exposed to the atmosphere when extended, and hence
liable to suffer from the effects of dirt, moisture and corrosion. When retracted, these antisocial
materials may be drawn back inside the barrel to
cause problems inside the cylinder. Heat treated
chromium alloy steel is generally used for strength
and to reduce effects of corrosion.
A wiper or scraper seal is fitted to the end
cap where the rod enters the cylinder to remove
dust particles. In very dusty atmospheres external
rubber bellows may also be used to exclude dust
(Figure 5.9a) but these are vulnerable to puncture
and splitting and need regular inspection. The
beating surface, usually bronze, is fitted behind
the wiper seal. Fig Single-acting cylinder
An internal sealing ring is fitted behind the beating to prevent high pressure fluid leaking
out along the rod. The wiper seal, bearing and sealing ring are sometimes combined as a
cartridge assembly to simplify maintenance. The rod is generally attached to the piston via a
threaded end as shown in Figures 5.9b and c. Leakage can occur around the rod, so seals are
again needed. These can be cap seals (as in Figure 5.9b) which combine the roles of piston
and rod seal, or a static O ring around the rod (as in Figure 5.9c).
End caps are generally cast (from iron or aluminium) and incorporate threaded entries for
ports. End caps have to withstand shock loads at
extremes of piston travel. These loads arise not
only from fluid pressure, but also from kinetic
energy of the moving parts of the cylinder and
load.
These end of travel shock loads can be
reduced with cushion valves built into the end
caps. In the cylinder shown in Figure 5.10, for
example, exhaust fluid flow is unrestricted
until the plunger Fig A simple cylinder

Fig Cylinder cushioning

Fig Two-stage telescopic piston

The stroke of a simple cylinder must be less than barrel length, giving at best an
extended/retracted ratio of 2:1. Where space is restricted, a telescopic cylinder can be used.
Figure 5.12 shows the construction of a typical double-acting unit with two pistons. To extend,
fluid is applied to port A. Fluid is applied to both sides of piston 1 via ports X and Y, but the
difference in areas between sides of piston 1 causes the piston to move to the right.

To retract, fluid is applied to port B. A flexible connection is required for this port. When piston
2 is driven fully to the left, port Y is now connected to port B, applying pressure to the Right
- hand side of piston 1 which then retracts.

The construction of telescopic cylinders requires many seals which makes maintenance complex.
They also have smaller force for a given diameter and pressure, and can only tolerate small side
loads.

Pneumatic cylinders are used for metal forming, an operation requiting large forces. Pressures in
pneumatic systems are lower than in hydraulic systems, but large impact loads can be obtained
by accelerating a hammer to a high velocity then allowing it to strike the target.

Such devices are called impact cylinders and operate on the principle illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Pressure is initially applied to port
 Fig An impact cylinder

B to retract the cylinder. Pressure is then applied to both ports A and B, but the cylinder
remains in a retracted state because area X is less than area Y. Port B is then vented rapidly.
Immediately, the full piston area experiences port A pressure. With a large volume of gas
stored behind the piston, it accelerates rapidly to a high velocity (typically 10m s -l).

Rotary actuators

Rotary actuators are the hydraulic or pneumatic equivalents of electric motors. For a
given torque, or power, a rotary actuator is more compact than an equivalent motor, cannot be
damaged by an indefinite stall and can safely be used in an explosive atmosphere. For variable
speed applications, the complexity and maintenance requirements of a rotary actuator are
similar to a thyristor-con-trolled DC drive, but for fixed speed applications, the AC induction
motor (which can, for practical purposes, be fitted and forgotten) is simpler to install and
maintain.
A rotary actuator (or, for that matter, an electric motor) can be defined in terms of the
torque it produces and its running speed, usually given in revs per minute (rpm). Definition of
torque is illustrated in Figure 5.22, where a rotary motion is produced against a force of F
newtons acting at a radial distance d metres from a shaft centre. The device is then
producing a torque T given by the expression"

Fig Rotary actuator symbols

Fig A gear motor

Fig A vane motor

 Fig Vane operation in hydrau/ic motor

Fig Limited motion rotary actuators

Application

The operational speed of an actuator is determined by the fluid flow rate and the actuator area
(for a cylinder) or the displacement (for a motor). The physical dimensions are generally fixed
for an actuator, so speed is controlled by adjusting the fluid flow to (or restricting flow from) the
actuator. Rotary actuator speed can also be controlled by altering swash plate angle. The
compressibility of air, normally advantageous where smooth operation is concerned, makes flow
control more difficult for pneumatic than hydraulic systems. Although techniques described
below can be applied in pneumatics, precise slow-speed control of a pneumatic actuator is
achieved with external devices described later.There are essentially four ways in which fluid
flow can be controlled.The first is shown in Figure 5.30, where a pump delivers a fluid volume V
per minute. Because the pump is a fixed displacement device this volume of fluid must go either
back to the tank or to the actuator. When the control valve moves from its centre position, the
actuator moves with a velocity:

where A is the piston area. If pump delivery volume V can be adjusted (by altering swash plate
angle, say,) and the pump feeds no other device, no further speed control is needed.

Fig Speed control by pump volume

 CHAPTER 3

CONTROL COMPONENTS IN HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

One of the most important functions in any fluid power system is control. If control
components are not properly selected, the entire system will fail to deliver the required
output. Elements for the control of energy and other control in fluid power system are
generally called “Valves”. It is important to know the primary function and operation of
the various types of control components. This type of knowledge is not only required for
a good functioning system, but it also leads to the discovery of innovative ways to
improve a fluid power system for a given application
The selection of these control components not only involves the type, but also the
size, the actuating method and remote control capability. There are 3 basic types of
valves.
1. Directional control valves
2. Pressure control valves
3. Flow control valves.
Directional control valves are essentially used for distribution of energy in a
fluid power system. They establish the path through which a fluid traverses a given
circuit. For example they control the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor.
These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of flow of
pressurized fluid.
Pressure may gradually buildup due to decrease in fluid demand or due to sudden
surge as valves opens or closes. Pressure control valves protect the system against
such overpressure. Pressure relief valve, pressure reducing, sequence, unloading and
counterbalance valve are different types of pressure control valves.
In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit.
For example, the control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates. This type of control is
accomplished through the use of flow control valves.

Directionalcontrolvalves
As the name implies directional control valves are used to control the direction of
flow in a hydraulic circuit. They are used to extend, retract, position or reciprocate
hydraulic cylinder and other components for linear motion. Valves contains ports that are
external openings for fluid to enter and leave via connecting pipelines, The number of
ports on a directional control valve (DCV ) is usually identified by the term “ way”. For
example, a valve with four ports is named as four-way valve.
Directional control valves can be classified in a number of ways:
1. According to type of construction :
• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
2. According to number of working ports :
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
3. According to number of Switching position:
• Two – position
• Three - position
4. According to Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation
• Mechanical actuation
• Solenoid ( Electrical ) actuation
• Hydraulic ( Pilot ) actuation
• Pneumatic actuation
• Indirect actuation
The designation of the directional control valve refers to the number of working
ports and the number of switching positions.
Thus a valve with 2 service ports and 2 switching positions is designated as 2 / 2
way valve. A

P
Fig 4.1. 2 /2 valve symbol

A valve with 3 service ports and 2 position is designated as 2 / 3 way valve.

A

P T
Fig 4.2. 2 / 3 valve symbol
A valve with 4 service ports and 2 position is designated as 2 / 4 valve.
A B

P T
Fig 4.3. 2 / 4 valve symbol

A valve with 4 Service ports and 3 Switching position is designated as 3 / 4 way

valve. Fig 4 shows an example of open centered position.
A B

P T
Fig 4.4. 3/ 4 valve symbol :

Spool positions as well as their corresponding actuating elements are labelled

with numbers 1, 2 as shown in figure 5. A valve with 2 spool position is shown and
also a valve with 3 spool positions. In directional control valves with 3 spool position,
the central position is the neutral position ( or mid position or zero or null position ).
The neutral position is the position in which the moving parts are assumed to be
inactive, but affected by a force (e.g. spring )
The ports are designated as follows:
P = Pressure Port ( Pump Port )
T = Tank Port
A , B = User Ports

1 2 1 0 2

2- Position valve 3- Position valve

Fig 4.5. Basic symbol for directional control valves
 Observe that the graphical symbol shows only one tank port T even though the
physical design may have two since it is only concerned with the function of a
component and not its internal design. The tank port is the port of the valve that is piped
back to the hydraulic oil tank. Therefore, each tank port provides the same function. The
spool valve working ports are inlet from the pump, outlets to the cylinder, and exhaust to
tank. These ports are generally identified as follows : P = pressure ; A or B = actuator
and T = tank.
1. Poppet Valves: Directional poppet valves consists of a housing bore in which one
or more suitably formed seating elements ( moveable ) in the form of balls, cones
are situated. When the operating pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly
seated in this design. The main advantage of poppet valves are;
- No Leakage as it provides absolute sealing.
- Long useful life, as there are no leakage of oil flows.
- May be used with even the highest pressures, as no hydraulic sticking (pressure
dependent deformation ) and leakages occurs in the valve.
The disadvantages of these valves are;
- Large pressure losses due to short strokes
- Pressure collapse during switching phase due to negative overlap ( connection of
pump, actuator and tank at the same time ).
2 / 2 DCV (Poppet design) :-

A A

P P
a. Valve Closed b. Valve Opened
Fig 4.6. 2 / 2 DCV Poppet Design
Figure 4.6a. shows a ball poppet type 2 / 2 DCV. It is essentially a check valve as
it allows free flow of fluid only in one direction (P to A) as the valve is opened
hydraulically and hence the pump Port P is connected to port A as shown in fig b. In the
other direction the valve is closed by the ball poppet ( note the fluid pressure from A
pushes the ball to its seat) and hence the flow from the port A is blocked ( fig a.). The
symbol for this type of design is same as that of check valve.(fig 4.6c)
No flow

Free flow
Fig 4.6c. Symbol of 2/2 poppet valve ( Check valve )
 2. Spool valves: The spool valve consists of a spool which is a cylindrical member
that has large- diameter lands machined to slide in a very close- fitting bore of the valve
body. The spool valves are sealed along the clearance between the moving spool and
the housing. The degree of sealing depends on the size of the gap, the viscosity of the
fluid and especially on the level of pressure. Especially at high pressures ( up to 350 bar)
leakage occurs to such a extent that it must be taken into account when determining the
system efficiency. The amount of leakage is primarily dependent on the gap between
spool and housing. Hence as the operating pressure increases the gap must be reduced or
the length of overlap increased. The radial clearance is usually less than 20 µ. The
grooves between the lands provide the flow passage between ports.
1. Two-way valve ( 2/ 2 DCV):
Lever for manual actuation
Bore Port A Valve Body
Spring

Spool
Port P a) Valve closed

Port A
Spring

Port P b) Valve opened by actuation

Fig 4.7 Spool type 2 / 2 DCV
The simplest type of directional control valve is a check valve which is a two way
valve because it contains two ports. These valves are also called as on-off valves because
they allow the fluid flow in only in one direction and the valve is normally closed. Two –
way valves is usually the spool or poppet design with the poppet design more common
and are available as normally opened or normally closed valves. They are usually
actuated by pilot (Hydraulic actuation ) but manual, mechanical , solenoid actuated
design are also available. Figure 4.7 above shows Spool type 2 / 2 DCV manually
actuated. In Fig 4.7 a) the port P is blocked by the action of spring as the valve is
unactuated ( absence of hand force). Hence the flow from port P to A is blocked. When
actuated ( Presence of hand force ) the valve is opened, thereby connecting port P to A.
2. Three – way valve : A directional control valve primary function is
alternatively to pressurize and exhaust one working port is called three-way valve.
Generally, these valves are used to operate single- acting cylinders. Three-way
directional valves are available for manual, mechanical, pilot, solenoid actuation.
These valves may be two-position, or three -position. Most commonly they have
only two positions, but in some cases a neutral position may be needed. These valves
are normally closed valves ( i.e the pump port is blocked when the valve is not
operating ). The three-way valve ports are inlet from the pump, working ports , and
exhaust to tank. These ports are generally identified as follows : P= pressure(
Pump)port ; A or B = working port and T = tank port. Figure 4.8 (a) and (b) shows
the two position of the three – way valve actuated manually by a push button.
a. Spool position 1: When the valve is actuated, the spool moves towards left . In
this position flow from pump enters the valve port P and flows out through the port
A as shown by the straight- through line and arrow ( fig a). In this position, port T
is blocked by the spool.
b. Spool position 0: when the valve is un-actuated by the absence of hand force, the
valve assumes this position by the action of spring In this position, port P is blocked
by the spool. Flow from the actuator can go to the tank from A to T as shown by
straight – through line and arrow ( Fig a ).
Spool A Push button for manual
actuation

P T Valve Body
Fig a. 1 position: P to A , T blocked
spring Port A

Port P T b) 2 position : Valve closed

Fig 4.8 2 /3 DCV
Symbol 2/ 3 DCV : -
0 1
3. Four - way DCV: - These valves are generally used to operate cylinders and
fluid motors in both directions hydraulically. The four ways are Port P that is
connected to pump, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the
actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to alternately to pressurize and
exhaust two working ports A & B. These valves are available with a choice of
actuation, manual, mechanical, solenoid, pilot & pneumatic. Four-way valve comes
with two or three position. One should note that the graphical symbol of the valve
shows only one tank port even though the physical design may have two as it is only
concerned with the function.
3.1. Three positions, Four way valve : These type of DCV consists of three
switching position. Most three- position valves have a variety of possible flow path
configurations, but has identical flow path configuration in the actuated position (
position 1 and position 2)and different spring centered flow paths. When left end of
the valve is actuated, the valve will assume 1 position. In this position the port P to
connected to working port A and working port B is connected to T (in some design P
is connected to B, and A to T when left end is actuated ). Similarly when the right
end is actuated, the valve will assume 2 position. In this position port P is connected
to B and working port A to T. When the valve is un-actuated, the valve will assume
its center position due to the balancing opposing spring forces. It should be noted
that a three-position valve is used whenever it is necessary to stop or hold a actuator
at some intermediate position within its stroke range, or when multiple circuit or
functions must be accomplished from one hydraulic power source.
Three- position, four- way DCV have different variety of center
configurations. The common varieties are the open center, closed center, tandem
center, floating center, & regenerative center with open, closed and tandem are the
three basic types A variety of center configurations provides greater flexibility for
circuit design.

a.) Open center 3 / 4 DCV : In open- center circuit, all ports are open to each other
in the center position. When the valve is in open center position, the pump flow is
directed to the tank at atmospheric pressure. At the same time the actuator can be
moved freely by applying an external force. Open center valve help to prevent heat
buildup, and no work can be done by any part of the system, as long as the valve
remains in the center position, since the fluid always follows the path of least
resistance . This means that other auxiliary devices in the system using pressure
energy cannot function.
Figure 4.9 a,b,c. shows the three positions of 3 / 4 DCV. Fig 4.9a. shows
the valve is mid position i.e when the valve is deactuated. In fig 4.9 b. since the left
end of the valve is actuated , the valve assumes 1 position. Here port P is connected
to A and B is connected to T. In fig 4.9 c, since the right end of the valve is actuated ,
the valve assumes 2 position. Here port P is connected to B and A is connected to T.
 Port B A Spool
Bore

T Port P T
a ) Mid position : Open Center
Valve body Port B A

Actuation

T Port P T
b ) 1 Position , Flow : P to A & B to T

Port B A

Actuation

T Port P T
c ) 2 position : Flow : P to B & A to T

Fig 4.9 ( a, b, c ): 3 position- 4 way , open centered DCV

(Note : In Fig b & c spring not shown)
 A B
0
1 2

P T
Fig 4.9d. Symbol : Open Center 3 / 4 DCV

b.) Closed Center 3 / 4 DCV :

Bore Spool
Port B A Spring

T Port P T
Mid Position: Closed Center
Fig 4. 10a. Closed Center 3 / 4 DCV
A B

1 0 2

P T
Fig 4.10b. Symbol
Figure 4.10 shows a closed center 3- position, 4 – Way DCV in its center position.
The working of the valve is similar to open center DCV and in actuated position the port
connection is identical. In closed center DCV all ports are closed to each other. Hence
the actuator connected to ports A and B is hydraulically locked and cannot be moved by
an external force In this position the pump flow must go over the relief valve when flow
is not being used for any other parts of the circuit. This forces the pump to produce flow
at the high pressure setting of the pressure relief valve. This not only waste pump design
power but promotes wear and shortens pump life. Also the temperature of oil is raised
due to heat buildup in the system. This promotes oil oxidation , viscosity drop, which
further raises the wear of parts and increased leakage. With this type of center in DCV,
when the valve actuates to switching position 1 or 2, two things may happen. If pressure
port ( P to working port A or B) opens first pressure in the system raises which is not
desirable, and if tank port open first pressure drops. Closed –center versions are used only
when multiple circuit or functions must be accomplished in the system from one power
source.
c.) Tandem centered 3 /4 DCV : Figure 4.11 shows a tandem center 3-position, 4-way
DCV. In the center configuration, the working ports A and B are blocked , and the pump
port P is connected to tank port T. The tandem center also results in a locked actuator.
However, it also unloads the pump at atmospheric pressure. The application of this
design may be to hold a cylinder or fluid motor under load or to permit the pump flow to
be connected to a series of valves for multiple circuitry.
Port B A Spool
Bore

T Port P T
Fig 4.11a. Tandem Center 3 / 4 DCV : Mid position
A B

1 0 2

P T
Fig 4.11b. Symbol

d.) Regenerative Center 3 / 4 DCV : This is another type of common center

configuration used in hydraulic circuits. Regenerative means the flow generated from the
system itself. Regenerative center is used whenever the actuator movement in one
direction requires two different speeds eg., Part of length of extending stroke of actuator
requiring fast movement during no load condition and remaining length slow controlled
motion. During fast extending the DCV is un-actuated thereby by spring forces it comes
to the mid position. This center saves on additional pump capacity required.
Fig 4.12 shows double acting single rod cylinder connected to 3 / 4 DCV having
regenerative center. The piston area(A) is more than ring area (B) . When the cylinder is
actuated by this type of DCV , in the center configuration, the pump flow is directed
towards A, since the piston area is more it offers least resistance( fluid flows always in
the path of least resistance ) and hence the fluid flows towards A. The return flow from B
also joins the pump flow, which increased the piston speed due to increased flow
 Piston Piston Rod

Cylinder A B

A B

1 0 2

P T
Fig 4.12 Double acting cylinder connected to
Regenerative center 3 /4 DCV
Fig 4.13 shows Regenerative center type 3 / 4 DCV in its mid
position. In the mid position Pump Port P is connected to A and B, and tank port T is
blocked.
Bore Spool
Port B A Spring

T Port P T
Mid Position
Fig 4. 13a. Regenerative Center 3 / 4 DCV
A B

1 0 2
:
P T
Fig 4.13b. Symbol
e.) Floating Center 3 / 4 DCV :
Bore Spool
Port B A Spring

T Port P T
Mid Position:
Fig 4. 14a. Floating Center 3 / 4 DCV
A B

1 0 2

P T
Fig 4.14b. Symbol :

Figure 4.14 shows floating center 3 / 4 DCV in its mid position. In this
position the pump port is blocked and the two working ports A and B are connected
to tank port T. Since the working ports A and B are connected to tank T, the actuator
can be moved freely without any external force and hence the name floating. In this
valve also like in closed center, in the mid position the pump flow must go over the
relief valve when flow is not being used for any other parts of the circuit. This
forces the pump to produce flow at the high pressure setting of the pressure relief
valve, which buildsup heat in the circuit. Hence this center configuration is used
only in special case.

3.2 Two- position, Four – way DCV : These valves are also used to operate double
acting cylinder. These valves are also called as impulse valve as 2 / 4 DCV has
only two switching positions, i.e it has no mid position. These valves are used to
reciprocate or hold and actuating cylinder in one position. They are used on
machines where fast reciprocation cycles are needed. Since the valve actuator moves
such a short distance to operate the valve from one position to the other, this design
is used for punching, stamping and for other machines needing fast action. Fig 4.15 a
and b shows the two position of 2 / 4 DCV.
 Bore Spool
Port B A

Actuation

T Port P T
a. 1 Position : P to A and B to T

Bore Spool
Port B A

Actuation

T Port P T

b. 2 Positon, P to B and A to T
Fig 4.15 : 2 / 4 DCV

1 2
11

Fig 4.15c. Symbol

 Actuation of Directional control valves : Directional control valves can be actuated
by different methods.
Manually – actuated Valve: A manually actuated DCV uses muscle power to actuate
the spool. Manual actuators are hand lever , push button, pedals . The following
symbols shows the DCV actuated manually

1 2

Fig 4.16.
Fig 4.16 shows the symbol of 2 / 4 DCV with manually operated by roller tappet to
1 and spring return to 2.

1 2

Fig 4.17
Fig 4.17 shows the symbol of 2 / 4 DCV with manually operated by hand lever to 1
and spring return to 2. In the above two symbols the DCV spool is returned by springs
which push the spool back to its initial position once the operating force has stopped e.g,
letting go of the hand lever
2. Mechanical Actuation: The DCV spool can be actuated mechanically, by roller and
cam, roller and plunger. The spool end contains the roller and the plunger or cam can be
attached to the actuator (cylinder).. When the cylinder reaches a specific position the
DCV is actuated. The roller tappet connected to the spool is pushed in by a cam or
plunger and presses on the spool to shift it either to right or left reversing the direction of
flow to the cylinder. A spring is often used to bring the valve to its center configuration
when deactuated.
3. Solenoid-actuated DCV : A very common way to actuate a spool valve is by using a
solenoid is illustrated in Fig 4.18. When the electric coil (solenoid) is energized, it
creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature into the coil. This caused the armature to
push on the spool rod to move the spool of the valve.. The advantage of a solenoid lies
with in its less switching time.
Energized Coil Spool
Armature Bore B A

Spool Rod T P T
Fig 4.18 Working of solenoid to shift spool of valve.
 Figure 4.18 shows the working of a solenoid actuated valve when left coil is
energized, its creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature into the coil. Since the
armature is connected to spool rod its pushes the spool towards right. Similarly when
right coil is energized spool is moved towards left. When both coil is de-energized the
spool will come to the mid position by spring force Figure 4.16 a shows a symbol for
single solenoid used to actuate 2- position ,4 way valve and b) shows symbol for 2
solenoids actuating a 3- position valve, 4 way valve..

1 2

Fig 4.18 a) Symbol for Single solenoid-actuated , 2- Position,

4-way spring centered DCV
.
1 0 2

Fig 4.18 b) Symbol for Solenoid actuated, 3- position, ,

4- way spring centered DCV
4.Hydraulic actuation: This type actuation is usually known as pilot- actuated valve. The
hydraulic pressure may directly used on the end face of the spool . The pilot ports are
located on the valve ends. Fig 4.19a. shows a directional valve where the rate of shifting
the spool from one side to another can be controlled by a needle valve. Fluid entering the
pilot pressure port on the X end flows through the check valve and operates against the
piston. This forces the spool to move towards the opposite position. Fluid in the Y end
(right end ,not shown in the figure) is passed through the adjustable needle valve and
exhausted back to tank. The amount of fluid bled through the needle valve controls how
fast the valve will shift. Fig 4.19b. shows the symbol of pilot actuated 2 / 4 DCV.
Part of Valve Body
Needle valve Port

Spool

Pilot port X
Fig 4.19a. Pilot actuated DCV
 A B

Y
X P T
Fig 4.19b.. Symbol for pilot actuated 2 /4 DCV

5. Pneumatic actuation : Directional control valve can also be shifted by applying air
pressure against a piston at either end of the valve spool. When air is introduced
through the left end passage ( X), its pressure pushes against the piston to shift the
spool to the right. Removal of this left end air supply and introduction of air through
the right end passage (Y) causes the spool to shift to the left. Figure 4.19 shows the
symbol for pneumatic actuated 2 / 4 DCV. Note that the shaded arrow represents the
pilot actuation as in fig 4.20 and the unshaded arrow represent pneumatic signal .

A B

X Y
P T
Fig 4.20. Symbol for Pneumatic actuated 2 / 4 DCV

6. Indirect actuation of directional control valve : We have seen that a directional

valve spool can be positioned from one extreme position to another by actuated it by
manually, mechanically, electrically ( solenoid) , hydraulic(pilot) and pneumatic. The
mode of actuation has no influence on the basic operation of these switching circuits.
However since there is usually not a lot of force available, direct actuation is
restricted to use with rather smaller valves. Especially with direct actuation, the
greatest disadvantage is that the force which can be developed by them to shift a
directional valve spool is limited. As a matter of fact, the force required to shift a
directional spool is substantial in the larger size.
Larger valves are often indirectly actuated in one after the other sequence.
First the smaller valve is directly actuated. Flow from the smaller valve is directed to
either side of the larger valve when shifting is required. The main DCV is referred as
pilot actuated DCV. The control oil can come from a separate circuit or from the
same system’s pressure line. Pressure for pilot valve operation is usually supplied
internally from the pressure passage in the main valve. These two valves are often
incorporated as a single unit. Therefore one may find it hard to see that it is an
indirectly controlled valve. These valves are also called as Electro-hydraulic operated
DCV.
Main( larger ) DCV , 3 / 4 closed
Center , pilot actuated
A B
X Y Control Signal
1 0 2

P T

A B

1 0 2

P T

Solenoid actuated
P Floating center 3 / 4 DCV
( Smaller valve )
Fig 4.21a. Symbol for Indirect actuation
For 3 / 4 DCV

A B

1 0 2

P T

Fig 4.21b. Combined symbol :.Solenoid actuated internal pilot operated,

3 / 4 closed center DCV
Valve Lap: Valve lap is essential. It the sealing length that exist between various
pressure ports. It is achieved by the tolerance between the spool and the housing.
Compared to poppet valves, hermetic sealing is not possible. The seal effect is therefore
dependent on the dimension of the sealing aperture and the fluid viscosity. There are two
types of lap.
1. Lap in stationary condition: The leakage rate between various pressure port is
dependent on:
• Seal length between port and spool (S ) : If large lap is provided leakage is less, but
it increases the switching time. In servo valves S =0
• The spool play or clearance- It is clearance space ( C )between spool and the bore.
Large clearance means more leakage.The diameter of the spool.
• The pressure differential .
•
. S Ports
Spool

Bore

Fig 4.22: Seal Length Between port and spool

Ports
Spool

C Bore

Fig 4.23 : Clearance between spool and Bore

Note : C = 20µ
2. Lap during Switching or cross over condition in DCV: Two position directional
control valve can be equipped with a cross over center condition. This center
condition is what an actuator sees for a fraction of a second as the valve shifts from
one extreme to another. That is, it indicates how the port connection are established
during change over of the valve. Open and Closed center conditions are the most
frequently used cross over.
• Negative lap during switching ( or under lap ) - Open center cross over:
 During changeover from one switching position to another switching position
momentarily all the ports are interconnected with one another. The advantage is there is
no switching impact i.e, no pressure peak . the disadvantage is that the pressure falls
momentarily which may lower the load , the accumulator is emptied etc.,
A B

1 2

P T
Fig 4.24 Open Center cross over
• Positive lap during switch over ( over lap) ; Closed center cross over:
During changeover from one switching position to another switching position
momentarily all the ports are blocked. Advantage: The valve does not allow the
system pressure to drop severely during a shift. As the directional valve shifts system
pressure is immediately present to reverse the actuator. The disadvantage is pressure
peaks momentarily in positive type of valve cross over This type can be lpressure
pre- opening and tank pre-opening.
a. Pressure pre- opening: During change over pressure port connection closes last
and it opens first in next switching position. It is mostly used for control of
hydraulic motors. It provides instant reversing.
A B

P T
Fig 4.25. Pressure pre- opening
b. Tank pre- opening: During change over tank port connection closes last and it
opens first in next switching position. It is used for control of cylinders with
differential areas ( decompression facility).
A B

P T
Fig 4.26. Tank pre- opening
In reversing, a high inertial loads, it is preferable to use open center cross
over which allows the actuator lines to bleed slightly before reversal takes place. If a
closed center cross over is used with this type of load, the inertia of the load, would
build up pressure in an actuator line which could be quite high.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE

These are the units ensuring the control of pressure. A throttling orifice is present in
the valve and by variation of orifice, the pressure level can be controlled or at a
particular pressure, a switching action can be influenced.
Classification: Basically one differentiates between pressure regulating and pressure
switching valves. Pressure regulation valves are for maintaining a constant pressure in
a system. Pressure switching valves, apart from a definite control function they also
perform a switching action. Such valves not only provide a switching signal, as in the
case of pressure switches, but also operate themselves as a DCV type of switching
within the hydraulic system. In the case of pressure switching valves the piston or
spool of the valve remains at a definite position either open or closed depending on
the control signal (Yes or No ). The control signal is generally external to the valve.
In the case of pressure regulating valves the piston or spool takes up in between
position depending on the variable pressure and flow characteristics.
As in DCV these valves can also have the valve element either poppet or spool.. With

poppet the sealing is good. But small movement of poppet allows large flows thereby excessive drop

of pressure than required. This results is impact effect.

The spool type of valves allow very fine control or throttling of flows. But of course,
the sealing is not very good.
Opening and closing pressure difference:
The minimum pressure at which the valve action starts is called as the opening
or cracking pressure. The difference between the cracking pressure (commencement
of flow) and the pressure obtained at maximum flow ( normal flow without change of
spring force ) is referred as the “opening pressure difference”.
Similarly the difference between the pressure corresponding to nominal flow and no
flow during closing of the valve is referred as “closing pressure difference”. This is
larger than the opening due to the flow forces acting in the opening direction as also
the hysterisis in the spring.
Different types of pressure control valves: Pressure control valves are usually
named for their primary function such as relief valve, sequence valve, unloading
valve, pressure reducing valve and counterbalance valve.

1. Pressure Relief valve:

One of the most important pressure control is the relief valve. Its primary function
is to limit the system pressure. Relief valve is found in practically all the Hydraulic
system. It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the pressure to a
specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to the tank. There are two
basic design, a) direct operated or inertia type, b) the pilot operated design
( compound relief valve ).
 Direct type of relief valve: The direct type of relief valve has two basic working
port connection. One port is connected to pump and the other to the tank. The valve
consists of a spring chamber ( control chamber ) with an adjustable bias spring which
pushes the poppet to its seat, closing the valve. A small opening connecting the tank
is provided in the control chamber to drain the oil that may collected due to leakage,
thereby preventing the failure of valve. System pressure opposes the poppet, which is
held on its seat by an adjustable spring. The adjustable spring is set to limit the
maximum pressure that can be attained within the system. The poppet is held in
position by spring force plus the dead weight of spool. When pressure exceeds this
force, the poppet is forced off its seat and excess fluid in the system is bypassed back
to the reservoir. When system pressure drops to or below established set value, the
valve automatically reseats. Fig 4.27a shows a direct pressure relief valve. Fig 4.27b
shows the symbol.

Screw
(for pressure setting)

Spring Control
Chamber

Drain
(to remove oil from Poppet

Tank

Pump ( When Pressure here is less than

the valve setting, the valve is closed )
Fig 4.27a. Pressure Relief Valve

Fig 4.27b. Symbol

2. Unloading Valve: A unloading valve is used to permit a pump to operate at
minimum load. The unloading valve is normally closed valve with the spool closing
the tank port. It operates on the principle that pump delivery is diverted to the tank,
when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool against the spring force.
The valve is held open by pilot pressure until the pump delivery is again needed by
the circuit. The pilot fluid applied to move the spool upwards becomes a static
system. In other words, it merely pushes the spool upward and maintains a static
pressure to hold it open. When the pilot pressure is relaxed, the spool is moved down
by the spring, and flow is diverted through the valve into the circuit. The spool type
unloading valve is shown in fig 4.28. The valve consists of a spring chamber ( control
chamber ) with an adjustable bias spring which pushes the spool closing the tank
port. The valve has 2 ports one connecting the pump and other connecting the tank.
The movement of the spool inside the bore opens or closes the ports. Drain is
provided to remove the oil that may collect in control chamber due to leakage,
thereby preventing valve failure.
Unloading valves also helps to prevent heat buildup in a system, which is
caused by fluid being discharged over the relief valve at its pressure setting. The
unloading valve is used in system having one or more fixed delivery pump to control
the amount of flow at any given time. A well designed hydraulic circuit uses the
correct amount of fluid for each phase of a given cycle of machine operations. When
pressure builds up during the feed phase of the cycle, the pilot pressure opens the
unloading valve, causing the large discharge pump to bypass its flow back to the tank.

Screw
(for pressure setting)

Spring Control
Chamber

Drain

Tank

Pump

Remote
Pilot Pressure Signal
Fig 4.28b
Unloading Valve

Fig 4.28a. Symbol

Problem 1. A pressure relief valve has a pressure setting of 69 bars. a) Compute

the hydraulic power loss across this valve if it returns all the flow back to the tank
from a 0.0013m3/s discharge pump. b) If unloading valve is used to unload the pump
and if the pump discharge pressure during unloading equals 1.72 bars, how much
power is being wasted ?

Solution :
b) Pressure setting, p= 69 bars = 69*105 N / m2 ;
Discharge, Q = 0.0013m3/ s
Power=?

We know, Hydraulic Power = p * Q watts

Hydraulic power loss = 69 *105 *0.0013 = 8970 watts Ans

b) Discharge pressure during unloading , p = 1.72 bars

Hydraulic power loss = 1.72*105 * 0.0013 = 223.6 watts Ans

One can see that by using unloading valve to unload the pump flow, the power
loss is very much less compared to that of relief valve.

3. Sequence valve: A sequence valve’s primary function is to divert flow in a

predetermined sequence. It is a pressure- actuated valve similar in construction to a
relief valve and normally a closed valve. The sequence valve operates on the principle
that when main system pressure overcomes the spring setting, the valve spool moves
up allowing flow from the secondary port.
A sequence valve may be direct or remote pilot- operated. These valves are used
to control the operational cycle of a machine automatically. Sequence valve may be
directly operated as shown in the fig 4.29b. The valve consists of a spring chamber (
control chamber ) with an adjustable bias spring for setting the pressure. It consists of
2 ports, one main port connecting the main line and other (secondary port) connected
to the secondary circuit. Usually the secondary port is closed by the spool. A small
opening connecting the tank is provided in the control chamber to drain the oil that
may collected due to leakage, thereby preventing the failure of valve. The pressure is
effective on the end of the spool. This pressure will urge the spool against the spring
force and at the preset value of the spring it allows a passage from the primary to the
secondary port. For remote operation it is necessary to close the passage used for
direct operation by plugging and provide a separate pressure source as required for
the operation of the spool in the remote operation mode.

Fig 4.29a. Symbol

Screw
(for pressure setting)

Spring Control
Chamber
Drain

Secondary Port

Pressure ( Main )
Line Spool

Direct Operation
(Control Signal)

Remote
Pilot operation
(Plugged) Fig 4.29b. Sequence valve

4. Counterbalance Valve: A Counterbalance valve is used to maintain back

pressure to prevent a load from failing. One can find application in vertical presses,
lift trucks, loaders and other machine tool that must position or hold suspended loads.
The counterbalance valve shown in the figure 4.30a. The valve consists of a
spring chamber ( control chamber ) with an adjustable bias spring which controls the
movement of spool. It has two ports, one connected to load and the other to the tank
A small opening connecting the tank is provided in the control chamber to drain the
oil that may collected due to leakage, thereby preventing the failure of valve.
Counterbalance valve acts on the principle that fluid is trapped under pressure until
pilot pressure, either direct or remote(only one opened at a time and other blocked ),
has to overcomes the spring force setting in the valve. Fluid is then allowed to escape,
letting the load to descend under control. This valve can be used as a “braking
valve” for decelerating heavy inertia load.
A counterbalance valve is normally closed valve and will remain closed until
acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source. Therefore, a much lower spring force is
sufficient to allow the valve to operate at a lesser pilot pressure.

Screw
(for pressure setting)

Spring Control
Chamber
Drain

Load

Tank Spool

Direct Operation

Control signal Line

Remote
Pilot operation
(Plugged)

Fig 4.30a Counter Balance Valve

Direct pilot

Remote pilot

Fig 4.30b. Symbol

 When a counterbalance valve is used on large vertical presses, it may important
to analyze the source of pilot pressure. Figure 4.31 (a) and (b) illustrate the
comparison between direct and remote pilot signal

From Pump From Pump

To
Tank To Tank

200bar +

100 kN 100 kN

Fig 4.31a Direct Pilot Fig 4.31b. Remote pilot

Let Piston area, AP = 100 cm2 =0.01 m2

Ring area, AR = 50 cm2 = 0.005m2
Load , F = 100 kN = 100000 N
The pressure to support the load is therefore equal to ,
p = F / AR = 100000 / 0.005 = 20*106 N / m2 = 200 bar

Hence a pressure of 200 bar is needed to support the load. If pilot pressure is
taken directly as shown in fig 4.31a, then the counterbalance valve should open at
about 200 bar or slightly higher because of inertia and friction. Hence the spring
setting is about 200 bar or slightly higher. In other case ( fig 4.31b) if remote pilot
pressure is taken from the pressure line at the top of the cylinder, a choice of the
operating pressure can be made for the valve. Since the valve is normally closed
valve and will remain closed until acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source.
Therefore, a much lower spring force can be selected to allow the valve to operate at
a lesser pilot pressure.

5. Pressure Reducing Valve: Pressure reducing valve is used to limit its outlet
pressure. Reducing valves are used for the operation of branch circuits, where
pressure may vary from the main system pressures.
The pressure reducing valve is normally an open type valve. Figure 4.32 shows
the pressure reducing valve. The valve consists of a spring chamber ( control
chamber ) with an adjustable spring to set the pressure as required by the system. A
small opening is provided in the control chamber to drain the oil that may be
collected due to leakage, thereby preventing the failure of valve. A free flow passage
is provided through the valve from inlet to secondary outlet until a signal from the
outlet side tends to throttle the passage through the valve. The valve operates on the
principle that pilot pressure from the controlled pressure side opposes an adjustable
bias spring normally holding the valve open. When the two forces are equal, the
pressure downstream is controlled at the pressure setting. Thus, it can be visualized
that if the spring has greater force, the valves open wider and if the controlled
pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the
flow.

Screw
(for pressure setting)

Spring Control Chamber

Drain

Pump Or Spool
Main Pressure
Side
Out
(Controlled Pressure )

Control Signal Line

Fig 4.32a Pressure Reducing Valve

Fig 4.32b. Symbol

 CHAPTER 4

HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

A Hydraulic circuit is a group of components such as pumps, actuators, and

control valves so arranged that they will perform a useful task. When analyzing or
designing a hydraulic circuit, the following three important considerations must be taken
into account:
1. Safety of operation
2. Performance of desired function
3. Efficiency of operation

It is very important for the fluid power ( Hydraulics and Pneumatics ) designer to
have a working knowledge of components and how they operate in a circuit.
Hydraulic circuits are developed through the use of graphical symbols for all
components. The symbols have to conform to the ANSI specification.

5.1 Control of a Single- Acting Hydraulic Cylinder :

A single-acting cylinder can exert a force in only the extending direction

as fluid from the pump enters the blank end of the cylinder ( usually left side of the
piston). Single- acting cylinder do not retract hydraulically. Retraction is accomplished
by using gravity or by the inclusion of a compression spring in the rod end.

Fig 5.1 Symbol

Force during extension stroke is , Fext = p * AP

Velocity during extension stroke is , vP ext = QP / AP
The force and velocity during retraction stroke depends upon spring rate as
single – acting cylinder do not retract hydraulically
Figure 5.2 shows a two- postion, three way, manually operated, spring offset
directional control valve ( DCV ) used to control the operation of a single – acting
cylinder. In the spring offset mode, full pump flow goes the tank via the pressure relief
valve. The spring in the rod end of the cylinder retracts the piston as oil from the blank
end ‘A’ drains back to the rank. When the valve is manually actuated the pump flow
goes to the cylinder blank end ‘A’ via DCV 1 position. This extends the cylinder. At full
extension, pump flow goes through the relief valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows the
cylinder to retract as the DCV shift into its spring – offset mode.
 C

A
1 0

D P T

E
P R
T

F T

Fig 5.2. Control of Single -Acting Hydraulic Cylinder.

C = Single acting cylinder
P = Pump
E = Electric Motor
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =2-position, 3 way DCV Manually operated and spring
return
5.2 Control of Double -Acting Hydraulic Cylinder :
Double –Acting cylinders can be extended and retracted hydraulically. Thus, an
output force can be applied in two directions.

A B

Fig 5.3 Double acting cylinder

 The output force ( F ) and piston velocity of double acting cylinder are not the
same for extension and retraction strokes. During the extension stroke, fluid enters the
blank end ( A ) of the cylinder through the entire circular area of the piston ( AP ).
However during the retraction stroke, fluid enters the rod end through the smaller
annular area between the rod and cylinder bore ( AP – AR ), where AP = piston area , and
AR = rod area. Since AP = is grreater than ( AP – AR ), the retraction velocity is greater
than the extension velocity since the pump flow rate is constant.

Similarly during the extension stroke, fluid pressure bears on the entire area of
the piston( AP ). However during the retraction stroke, fluid pressure bears on the smaller
annular area ( AP – AR ). The difference in area accounts for the difference in output
force, with the output force is greater during extension.

Extending stroke :
Force, Fext = p * AP -------- 1
Velocity, vext = Qp / AP -----2

Retraction Stroke :
Force, Fret = p * ( AP – Ar ) --- 3
Velocity, vret = Qp / (AP – Ar ) --- 4

It can be seen from the above 4 equations that force during extension
stroke and velocity of piston during retraction stroke is greater for the same operating
pressure and flow rate.
The power developed by a hydraulic cylinder for either the extension or retraction
stroke, can be found out by (velocity multiplied by force) or from ( flow rate multiplied
by operating pressure )

Power ( kW ) = vp ( m / s ) * F ( kN ) = Q ( m3 / s) * p ( kPa )

Figure 5.4 shows a circuit used to control a double – acting hydraulic cylinder.
When the four way valve is in centered configuration , the cylinder is hydraulically
locked as the ports A and B is blocked. The pump flow is unloaded back to the tank at
essentially atmospheric pressure.
When the four way valve is actuated into the 1st position , the cylinder is extended
against its load force Fload as oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder from port P
through port A . Also, oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the tank via
the four way valve from port B through port T. Note that the cylinder would not extend
if this oil were not allowed to leave the rod end of the cylinder.
When the four way valve is actuated into the 2st position , the cylinder is retracts
against as oil flows to the rod end of the cylinder from port P through port B. Oil in the
blank end of the cylinder is returned to the tank from port A to port T.
At the end of the stroke, there is no system demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes
through the relief valve at its pressure- level setting unless the four- way valve is
deactivated. In any event the system is protected from any cylinder overloads.
 F LOAD
C

A B

1 0 2

D P T

E P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.4. Control of Double -acting hydraulic cylinder.
C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
E = Electric Motor
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated and
Spring Centered DCV

Problem 1. A double acting cylinder is hooked up to reciprocate. The relief valve setting
is 70 bars. The piston area is 0.016 m2 and the rod area is 0.0045 m2. If the pump flow is
0.0013m3 / s, find the cylinder speed and load- carrying capacity for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke.

Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 70 bars = 70 * 105 N /m2
Piston area, Ap = 0.016 m2
Rod area, Ar = 0.0045 m2
 Pump flow, Qp = 0.0013 m3/s
a) Extending Stroke:
Cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / AP
= 0.0013 / 0.016
= 0.0813 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * AP

= 70 * 105 * 0.016
= 112000 N = 112kN

b) Retracting Stroke:
Cylinder Speed, vp Ret = Qp / (AP – Ar)
= 0.0013 / ( 0.016 - 0.0045 )
= 0.113 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 70 * 105 * ( 0.016 - 0.0045
= 80500 N = 80.5kN

5.3 Regenerative circuit:

Operation
Figure 5.5 shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the extending
speed of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Here the pipelines to both ends of the
hydraulic cylinder are connected to pump, one end (A) through the 2 / 3 way DCV and
the other end (B) directly. The operation of the cylinder during the retraction stroke is the
same as that of a regular double-acting cylinder. Fluid flows through the DCV zero
position from the actuator A side during retraction. In this position, fluid from the pump
directly enters the rod end of the cylinder ( direct connection). Fluid in the blank end
drains back to the tank through the DCV as the cylinder retracts.
When the DCV is shifted to 1 position due to manual actuation, the cylinder
extends. The speed of extension is greater than that for a regular double-acting cylinder
because flow from the rod end (QR) regenerates with the pump flow (QP) to provide a
total flow rate (QT), which is greater than the pump flow rate to the A side of the
cylinder. ( Area of blank end is more than rod end, thereby blank end provide least
resistance )
 C
A B

1 0

D P T

E P

F
T

Fig 5.5. Regenerative circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
E = Electric Motor
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =2-position, 3 way , Manually operated and
Spring return DCV

Cylinder Extending Speed

The total flow rate entering the blank end (A) of the cylinder equals the pump
flow rate plus the regenerative flow rate coming from the rod end of the cylinder:
QT = QP + QR
Or QP = QT - QR ---(1)
We know that the total flow rate equals the piston area multiplied by the
extending speed of the piston (Vpext). Similarly, the regenerative flow rate equals the
difference of the piston and rod areas (Ap - Ar) multiplied by the extending speed of the
piston. Substituting these two relationships into the eq (1) yields
QP = ApVpext – (Ap – Ar)Vpext
 Therefore, QP = ArVpext
Qp
Hence the extending speed of the piston, V pext = --- (2)
Ar
Thus the extending speed equals the pump flow divided by the rod area. Thus, a
small rod area (which produces a large regenerative flow) provides a large extending
speed. In fact the extending speed can be greater than the retracting speed if the rod area
is made small enough.
Ratio of Extending and Retracting Speeds
Let’s determine under what condition the extending and retracting speeds are equal.
We know that the retracting speed (Vpret) equals the pump flow divided by the difference
of the piston and rod areas:
Qp
V pret = ---(3)
A p − Ar

Vp ext Qp / Ar A p − Ar
Dividing eq(1) with (4) we have = =
Vp ret Qp /( Ap − Ar ) Ar
Simplifying we obtain the ratio of extension speed and
retracting speed
Vp ext Ap
= −1 --(4)
Vp ret Ar
We see that when the piston area equals two times the rod area, the extension and
retraction speeds are equal. In general, the greater the ratio of piston area to rod area, the
greater the ratio of extending speed to retracting speed.
Load-Carrying Capacity during Extension :
It should be noted that the load-carrying capacity of a regenerative cylinder during
extension is less than that obtained from a regular double-acting cylinder. The load-
carrying capacity (Fload) for a regenerative cylinder equals the pressure multiplied by
piston rod area rather than the pressure multiplied by piston area. This is due to the same
system pressure acting on both sides of the piston during the extending stroke of the
regenerative cylinder..
Thus Fload = PAr
Thus, the power obtained from the regenerative cylinder is less because the
extending speed is increased at the expense of load-carrying capacity.
5.4 Regenerative center in Drilling Machine:

C F LOAD

A B C – Double acting cylinder

D – 3 Position, 4 Way,
1 0 2 Regenerative center,
D P T solenoid actuated,
spring centered DCV
R – Relief Valve
E
R F - Filter
P E – Electric Motor
F T T- Tank
T P - Pump

Fig 5.6 Application in Drilling Machine

Figure 5.6 shows an application of regenerative circuit in a drilling machine. Here a

3-position, 4-way , regenerative center directional control valve is used.
When the DCV is in the spring-centered position, port P is connected to A and B and
tank port T is blocked. In this position pump flow goes to A and flow from rod end of
the cylinder also joins the pump flow to gives rapid spindle advance ( no work is done
during this period )
Why does the spring-centered position give rapid extension of the cylinder (drill
spindle)? The reason is simple. Oil from the rod end regenerates with the pump flow
going to the blank end. This effectively increases pump flow to the blank end of the
cylinder during the spring-centered mode of operation. Once again we have a
regenerative cylinder. It should be noted that the cylinder used in a regenerative circuit is
actually a regular double-acting cylinder. What makes it a regenerative cylinder is the
way it is hooked up in the circuit. The blank and rod ends are connected in parallel
during the extending stroke of a regenerative center.
When the DCV shifts to 1st position, P is connected to A and B to T gives slow feed
(extension) when the drill starts to cut into the work piece. Similarly when the DCV
shifts to 2nd position, P is connected to B and A is connected to T, since the ring area is
less the cylinder will have fast return motion.
 Problem 2. A double acting cylinder is hooked up in the regenerative circuit. The relief
valve setting is 70 bars. The piston area is 0.016 m2 and the rod area is 0.0045 m2. If the
pump flow is 0.0013m3 / s, find the cylinder speed and load- carrying capacity for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke.
Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 70 bars = 70 * 105 N /m2
Piston area, Ap = 0.016 m2
Rod area, Ar = 0.0045 m2
Pump flow, Qp = 0.0013 m3/s
c) Extending Stroke:
Cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / Ar
(Regenerative Speed) = 0.0013 / 0.0045
= 0.29 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * Ar

= 70 * 105 * 0.0045
= 31500 N = 31.5kN
d) Retracting Stroke:
Cylinder Speed, vp Ret = Qp / (AP – Ar)
= 0.0013 / ( 0.016 - 0.0045 )
= 0.113 m / s

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 70 * 105 * ( 0.016 - 0.0045
= 80500 N = 80.5kN

3. A double acting cylinder is hooked up in the regenerative circuit. The relief valve
setting is 100 bars and the pump flow is 0.0016m3 / s. If the regenerative and retracting
speed are equal to 0.25m/ s, find the piston and rod area and also load- carrying capacity
for the
a. Extending stroke
b. Retracting stroke
Solution:
Relief valve pressure setting, p = 105 bars = 105 * 105 N /m2
Pump flow, Qp = 0.0016 m3/s, Speed = 0.25 m/ s
We have regenerative cylinder speed, vp ext = Qp / Ar
Therefore Rod area, Ar = Qp / vp ext
= 0.0016 / 0.25
= 0.0064m2
•
Piston Area, AP = 2 Ar = 2* 0.0064 = 0.0128 m2

a) Extending Stroke:
Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * Ar
= 105 * 105 * 0.0064
= 67200 N = 67.2kN

b) Retracting Stroke:

Load carrying capacity, Fload = p * ( AP – Ar )

= 105 * 105 * ( 0.0128 - 0.0065 )
= 67200 N = 67.2kN

5.5 Pump – unloading circuit :

F LOAD
C

A B

1 0 2

D P T

CV

P
U
F T
T
Fig 5.7. Pump unloading circuit.
C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
T = Tank
F = Filter
 U = unloadingValve
D =3-position, 4 way ,closed center, Manually operated and
Spring Centered DCV

In Fig. 5.7 we see a circuit using an unloading valve to unload a pump. The unloading
valve opens when the cylinder reaches the end of its extension stroke because the check
valve keeps high-pressure oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve. When the DCV is
shifted to retract the cylinder, the motion of the piston reduces the pressure in the pilot
line of the unloading valve. This resets the unloading valve until the cylinder is fully
retracted, at which point the unloading valve unloads the pump. Thus, the unloading
valve unloads the pump at the ends of the extending and retraction strokes as well as in
the spring-centered position of the DCV.

5.6 Double Pump Hydraulic system ( Hi – Lo circuit )

C F LOAD

A B
0
1 2

D P T

CV

R P1 P2 U
T T
F F

Fig 5.8 Double pump Hydraulic system

P1 -- Low discharge, High pressure pump CV – Check valve

P2 -- High discharge, Low pressure pump D – 3 Position, 4 Way, closed
R -- Relief valve center, manual actuated DCV
U – Unloading valve C- Double acting cylinder
T - Tank F - Filter
 Figure 5-8 shows a circuit that uses two pumps, one high-pressure, low-flow pump
and the other low-pressure, high-flow pump. One can find application in a punch press
in which the hydraulic ram must extend rapidly over a large distance with very low
pressure but high flow requirements. However, during the short motion portion when the
punching operation occurs, the pressure requirements are high due to the punching load.
Since the cylinder travel is small during the punching operation, the flow-rate
requirements are also low.
The circuit shown eliminates the necessity of having a very expensive high-
pressure, high-flow pump. When the punching operation begins, the increased pressure
opens the unloading valve to unload the low-pressure pump. The purpose of the relief
valve is to protect the high-pressure pump from overpressure at the end of the cylinder
stroke. The check valve protects the low-pressure pump from high pressure, which
occurs during the punching operation, at the ends of the cylinder stroke, and when the
DCV is in its spring-centered mode.

5.7 Counter Balance Valve Application :

CB

F LOAD
CV
A B

1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T
 Fig 5.9. Counter balance application
C = Double acting cylinder mounted vertically
P = Pump
CB = Counter Balance Valve
CV = Check Valve
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =3-position, 4 way , Tandem center, Manually operated and
Spring return DCV

Figure 5.9 illustrates the use of a counterbalance or back-pressure valve to keep a

vertically mounted cylinder in the upward position while the pump is idling i.e when the
DCV is in its center position. During the downward movement of the cylinder the
counterbalance valve is set to open at slightly above the pressure required to hold the
piston up ( check valve does not permit flow in this direction ). The control signal for the
counterbalance valve can be obtained from the blank end or rod end of the cylinder. If
derived from the rod end, the pressure setting of the counter balance valve equals FL/
(AP-Ar ). If derived from blank end the pressure setting equals FL / AP. This pressure is
less and hence usually it has to be derived from blank end. This permits the cylinder to
be forced downward when pressure is applied on the top. The check valve is used to lift
the cylinder up as the counterbalance valve is closed in this direction. The Tandem -
center directional control valve unloads the pump. The DCV is a manually -actuated,
spring-centered valve with tandem-center flow path configuration.

5.8 Hydraulic Cylinder Sequencing circuit:

A sequence valve causes operations in a hydraulic circuit sequentially. Figure 5.10 is
an example where two sequence valves are used to control the sequence of operations of
two double-acting cylinders C1 and C2 . When the DCV is shifted into its 1st position, the
left cylinder extends completely, and only when the left cylinder pressure reaches the
pressure setting of sequence valve, the valve opens and then the right cylinder extends. If
the DCV is then shifted into its 2nd position, the right cylinder retracts fully, and then the
left cylinder retracts. Hence this sequence of cylinder operation is controlled by the
sequence valves. The spring centered position of the DCV locks both cylinders in place.
One can find the application of this circuit in press circuit. For example, the left
cylinder the clamping cylinder C1 could extend and clamp a workpiece. Then the right
cylinder C2, the punching cylinder extends to punch a hole in the workpiece. The right
cylinder then retracts the punch , and then the left cylinder retracts to declamp the
workpiece for removal. Obviously these machining operations must occur in the proper
sequence as established by the sequence valves in the circuit.
C1 C2

CV

SV

SV

D
T

P R

Fig 5.10. Cylinder Sequencing circuit

Operation sequence is : C1 + C2+ C2- C1 -
+ is Extension of piston
- is Retraction of piston
C1 & C2 = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump ; SV = Sequence Valve ;
R = Relief Valve
CV = Check Valve ;
T = Tank ; F = Filter
D =3-position, 4 way , Tandem center, Solenoid operated and
Spring return DCV
Figure 5.11 Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System :

CV CV

SV SV

D
T

P R

Fig 5.11. Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System using Sequence valves

C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
SV = Sequence Valve
CV = Check Valve ; R = Relief Valve
T = Tank ; F = Filter
D =2-position, 4 way , pilot operated DCV
 Figure 5.11 shows a circuit that produces continuous automatic reciprocation of a
hydraulic cylinder. This is accomplished by using two sequence valves, each of which
senses a stroke completion by the corresponding buildup of pressure. Each check valve
and corresponding pilot line prevents shifting of the four-way valve until the particular
stroke of the cylinder has been completed. The check valves are needed to allow pilot oil
to leave either end of the DCV while pilot pressure is applied to the opposite end. This
permits the spool of the DCV to shift as required.
An alternative circuit diagram is shown in Figure 5.12 . In the circuit as the cylinder
reciprocates, the pilot directional valve is operated by solenoid DCV to supply fluid to
either end of the main four way directional valve. This causes the machine to reciprocate
automatically, and it will not stop until pump is shut off.

Limit Switch

C 11 2

A B D2

1 2
D1
P T

P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.12. Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System using DCV’s.
C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
R = Relief Valve
T = Tank ; F = Filter
D1 =2-position, 4 way , pilot operated DCV
D2 =2-position, 4 way , mechanical operated DCV
 The limit switch 1 and 2 will alternatively energize and deenergize solenoid
,thereby changing the directional of fluid flow into the pilot

5.10. Locked cylinder using pilot check valves:

F LOAD
C

PCV1 PCV2

A B

1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T

Fig 5.13. Locked Cylinder using Pilot Check Valve.

C = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
PCV1 & PCV2 = Pilot Check Valve
R = Relief Valve
T = Tank ; F = Filter
D =3-position, 4 way , closed center, manually operated DCV
 In many cylinder applications, it is necessary to lock the cylinder so that its piston
cannot be moved due to an external force acting on the piston rod. One method for
locking a cylinder in this fashion is by using pilot check valves, as shown in Fig 5.13.
The cylinder can be extended and retracted as normally done by the action of the
directional control valve. If regular check valves were used, the cylinder could not be
extended or retracted by the action of the DCV. An external force, acting on the piston
rod, will not move the piston in either direction because reverse flow through either pilot
check valve is not permitted under these conditions.

5.12. CYLINDER SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUITS :

a. Cylinder connected in series : Figure 5.14 is a very interesting circuit, which seems
to show to show how two identical cylinders can be synchronized by piping them in
parallel. However, even if the two cylinders are identical, it would be necessary for the
loads on the cylinders to be identical in order for them to extend in exact synchronization.
If the loads are not exactly identical (as is always the case), the cylinder with the smaller
load would extend first because it would move at a lower pressure level. After this
cylinder has fully completed its stroke, the system pressure will increase to the higher
level required to extend the cylinder with the greater load. It should be pointed out that no
two cylinders are really identical. For example, differences in packing friction will vary
from cylinder to cylinder. This alone would prevent cylinder synchronization for the
circuit of Fig. 5.14.
C1 & C2 = Double acting cylinder
P = Pump
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =3-position, 4 way , Tandem center, Solenoid operated and
Spring return DCV
 C1 F Load

C2
FLoad

A B

1 0 2

D P T

E P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.14. Cylinder hooked in parallel for synchronizing
(will not operate)

b. Cylinders connected in Series :

The circuit of Fig. 5.15 shows a simple way to synchronize two cylinders. Fluid from the
pump is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 1, and fluid from the rod end of cylinder 1
is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 2. Fluid returns to the tank from the rod end of
cylinder 2 via the DCV. Thus, the cylinders are hooked in series. For the two cylinders to
be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must equal the difference between the areas
of the piston and rod for cylinder 1. It should also be noted that the pump must be capable
of delivering a pressure equal to that required for the piston of cylinder 1 by itself to
overcome the loads acting on both cylinders. It should be noted that the pressure at the
blank end of cylinder 1 and the rod end of cylinder 2 are equal as per Pascal’s law.
 P1Ap1 - P2(Ap1 – Ar1) = F1
And
P2Ap2 - P3(Ap2-Ar2) = F2

Adding both equations and noting that AP2 = Ap1 – AR1 and that P3 = 0 (due to the drain
line to the tank), we obtain the desired result
P1Ap1= F1 + F2

P1
P2
C1 F Load

P2 P3

C2
FLoad

A B

1 0 2

D P T

P R
T
F
T
Fig 5.15. Cylinder hooked in Series for synchronizing
( Will Operate )
C1 & C2 = Double acting cylinder hooked in series
P = Pump
T = Tank
F = Filter
R = Relief Valve
D =3-position, 4 way , Tandem center, Solenoid operated and
Spring return DCV
 Speed control of Hydraulic Cylinder: Speed control of a hydraulic cylinder is
accomplished using a flow control valve. A flow control valve regulate the speed of the
cylinder by controlling the flow rate to and of the actuator.
There are 3 types of speed control:
• Meter- in circuit ( Primary control )
• Meter-out circuit ( Secondary control )
• Bleed - off circuit ( By pass control )

1. Meter – in Circuit : In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the pump and the actuator. Thereby, it controls the amount of fluid going into
the actuator. Fig 5.16 shows meter-in circuit.

F LOAD
C

CV FCV

1 0 2
D

F R

Fig 5.16. Meter – in circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder ; P = Pump ; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; CV = Check Valve ; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated ,Spring Centered DCV
 When the directional control valve is actuated to the 1st position, oil flows through
the flow control valve to extend the cylinder. The extending speed of the cylinder
depends on the setting (percent of full opening position) of the flow control valve.
When the directional control valve is actuated to the 2nd position, the cylinder retracts as
oil flows from the cylinder to the oil tank through the check valve as well as the flow
control valve.
Analysis of Extending Speed Control :
During the extension stroke, if the flow control valve is fully open, all the flow from the
pump goes to the cylinder to produce maximum cylinder speed. As the flow control valve
is partially closed its pressure drop increases. This causes an increase in pressure p1.
Continued closing of the flow control valve ultimately results in pressure p1 reaching and
exceeding the cracking pressure of the pressure relief valve (PRV). The result is a slower
cylinder speed since part of the pump flow goes back to the oil tank through the PRV
setting and the amount of pump flow that is not desired by the cylinder flows through the
PRV. An analysis to determine the extending speed is given as follows:
The flow rate to the cylinder equals pump flow rate minus the flow rate through the PRV.
Qcyl = Qpump – QPRV
The flow rate through the flow control valve (FCV) is governed by
QFCV = CV √ ∆P / Sg = CV √ (p1 – p2 ) / Sg
Where ∆ P = pressure drop across FCV
CV = capacity coefficient of FCV
Sg = specific gravity of oil
Pressure p1 = pPRV = Relief valve pressure setting
Also, pressure p3 = 0 (ignoring small frictional pressure drop in drain line from rod
end of cylinder to oil tank).
Pressure p2 can be obtained by summing forces on the hydraulic cylinder.
p2Apiston = Fload or p2 = Fload /Apiston ---(a)
Finally the extending speed of the cylinder is found.
Vcyl = Qcyl / Apiston = QFCV /Apiston ------ (b)

using Eqs. (a) and (b) yields the final result.

Cv PPRV − Fload / A piston

Vcyl = ------ ( 1)
A piston Sg
 As can be seen by Eq. 1, by varying the setting of the flow control system, and thus
the value of CV, the desired extending speed of the cylinder can be achieved.
2. Meter – out Circuit : In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the actuator and the tank . Thereby, it controls the amount of fluid going out of
the actuator. Fig 5.17 shows a meter-out circuit.

F LOAD
C

1 0 2

Fig 5.17. Meter – out Circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; CV = Check Valve ; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated and
Spring Centered DCV

Meter-in systems are used primarily when the external load opposes the
direction of motion of the hydraulic cylinder. An example of the opposite situation is the
case of a weight pulling downward on the piston rod of a vertical cylinder. In this case
the weight would suddenly drop by pulling the piston rod down if a meter-in system is
used even if the flow control valve is completely closed. Thus, the meter-out system is
generally preferred over the meter-in type. One drawback of a meter-out system is the
possibility of excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder while it is
extending. This is due to the magnitude of back pressure that the flow control valve can
create depending on its nearness to being fully closed as well as the size of the external
load and the piston-to-rod area ratio of the cylinder. In addition an excessive pressure
buildup in the rod end of the cylinder results in a large pressure drop across the flow
control valve. This produce the undesirable effect of a high heat generation rate with a
resulting increase in oil temperature.

3. Bleed – off Circuit : In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed
between the pressure line and return line . Thereby, it controls the fluid by bleeding off
the excess not needed by the working cylinder. Fig 5.18 shows the bleed-off circuit.

F LOAD
C

1 0 2

Fig 5.18. Bleed – 0ff Circuit.

C = Double acting cylinder; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
 D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated , Spring Centered DCV
This type of flow control is much more efficient than the inlet restricting type for
meter-in, because the bypass feature allows fluid to be exhausted to the tank at just
slightly higher pressure than that necessary to do the work. With the meter-in type, pump
delivery not used would discharge over the main relief valve at maximum pressure.

Problem 1 : An actuator forward speed is controlled by a meter-in circuit. The pressure setting of relief

valve is 50 bar and the pump discharge = 30 litres /min. The cylinder has to carry a load of 3600 N during

the forward motion. The area of piston is 15 cm2 and rod area = 8cm2. The flow control valve is set to allow

only 10 litres/ min. Calculate the power input to motor, forward speed and return speed and efficiency of

the circuit.

Solution:
p2 = Fload / AP = 3600 / 0.0015
= 2400000N/m2 = 24 bar.
∆P = 50-24 = 26 bar
• Power input to the motor = p1*QP / ηm
=50 *105*0.0005/0.85
=2941watts= 2.94 kW Ans
• Forward speed, vF = QFCV / AP
=0.00016 / 0.0015
= 0.16 m/s Ans

• Return speed , vr = QP / (AP- Ar)

= 0.0005 / ( 0.0015 -0 .0008)
= 0.71m/s Ans

• η = output / input = p2 QFCV / p1 QP

5
= 24*10 *0.00016
50*105* 0.0005
= 0.1536 = 15.36% Ans

5.14 Speed control of Hydraulic Motor: Figure 5.19 shows a circuit where speed
control of a hydraulic motor ( Bi -directional motor) is accomplished using a flow
control valve to control the fluid flow to the motor.
 In the spring-centered position of the tandem four-way valve, the motor is
hydraulically locked. When the four-way valve is actuated into the 1st position, the motor
rotates in one direction. Its speed can be varied by adjusting the setting of the throttle of
the flow control valve. In this way the speed can be infinitely varied as the excess oil
goes to the tank through the pressure relief valve. When the four-way valve is
deactivated, the motor stops suddenly and becomes locked. When the 2nd position of the
four-way valve is in operation, the motor turns in the opposite direction. The pressure
relief valve provides overload protection if, for example, the motor experiences an
excessive torque load.

1 0 2
D

F R

Fig 5.19. Speed control of Hydraulic motor using Flow control valve.
M = Bi-directional Hydraulic motor ; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
D =3-position, 4 way ,Tandem center, Manually operated and Spring Centered DCV

The speed of hydraulic motor can be controlled either by meter-in control or

meter- out control.
Figure 5.20 shows a unidirectional hydraulic motor speed is controlled by a meter- in
circuit. Here the flow control valve is placed between the pump and motor.
 FCV Q1

P M
R QL
( Q1-QL)
F

Fig 5.20. Meter- in Speed control of Hydraulic motor

M = Uni-directional Hydraulic Motor ; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter

R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
Figure 5.21 shows a unidirectional hydraulic motor speed is controlled by a meter- out
circuit. Here the flow control valve is placed between the motor and tank.
Q1

P M
QL
FCV
F R
( Q1 - QL)
Fig 5.20. Meter- out Speed control of Hydraulic motor
M = Uni-directional Hydraulic Motor ; P = Pump ; T = Tank; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve; FCV = Flow control Valve
We know that the volumetric efficiency of the motor is given by
ηVol = Theoretical flow rate the motor should consume
Actual flow rate consumed by motor

ηVol = QT / QA
Due to leakage, a hydraulic motor consumes more flow rate than it should
theoretically consume. The theoretical flow rate is the flow rate a hydraulic motor would
consume if there were no leakage. If Q1(=QA ) is the flow of fluid to the motor, and QL
the leakage , Then QT is equal to Q1 – QL

Then ηVol = (Q1 – QL ) / Q1

 In meter- in control Q1 is maintained constant despite varying load , QL varies with
load , therefore volumetric efficiency varies with load. Hence meter-in system will not
give precise control of speed. Whereas in meter – out control Q1 varies with load hence
precise control of speed regardless of flow.

5.15 Hydrostatic Transmission ( HST ): These are special cases of energy

transmission system. It consists of a drive with hydraulic energy as input. Hydraulic
motor convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. Hydrostatic transmission is a
whole unit in which pumps and motors are designed to match ( the speed torque
characteristics ) to get optimum transmission. The HST can be open or closed circuit.
(fig 5.21)
P. E
M .E PUMP MOTOR M.E

Fig 5.21 Hydrostatic transmission

Open circuit HST : Figure 5.22 shows open type circuit. They are called open circuit
drives because the pump draws its fluid from a tank. Its output is then directed to a
hydraulic motor and discharged from the motor back to the tank. In the closed circuit
drive, exhaust oil from the motor is returned directly to the pump inlet.

Variable displacement pump

M

Fig 5.22 Open circuit (open loop ) HST

Figure 5.23 shows a closed circuit that allows either direction of motor rotation. The
feed pump is provided for replenishing the fluid in the circuit. The check valves prevent
the oil flow from the main pump to the feed pump. Here two relief valve R 1 and R2 are
used to protect the main pump in both the direction of rotation.
The motor speed is varied by changing the pump displacement. The torque
capacity of the motor can be adjusted by the pressure setting of the relief valve.
Closed circuit drives are available as completely integrated units with all the
controls and valving enclosed in a single, compact housing.
Variable displacement
Pump ( Main )

M
R1 R2

Feed Pump

Fig 5.23 Closed circuit (open loop ) HST

Performance:
1. Hydraulic power input , Phyd = p QP ( Watts )
where p = pressure setting of relief valve in N / m2
QP = pump theoretical flow rate = pump displacement (m3/ rev) * Speed (rps)
2. Q1 = Qp * ηVP where ηVP = volumetric efficiency of the pump;
Q1 = Actual flow rate to motor
3. Motor theoretical flow rate ,QM = Q1 * ηVM
where ηVM = volumetric efficiency of the motor
1. Motor capacity , CM = QM / speed of motor ( m3/ rev )

2. Power delivered to motor, Phyd = System pressure * Q1 ( Watts )

3. Mechanical power generated, PMech = Phyd * ηV M * ηMM

where ηMM = mechanical efficiency of hydraulic motor
4. Actual Torque developed by motor, Ta = PMech / 2π N
Where N = speed of motor in rps
8. Ideal torque , Ti = CM * ∆P / 2π

9. Actual torque, Ta = Ti * ηMM

Problem 2. A Hydrostatic transmission operating at 70 bar pressure has the following

characteristic for the pump and the motor:

Pump : Capacity of pump, CP = 82 cm3/ rev ( pump displacement)

Volumetric efficiency of pump, ηVP = 82 %
Mechanical efficiency of pump, ηMP = 88 %
Speed of pump , N = 500 rev / min
Motor: Capacity of motor, CM = ?
Volumetric efficiency of motor, ηVM = 92 %
Mechanical efficiency of motor, ηMM = 90 %
Desired speed of motor , N = 400 rev / min
Actual Torque, Ta = ?

Solution :
Pump theoretical flow rate, QP = pump displacement * speed
= 82 * 10 - 06 * 500 / 60
3
= 0.00068 m / sec
Actual flow rate to the motor , Q1 = QP * ηVP
= 0.00068 * 0.82
= 0. 00056 m3 / sec
Motor theoretical flow rate, QM = Q1 * ηVM
= 0.00056 * 0.92
= 0. 000515 m3 / sec
• Motor capacity, CM = QM / speed of motor
= 0.000515 / 400/60
= 0.0000773 m3 / sec Ans
Power delivered to motor, Phyd = system pressure * Q1
= 70 * 105 * 0.00056
=3920 Watts = 3.92 kW
Mechanical power generated, PMech = Phyd * ηV M * ηMM
= 3.92 * 0.92 * 0.90
= 3.246 kW

• Actual Torque developed by motor, Ta = PMech / 2π N

= 3.246*1000 / (2 π* 400 )
60
= 77.49 N- m Ans
Ideal torque , Ti = CM * ∆P / 2π
= 0.0000773 * 70 *105 / 2π
= 86.1 N-m
• Actual torque, Ta = Ti * ηMM
= 86.1 * 0.90
= 77.49 N –m Ans
ACCUMULATORS AND ACCUMULATOR CIRCUITS:

A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an

incompressible fluid held under pressure by an external source against some dynamic
force. The dynamic force can come three different sources : Gravity, Mechanical Springs,
and Compressed gases. The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick
secondary source of fluid power capable of doing useful work as required by the system.
There are three basic types of accumulator used in hydraulic system. They are:
1. Weight – Loaded, or gravity, type
2. Spring -Loaded type
3. Gas – Loaded type

1. Weight – Loaded Accumulator : This type consists of a vertical, heavy- wall steel
cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing to pressure leakage ( Fig 5.24)
. A dead weight is attached to the top of the piston. The force of gravity of the dead
weight provides the potential energy in the accumulator. This type of accumulator
creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume output of the unit regardless
of the rate and quantity of output. The main disadvantage of this type of accumulator is
extremely large size and heavy weight which makes it unsuitable for mobile equipment.
Dead weight

Container
Piston

Packing
Pressurized Fluid Fluid Port

Fig 5.24 Weight – Loaded accumulator

2. Spring – Loaded Accumulator : A spring loaded accumulator is similar to the
weight – loaded type except that the piston is preloaded with a spring as shown in fig
5.25. The spring is the source of energy that acts against the piston, forcing the fluid into
the hydraulic system. The pressure generated by this type of accumulator depends on the
size and pre-loading of the spring. In addition, the pressure exerted on the fluid is not a
constant. The spring- loaded accumulator typically delivers a relatively small volume of
oil at low pressures. Thus, they tend to be heavy and large for high- pressure, large –
volume systems. This type of accumulator should not be used for applications requiring
high cycle rates because the spring will fatigue and lose its elasticity. The result is an
inoperative accumulator.
Container Spring

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow

Fig 5.25 Spring - Type Accumulator

4. Gas Loaded Accumulator : Two main categories:

Gas Valve

Gas
Container

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow port

Fig 5.26 Non Separator - Type Gas Accumulator

a. Non separator- Type Accumulator: The non separator type of accumulator

(fig 5.26)consists of a fully enclosed shell containing an oil port on the bottom
and a gas charging valve on the top. The gas is confined in the top and the oil at
the bottom of the shell. There is no physical separator between the gas and oil
and thus the gas pushes directly on oil. The main advantage of this type is its
ability to handle large volume of oil. The main disadvantage is absorption of
gas in the oil due to the lack of a separator. Absorption of gas in the oil also
makes the oil compressible, resulting in spongy operation of the hydraulic
actuators. This type must be installed vertically to keep the gas confined at the
top of the shell.
b. Separator – Type Accumulator : The commonly accepted design of gas
loaded accumulators is the separator type. In this type there is a physical barrier
between the gas and the oil. The three major type of separator accumulator are
 i) Piston type: The piston type of accumulator consists of a cylinder containing a
freely floating piston with proper seals. The piston serves as a barrier between
the gas and oil.(fig5.27). The main disadvantage of the piston types of
accumulator are that they are expensive to manufacture and have practical size
limitation. The principal advantage of the piston accumulator is its ability to
handle very high or low temperature system fluids through the utilization to
compatible O- ring seals.
Gas Valve

Gas
Container

Piston

Pressurized Fluid
Fluid flow port

Fig 5.27 Separator - Type Piston Accumulator

ii) Diaphragm Accumulator: The diaphragm type accumulator consists of a

diaphragm, secured in the shell, which serves as an elastic barrier between the oil
and gas(fig5.28). A shutoff button, which is secured at the base of the
diaphragm, covers the inlet of the line connection when the diaphragm is fully
stretched. The primary advantage of this type of accumulator is its small weight-
to – volume ratio, which makes it suitable almost exclusively for mobile
applications. The restriction is on the deflection of the diaphragm
Gas Valve

Gas
Diaphragm

Pressurized Fluid

Fluid Valve
Fig 5.28 Diaphragm Accumulator
 iii) Bladder type Accumulator: A bladder type- accumulator contains an
elastic barrier( bladder) between the oil and gas( fig5.29). The bladder is fitted in
the accumulator by means of a vulcanized gas- valve element and can be
installed or removed through the shell opening at the poppet valve. The poppet
valve closes the inlet when the accumulator bladder is fully expanded. This
prevents the bladder from being pressed into the opening. The greatest
advantage of this type of accumulator is the positive sealing between the gas and
oil chambers. Most widely used type of accumulator.

Gas Valve

Gas Bladder

Pressurized Fluid

Fluid Valve

Fig 5.29 Bladder type Accumulator

Accumulator Circuits :
1. Accumulator as a auxiliary power source :

1
A 2 D

CV

P
R
F
T
Fig 5.30. Accumulator as an auxiliary power source.
C = Double acting cylinder
A = Accumulator
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve , CV = Check Valve
D =2-position, 4 way , Manually operated DCV

One of the most common application of accumulator is as an auxiliary power

source. The purpose of the accumulator in this application is to store oil delivered by the
pump during a portion of the work cycle. The accumulator then releases this stored oil on
demand to complete the cycle, thereby serving as a secondary power source to assist the
pump. In such a system where intermittent operations are performed, the use of an
accumulator results in being able to use a smaller size pump.
Figure 5.30 shows such a application in which a four way valve is used in
conjunction with an accumulator. When the four way valve is manually actuated, oil
flows from the accumulator to the blank end of the cylinder. This extends the piston until
it reaches the end of its stroke. While the desired operation is occurring ( the cylinder is
fully extended position ), the accumulator is being charged by the pump. The four way is
then deactivated for the retraction of the cylinder. Oil from both the pump and
accumulator is used to retract the cylinder rapidly. The check valve prevents the back
flow of oil from the accumulator when the pump is not working. The control signal for
the relief valve is obtained after the check valve, to control the combined pressure of
pump and the accumulator.

2. Accumulator as an emergency power source:

C
A

1
0 A

P
R
F
T
Fig 5.31. Accumulator as an Emergency power source.
C = Double acting cylinder
A = Accumulator
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve , CV = Check Valve
D =2-position, 4 way , Manually operated DCV

In some hydraulic system, safety dictates that a cylinder be retracted even though
the normal supply of oil pressure is lost due to a pump or electrical power failure. Such
an application requires the use of an accumulator as an emergency power source.
Figure 5.31 shows such a application in which a solenoid actuated three way
valve is used in conjunction with an accumulator. When the three way valve is energized,
oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder and also through the check valve into the
accumulator and rod end of the cylinder. The accumulator charges as the cylinder
extends. If the pump fails due to an electrical failure, the solenoid will deenergize,
shifting the valve to the spring -offset position. Then the oil stored under pressure is
forced from the accumulator to the rod end of the cylinder. This retracts the cylinder to the
starting position. In normal working, when the solenoid is deenergized, the valve shifts to
the spring offset position. In this position the accumulator will retract the cylinder.

3. Accumulator as a hydraulic shock absorber :

A1 A2

1
2

P
RF
T
Fig 5.32. Accumulator as an Shock Absorber
C = Double acting cylinder
A1, A2 = Accumulators
P = Pump; T = Tank ; F = Filter
R = Relief Valve ,
D = 2/4 Solenoid actuated, spring return DCV

One of the most important industrial application of accumulator is the elimination or

reduction of high pressure pulsation or hydraulic shock Hydraulic shock is caused by the
sudden stoppage, sudden impact load, or reversal with heavy loads. Hydraulic shock load
may be reduced considerably if the deceleration time of the flowing fluid mass can be
reduced. The accumulator ( Fig 5.32) should be installed as close to the shock source as
possible. Here 2 accumulators are installed near the entry to the cylinder. The oil from the
pump flow to the accumulator first and when accumulator is filled, the oil moves to the
cylinder and piston
CHAPTER 5
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

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Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and applications of
compressed air in our daily life in general and manufacturing automation in particular.
Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly available and can be
exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.

1. Basic Components of Pneumatic System:

Fig. 6.1.1 Components of a pneumatic system

Important components of a pneumatic system are shown in fig.6.1.1.

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the
requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by
using a dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for
control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system.

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 g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is
used to drive the compressor.
h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in
the air receiver.

These components of the pneumatic system are explained in detail on the next pages.

2. Receiver tank
The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the pneumatic system
needs continuous supply of air, this compressed air has to be stored. The compressed
air is stored in an air receiver as shown in Figure 6.1.2. The air receiver smoothens the
pulsating flow from the compressor. It also helps the air to cool and condense the
moisture present. The air receiver should be large enough to hold all the air delivered
by the compressor. The pressure in the receiver is held higher than the system
operating pressure to compensate pressure loss in the pipes. Also the large surface
area of the receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air. Generally
the size of receiver depends on,
• Delivery volume of compressor.
• Air consumption.
• Pipeline network
• Type and nature of on-off regulation
• Permissible pressure difference in the pipelines

Fig.6.1.2 Air receiver

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3. Compressor:

It is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. The
compressor increases the air pressure by reducing its volume which also increases the
temperature of the compressed air. The compressor is selected based on the pressure it
needs to operate and the delivery volume.
The compressor can be classified into two main types
a. Positive displacement compressors and
b. Dynamic displacement compressor

Positive displacement compressors include piston type, vane type, diaphragm type
and screw type.

3.1 Piston compressors

Fig. 6.1.3 Single acting piston compressor

Piston compressors are commonly used in pneumatic systems. The simplest form is
single cylinder compressor (Fig. 6.1.3). It produces one pulse of air per piston stroke.
As the piston moves down during the inlet stroke the inlet valve opens and air is
drawn into the cylinder. As the piston moves up the inlet valve closes and the exhaust
valve opens which allows the air to be expelled. The valves are spring loaded. The
single cylinder compressor gives significant amount of pressure pulses at the outlet
port. The pressure developed is about 3-40 bar.

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3.2 Double acting compressor

Fig. 6.1.4 Double acting piston compressor

The pulsation of air can be reduced by using double acting compressor as shown in
Figure 6.1.4. It has two sets of valves and a crosshead. As the piston moves, the air is
compressed on one side whilst on the other side of the piston, the air is sucked in. Due
to the reciprocating action of the piston, the air is compressed and delivered twice in
one piston stroke. Pressure higher than 30bar can be produced.

3.3 Multistage compressor

Fig. 6.1.5 Multi-stage compressor

As the pressure of the air increases, its temperature rises. It is essential to reduce the
air temperature to avoid damage of compressor and other mechanical elements. The
multistage compressor with intercooler in-between is shown in Figure 6.1.5. It is used
to reduce the temperature of compressed air during the compression stages. The inter-
cooling reduces the volume of air which used to increase due to heat. The compressed
air from the first stage enters the intercooler where it is cooled. This air is given as
input to the second stage where it is compressed again. The multistage compressor
can develop a pressure of around 50bar.

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3.4 Combined two stage compressors

Fig. 6.1.6 Combined to stage compressor

In this type, two-stage compression is carried out by using the same piston (Fig.
6.1.6). Initially when the piston moves down, air is sucked in through the inlet valve.
During the compression process, the air moves out of the exhaust valve into the
intercooler. As the piston moves further the stepped head provided on the piston
moves into the cavity thus causing the compression of air. Then, this is let out by the
exhaust port.

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 Module 6: Pneumatic Systems
Lecture 2
Compressors
1. Diaphragm compressor

Fig. 6.2.1 Diaphragm compressor

These are small capacity compressors. In piston compressors the lubricating oil from
the pistons walls may contaminate the compressed air. The contamination is
undesirable in food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries. For such applications
diaphragm type compressor can be used. Figure 6.2.1 shows the construction of
Diaphragm compressor. The piston reciprocates by a motor driven crankshaft. As the
piston moves down it pulls the hydraulic fluid down causing the diaphragm to move
along and the air is sucked in. When the piston moves up the fluid pushes the
diaphragm up causing the ejection of air from the outlet port. Since the flexible
diaphragm is placed in between the piston and the air no contamination takes place.

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2. Screw compressor
Piston compressors are used when high pressures and relatively low volume of air is
needed. The system is complex as it has many moving parts. For medium flow and
pressure applications, screw compressor can be used. It is simple in construction with
less number of moving parts. The air delivered is steady with no pressure pulsation. It
has two meshing screws. The air from the inlet is trapped between the meshing screws
and is compressed. The contact between the two meshing surface is minimum, hence
no cooling is required. These systems are quite in operation compared to piston type.
The screws are synchronized by using external timing gears.

Fig. 6.2.2 Screw compressor

3. Rotary vane compressors

Fig. 6.2.3 Rotary vane compressor

The principle of operation of vane compressor is similar to the hydraulic vane pump.
Figure 6.2.3 shows the working principle of Rotary vane compressor. The unbalanced
vane compressor consists of spring loaded vanes seating in the slots of the rotor. The
pumping action occurs due to movement of the vanes along a cam ring. The rotor is
eccentric to the cam ring. As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the inner surface of
the cam ring. The space between the vanes decreases near the outlet due to the
eccentricity. This causes compression of the air. These compressors are free from
pulsation. If the eccentricity is zero no flow takes place.

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 Fig. 6.2.4 Liquid ring compressor

Liquid ring vane compressor is a variation of vane compressors. Figure 6.2.4 shows
the construction of Liquid ring compressor. The casing is filled with liquid up to rotor
center. The air enters the compressor through the distributor fixed to the compressor.
During the impeller rotation, the liquid will be centrifuged along the inner ring of the
casing to form the liquid ring. There are two suction and discharge ports provided in
the distributor. During the first quarter of cycle, the air is sucked in both suction
chambers of the casing and during the second quarter of the cycle, the air is
compressed and pushed out through the two discharge ports. During the third and
fourth quarters of the cycle, the process is repeated. This type of compressor has no
leakage and has minimal friction. For smooth operation, the rotation speed should be
about 3000 rpm. The delivery pressure is low (about 5 bar).

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4. Lobe compressor

Fig. 6.2.5 Lobe compressor

The lobe compressor is used when high delivery volume but low pressure is needed. It
consists of two lobes with one being driven and the other driving. Figure 6.2.5 shows
the construction and working of Lobe compressor. It is similar to the Lobe pump used
in hydraulic systems. The operating pressure is limited by leakage between rotors and
housing. As the wear increases during the operation, the efficiency falls rapidly.

5. Dynamic compressors

Fig. 6.2.6 Blower (Centrifugal type)

When very large volume of compressed air is required in applications such as

ventilators, combustion system and pneumatic powder blower conveyors, the dynamic
compressor can be used. The pressure needed is very low in such applications. Figure
6.2.6 shows a typical Centrifugal type blower. The impeller rotates at a high speed.
Large volume of low pressure air can be provided by blowers. The blowers draw the
air in and the impeller flings it out due to centrifugal force. Positive displacement

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compressors need oil to lubricate the moving parts, whereas the dynamic compressors have no
such need. The efficiency of these compressors is better than that of reciprocating types.
Air Treatment and Pressure Regulation

1. Air treatment stages

For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the compressed air needs to be
cleaned and dried. Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is humid.
These particles can cause wear of the system components and presence of moisture
may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to get rid of these impurities.
The air treatment can be divided into three stages as shown in Figure 6.3.1.

Fig. 6.3.1 Stages of air treatment

In the first stage, the large sized particles are prevented from entering the compressor
by an intake filter. The air leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at high
temperature. The air from the compressor is treated in the second stage. In this stage
temperature of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler and the air is dried using
a dryer. Also an inline filter is provided to remove any contaminant particles present.
This treatment is called primary air treatment. In the third stage which is the
secondary air treatment process, further filtering is carried out. A lubricator introduces
a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This will help in lubrication of the moving
components of the system to which the compressed air will be applied.

1.1 Filters
To prevent any damage to the compressor, the contaminants present in the air need to
be filtered out. This is done by using inlet filters. These can be dry or wet filters. Dry
filters use disposable cartridges. In the wet filter, the incoming air is passed through
an oil bath and then through a fine wire mesh filter. Dirt particles cling to the oil drops
during bubbling and are removed by wire mesh as they pass through it. In the dry
filter the cartridges are replaced during servicing. The wet filters are cleaned using
detergent solution.

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1.2 Cooler
As the air is compressed, the temperature of the air increases. Therefore the air needs
to be cooled. This is done by using a cooler. It is a type of heat exchanger. There are
two types of coolers commonly employed viz. air cooled and water cooled. In the air
cooled type, ambient air is used to cool the high temperature compressed air, whereas
in the water cooled type, water is used as cooling medium. These are counter flow
type coolers where the cooling medium flows in the direction opposite to the
compressed air. During cooling, the water vapor present will condense which can be
drained away later.

2. Main line filter

These filters are used to remove the water vapors or solid contaminants present in the
pneumatic systems main lines. These filters are discussed in detail as follows.

2.1 Air filter and water trap

Air filter and water trap is used to

• prevent any solid contaminants from entering in the system.
• condense and remove water vapor that is present in the compressed air.

Fig. 6.3.2 Air filter and water trap

The filter cartridge is made of sintered brass. The schematic of the filter is shown in
Fig. 6.3.2. The thickness of sintered cartridge provides random zigzag passage for the
air to flow-in which helps in arresting the solid particles. The air entering the filter
swirls around due to the deflector cone. The centrifugal action causes the large
contaminants and water vapor to be flung out, which hit the glass bowl and get
collected at the bottom. A baffle plate is provided to prevent the turbulent air from
splashing the water into the filter cartridge. At the bottom of the filter bowl there is a
drain plug which can be opened manually to drain off the settled water and solid
particles.

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2.2 Refrigerated dryers

Fig. 6.3.3 Refrigerated dryers

It consists of two heat exchangers, refrigerant compressor and a separator. The system
circuitry is shown in Figure 6.3.3. The dryer chills the air just above 0 °C which
condenses the water vapor. The condensate is collected by the separator. However
such low temperature air may not be needed at the application. Therefore this chilled
air is used to cool the high temperature air coming out from the compressor at heat
exchanger 2. The moderate temperature dry air coming out from the heat exchanger 2
is then used for actual application; whilst the reduced temperature air from
compressor will further be cooled at heat exchanger 1. Thus, the efficiency of the
system is increased by employing a second heat exchanger.

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2.3 Chemical dryers

When absolute dry air is needed chemical dryers are used. These dryers are of two
types viz. adsorption dryer and absorption dryer.

2.3.1 Adsorption dryers

Fig. 6.3.4 Adsorption dryer

In Adsorption dryers, the moisture collects on the sharp edges of the granular
material. The adsorbing materials can be silicon dioxide (silica gel) or other materials
which exist in hydrated and dehydrated state (copper sulphate, activated alumina).
Moisture from the adsorbing material can be released by heating in the column as
shown in Fig. 6.3.4. At a given time, one column will dry the air while the other
column will regenerate the adsorption material by heating and passing low purge air.
The column B dries the air and column C regenerates. The rotary valves are opened
using time clock at regular interval to reverse the process. These dryers are also called
regenerative dryers.

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2.3.2 Absorption dryers

These are also called as deliquescent dryers. Figure 6.3.5 shows a schematic of the
same. It uses chemical agents like phosphoric pentoxide or calcium chloride as drying
agents. The moisture in the compressed air chemically reacts with the drying agent.
The agent dissolves to form a liquid compound which collects at the bottom of the
dryer where it can be drained out. The deliquescent agent has to be replenished
regularly as it gets consumed during the drying process.

Fig. 6.3.5 Absorption dryer

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3. Lubricators

Fig. 6.3.6 Air lubricator

The compressed air is first filtered and then passed through a lubricator in order to
form a mist of oil and air to provide lubrication to the mating components. Figure
6.3.6 shows the schematic of a typical lubricator. The principle of working of
venturimeter is followed in the operation of lubricator. The compressed air from the
dryer enters in the lubricator. Its velocity increases due to a pressure differential
between the upper and lower changer (oil reservoir). Due to the low pressure in the
upper chamber the oil is pushed into the upper chamber from the oil reservoir through
a siphon tube with check valve. The main function of the valve is to control the
amount of oil passing through it. The oil drops inside the throttled zone where the
velocity of air is much higher and this high velocity air breaks the oil drops into tiny
particles. Thus a mist of air and oil is generated. The pressure differential across
chambers is adjusted by a needle valve. It is difficult to hold an oil mixed air in the air
receiver as oil may settle down. Thus air is lubricated during secondary air treatment
process. Low viscosity oil forms better mist than high viscosity oil and hence ensures
that oil is always present in the air.

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4. Pressure regulation
In pneumatic systems, during high velocity compressed air flow, there is flow-
dependent pressure drop between the receiver and load (application). Therefore the
pressure in the receiver is always kept higher than the system pressure. At the
application site, the pressure is regulated to keep it constant. There are three ways to
control the local pressure, these are shown in Figure 6.3.7.

Fig. 6.3.7 Types of pressure regulation

• In the first method, load X vents the air into atmosphere continuously. The
pressure regulator restricts the air flow to the load, thus controlling the air
pressure. In this type of pressure regulation, some minimum flow is required
to operate the regulator. If the load is a dead end type which draws no air, the
pressure in the receiver will rise to the manifold pressure. These type of
regulators are called as ‘non-relieving regulators’, since the air must pass
through the load.

• In the second type, load Y is a dead end load. However the regulator vents the
air into atmosphere to reduce the pressure. This type of regulator is called as
‘relieving regulator’.

• The third type of regulator has a very large load Z. Therefore its requirement
of air volume is very high and can’t be fulfilled by using a simple regulator. In
such cases, a control loop comprising of pressure transducer, controller and
vent valve is used. Due to large load the system pressure may rise above its
critical value. It is detected by a transducer. Then the signal will be processed
by the controller which will direct the valve to be opened to vent out the air.
This technique can be also be used when it is difficult to mount the pressure
regulating valve close to the point where pressure regulation is needed.

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5. Relief valve

Fig. 6.3.8 Relief valve

Relief valve is the simplest type of pressure regulating device. The schematic of its
construction and working is shown in the Figure 6.3.8. It is used as a backup device if
the main pressure control fails. It consists of ball type valve held on to the valve seat
by a spring in tension. The spring tension can be adjusted by using the adjusting cap.
When the air pressure exceeds the spring tension pressure the ball is displaced from
its seat, thus releasing the air and reducing the pressure. A relief is specified by its
span of pressure between the cracking and full flow, pressure range and flow rate.
Once the valve opens (cracking pressure), flow rate depends on the excess pressure.
Once the pressure falls below the cracking pressure, the valve seals itself.

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6. Non-relieving pressure regulator

In a non-relieving pressure regulator (Fig. 6.3.9) the outlet pressure is sensed by a

diaphragm which is preloaded by a pressure setting spring. If outlet pressure is too
low, the spring forces the diaphragm and poppet to move down thus opening the valve
to admit more air and raise outlet pressure. If the outlet pressure is too high the air
pressure forces the diaphragm up hence reduces the air flow and causing a reduction
in air pressure. The air vents away through the load. At steady state condition the
valve will balance the force on the diaphragm from the outlet pressure with the preset
force on the spring.

Fig. 6.3.9 Non-relieving type pressure regulator

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7. Service units

During the preparation of compressed air, various processes such as filtration,

regulation and lubrication are carried out by individual components. The individual
components are: separator/filter, pressure regulator and lubricator.

Preparatory functions can be combined into one unit which is called as ‘service unit’.
Figure 6.3.10 shows symbolic representation of various processes involved in air
preparation and the service unit.

(a)

(b)

Fig. (a) Service unit components (b) Service unit symbol

Actuators
Actuators are output devices which convert energy from pressurized hydraulic oil or
compressed air into the required type of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or
pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or moving operations in industry. These
operations are carried out by using actuators.

Actuators can be classified into three types.

1. Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into

linear motion.
2. Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into
rotary motion.
3. Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to control the flow and
pressure of fluids such as gases, steam or liquid.

The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar. However they
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differ at their operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is
about 100 bar and of pneumatic system is around 10 bar.

1. Single acting cylinder

Fig. 6.4.1 Single acting cylinder

These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion hence they are named as
single acting cylinders. Figure 6.4.1 shows the construction of a single acting
cylinder. The compressed air pushes the piston located in the cylindrical barrel
causing the desired motion. The return stroke takes place by the action of a spring.
Generally the spring is provided on the rod side of the cylinder.

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 2. Double acting cylinder

Fig. 6.4.2 Double acting cylinder

The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston, piston rod, cylinder
tube, and end caps. These are shown in Figure 6.4.2. The piston rod is connected to
piston head and the other end extends out of the cylinder. The piston divides the
cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end side and piston end side. The seals
prevent the leakage of oil between these two chambers. The cylindrical tube is fitted
with end caps. The pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through the ports
provided. In the rod end cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to prevent the leakage of
oil and entry of the contaminants into the cylinder. The combination of wiper seal,
bearing and sealing ring is called as cartridge assembly. The end caps may be attached
to the tube by threaded connection, welded connection or tie rod connection. The
piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear of piston head and the tube.
These seals are replaceable. End cushioning is also provided to prevent the impact
with end caps.

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3. Cylinder end cushions

Fig. 6.4.3 Cylinder end cushioning

Double acting cylinders generally contain cylinder cushions at the end of the cylinder
to slow down the movement of the piston near the end of the stroke. Figure 6.4.3
shows the construction of actuating cylinder with end cushions. Cushioning
arrangement avoids the damage due to the impact occurred when a fast moving piston
is stopped by the end caps. Deceleration of the piston starts when the tapered plunger
enters the opening in the cap and closes the main fluid exit. This restricts the exhaust
flow from the barrel to the port. This throttling causes the initial speed reduction.
During the last portion of the stroke the oil has to exhaust through an adjustable
opening since main fluid exit closes. Thus the remaining fluid exists through the
cushioning valve. Amount of cushioning can be adjusted by means of cushion screw.
A check valve is provided to achieve fast break away from the end position during
retraction motion. A bleed screw is built into the check valve to remove the air
bubbles present in a hydraulic type system.

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4. Gear motor: a rotary actuator

Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized fluid into rotary motion. Rotary
actuators are similar to electric motors but are run on hydraulic or pneumatic power.

Fig. 6.4.4 Gear motor

It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a housing with one gear attached to the
drive shaft. Figure 6.4.4 shows a schematic diagram of Gear motor. The air enters
from the inlet, causes the rotation of the meshing gear due to difference in the
pressure and produces the torque. The air exists from the exhaust port. Gear motors
tend to leak at low speed, hence are generally used for medium speed applications.

5. Vane motor: a rotary actuator

A rotary vane motor consists of a rotor with sliding vanes in the slots provided on the
rotor (Fig. 6.4.5). The rotor is placed eccentrically with the housing. Air enters from
the inlet port, rotates the rotor and thus torque is produced. Air is then released from
the exhaust port (outlet).

Fig. 6.4.5 Vane motor

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6. Limited rotation actuators
It consists of a single rotating vane connected to output shaft as shown in Figure 6.4.6.
It is used for double acting operation and has a maximum angle of rotation of about
270°. These are generally used to actuate dampers in robotics and material handling
applications. Other type of limited rotation actuator is a rack and pinion type actuator.

Fig. 6.4.6 Semi rotary vane type actuator

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7. Speed control
For an actuator, the operational speed is determined by the fluid flow rate and the
cylinder actuator area or the motor displacement. The speed can only be controlled by
adjusting the fluid flow to the actuator, because the physical dimension of the actuator
is fixed. Since the air is compressible, flow control is difficult as compared to the
hydraulic system. There are various ways of controlling the fluid flow. One of the
methods is discussed as below-

Fig. 6.4.7 Speed control by pump volume

Figure 6.4.7 shows the circuit diagram of hydraulic system developed to control the
speed of motion of a piston. Consider a pump which delivers a fluid volume of ‘V’ per
minute. The pump has a fixed displacement. The volume of fluid goes either to the
pump or to the actuator. When the direction control valve moves from its center
position the actuator of area ‘A’, the piston moves with a velocity,

v= (6.4.1)

If the pump delivery volume ‘V’ can be adjusted by altering swash plate angle of a
piston pump or by using a variable displacement vane pump, no further speed control
will be needed.

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 Module 6: Pneumatic Systems
Lecture 5
Pneumatic controllers

In automated industrial processes, it is always essential to keep the process variables

such as temperature, flow rate, system pressure, fluid level, etc. at the desired value
for safety and economical operation. Consider an example where the flow of water
through a pipe has to be kept constant at some predetermined value (Fig. 6.5.1). Let
the value of flow to be measured is ‘V’ (process variable PV). This flow rate is
compared with the required flow value say ‘V1’ (set point SP). The difference
between these two values is the error which is sent to the controller. If any error
exists, the controller adjusts the drive signal to the actuator, informing it to move the
valve to give the required flow (zero error). This type of control system is called
closed loop control system. It mainly includes a controller, actuator and a measuring
device.

Fig. 6.5.1 Closed loop control system

The control can be achieved by using control electronics or by pneumatic process

control. The pneumatic systems are quite popular because they are safe. In the process
industries like refinery and chemical plants, the atmosphere is explosive. Application
of electronics based systems may be dangerous in such cases. Since the pneumatic
systems use air, there are very scant chances of any fire hazards. Even though
electrical actuators are available, but most of the valves employed are driven by
pneumatic signals.

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1. Components of a pneumatic controller

• Flapper nozzle amplifier

• Air relay
• Bellows
• Springs
• Feedback arrangements

1.1 Flapper nozzle amplifier

A pneumatic control system operates with air. The signal is transmitted in the form of
variable air pressure (often in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 bar (3-15 psi)) that initiates the
control action. One of the basic building blocks of a pneumatic control system is the
flapper nozzle amplifier. It converts very small displacement signal (in order of
microns) to variation of air pressure. The basic construction of a flapper nozzle
amplifier is shown in Figure 6.5.2

Fig 6.5.2 Nozzle flapper amplifier

Constant air pressure is supplied to one end of the pipeline. There is an orifice at this
end. At the other end of the pipe, there is a nozzle and a flapper. The gap between the
nozzle and the flapper is set by the input signal. As the flapper moves closer to the
nozzle, there will be less airflow through the nozzle and the air pressure inside the
pipe will increase. On the other hand, if the flapper moves further away from the
nozzle, the air pressure decreases. At the extreme, if the nozzle is open (flapper is far
off), the output pressure will be equal to the atmospheric pressure. If the nozzle is
blocked, the output pressure will be equal to the supply pressure.

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1.2 Air Relay

The major limitation of a flapper nozzle amplifier is its limited air handling capacity.
The variation of air pressure obtained cannot be used for any useful application,
unless the air handling capacity is increased. It is used after the flapper nozzle
amplifier to enhance the volume of air to be handled. The principle of operation of an
air relay can be explained using the schematic diagram shown in Figure 6.5.3. It can
be seen that the air relay is directly connected to the supply line (no orifice in
between). The output pressure of the flapper nozzle amplifier (p2) is connected to the
lower chamber of the air relay with a diaphragm on its top. The variation of the
pressure p2 causes the movement (y) of the diaphragm. There is a double-seated valve
fixed on the top of the diaphragm. When the nozzle pressure p2 increases due to
decrees in xi, the diaphragm moves up, blocking the air vent line and forming a nozzle
between the output pressure line and the supply air pressure line. More air goes to the
output line and the air pressure increases. When p2 decreases, the diaphragm moves
downwards, thus blocking the air supply line and connecting the output port to the
vent. The air pressure will decrease.

Fig 6.5.3 Air relay

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2. Types of pneumatic controllers

Following is the list of variants of pneumatic controllers.

• Proportional only (P) controller

• Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller
• Proportional-Integral (PI) controller
• Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

2.1 Proportional only (P) controller

The simplest form of pneumatic controller is proportional only controller. Figure 6.5.4
shows the pneumatic circuit of ‘proportional only’ controller. The output signal is the
product of error signal multiplied by a gain (K).

Output = (Error * gain)

(6.5.1)

Fig. 6.5.4 Proportional only controller

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Consider the pneumatic system consisting of several pneumatic components, viz.
flapper nozzle amplifier, air relay, bellows and springs, feedback arrangement. The
overall arrangement is known as a pneumatic proportional controller as shown in
Figure 6.5.5.

Fig 6.5.5 Proportional only (P) controller elements

It acts as a controller in a pneumatic system generating output pressure proportional to

the displacement at one end of the beam. The action of this particular controller is
direct, since an increase in process variable signal (pressure) results in an increase in
output signal (pressure). Increasing process variable (PV) pressure attempts to push
the right-hand end of the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the nozzle. This
blockage of the nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic backpressure to increase, thus
increasing the amount of force applied by the output feedback bellows on the left-
hand end of the beam and returning the flapper (very nearly) to its original position. If
we wish to reverse the controller’s action, we need to swap the pneumatic signal
connections between the input bellows, so that the PV pressure will be applied to the
upper bellows and the SP pressure to the lower bellows. The ratio of input pressure(s)
to output pressure is termed as a gain (proportional band) adjustment in this
mechanism. Changing bellows area (either both the PV and SP bellows equally, and
the output bellows by itself) influences this ratio. Gain also affects by the change in
output bellows position. Moving the fulcrum left or right can be used to control the
gain, and in fact is usually the most convenient to engineer.

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2.2 Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller
A proportional-derivative (PD) controller is shown in Figure 6.5.6. To add derivative
control action to a P-only controller, all we need to place a restrictor valve between
the nozzle tube and the output feedback bellows, causing the bellows to delay filling
or emptying its air pressure over time.

Fig 6.5.6 Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller

If any sudden change occurs in PV or SP, the output pressure will saturate before the
output bellows has the opportunity to equalize in pressure with the output signal tube.
Thus, the output pressure “spikes” with any sudden “step change” in input: exactly
what we would expect with derivative control action. If either the PV or the SP ramps
over time, the output signal will ramp in direct proportion (proportional action). But
there will be an added offset of pressure at the output signal in order to keep air
flowing either in or out of the output bellows at a constant rate to generate the
necessary force to balance the changing input signal. Thus, derivative action causes
the output pressure to shift either up or down (depending on the direction of input
change) more than it would with just proportional action alone in response to a
ramping input.

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2.3 Proportional-Integral (PI) controller
In some systems, if the gain is too large the system may become unstable. In these
circumstances the basic controller can be modified by adding the time integral of the
error to control the operation (Fig 6.5.7). Thus the output can be given by an equation,

1
OP = K �error + ∫ error dt�
Ti
(6.5.2)

Fig. 6.5.7 Block diagram of P-I controller

The Ti is a constant called integral time. As long as there is an error the output of the
controller steps up or down as per the rate determined by Ti. If there is no error then
the output of the controller remains constant. The integral term in the above equation
removes any offset error.

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Figure 6.5.8 shows the configuration of pneumatic proportional plus integral
controller. Integral action requires the addition of a second bellows (a “reset” bellows,
positioned opposite the output feedback bellows) and another restrictor valve to the
mechanism.

Fig. 6.5.8 Proportional-Integral (P-I) controller

As the reset bellows fills with pressurized air, it begins to push down the left-hand end
of the force beam. This forces the baffle closer to the nozzle, causing the output
pressure to rise. The regular output bellows has no restrictor valve to impede its
filling, and so it immediately applies more upward force on the beam with the rising
output pressure. With this greater output pressure, the reset bellows has an even
greater “final” pressure to achieve, and so its rate of filling continues.

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2.4 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller
Three term pneumatic control can be achieved using a P-I-D controller. Here the
action of the feedback bellows is delayed. The output is given by,

1 d error
OP = K �error + ∫ error dt +
T �
Ti d dt
(6.5.3)
The terms gain K, derivative time Td, integral time Ti which can be set by beam pivot
point and two bleed valves (Fig. 6.5.9). This is a combination of all the three
controllers described above. Hence it combines the advantages of all three. A
derivative control valve is added to delay the response at feedback bellow. Addition
of derivative term makes the control system to change the control output quickly
when SP and PV are changing quickly. This makes the system more stable.

Fig. 6.5.9 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (P-I-D) controller

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Advantages of pneumatic controllers
• Simplicity of the components and no complex structure
• Easy maintainability
• Safe and can be used in hazardous atmospheres
• Low cost of installation
• Good reliability and reproducibility
• Speed of response is relatively slow but steady
• Limited power capacity for large mass transfer

Limitations of pneumatic controllers

• Slow response
• Difficult to operate in sub-normal temperatures
• Pipe-couplings can give rise to leaks in certain ambient conditions
• Moving parts - more maintenance
Applications of pneumatic systems
In this section we will study the application of various pneumatic components in
designing a pneumatic circuit. The graphical symbols of pneumatic components and
equipments have already been discussed in lecture 7 of module 5.

1. Case study A

Consider a simple operation where a double-acting cylinder is used to transfer parts

from a magazine. The cylinder is to be advanced either by operating a push button or
by a foot pedal. Once the cylinder is fully advanced, it is to be retracted to its initial
position. A 3/2-way roller lever valve is to be used to detect the full extension of the
cylinder. Design a pneumatic circuit for the above-mentioned application.

1.1 Components used

The pneumatic components which can be used to implement the mentioned task are as
follows:
• double acting cylinder
• 3/2 push button valve
• 3/2 roller valve
• shuttle valve
• 3/2 foot pedal actuated valve
• 5/3 pneumatic actuated direction control valve
• compressed air source and connecting piping

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1.2 Working

Fig. 6.6.1 Pneumatic circuit for shuttle valve operation

Figure 6.6.1 shows the proposed circuit diagram. As the problem stated, upon
actuation of either the push button of valve (S1) or the foot pedal valve (S2), a signal
is generated at 1 or 1(3) side of the shuttle valve. The OR condition is met and the
signal is passed to the control port 14 of the direction control valve (V2). Due to this
signal, the left position of V2 is actuated and the flow of air starts. Pressure is applied
on the piston side of the cylinder (A) and the cylinder extends. If the push button or
pedal valve is released, the signal at the direction control valve (V2) port is reset.
Since DCV (V2) is a double pilot valve, it has a memory function which doesn’t
allow switching of positions. As the piston reaches the rod end position, the roller
valve (S3) is actuated and a signal is applied to port 12 of the DCV (V2). This causes
actuation of right side of DCV (V2). Due to this actuation, the flow enters at the rod-
end side of the cylinder, which pushes the piston towards left and thus the cylinder
retracts.

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2. Case study B
A plastic component is to be embossed by using a die which is powered by a double
acting cylinder. The return of the die is to be effected when the cylinder rod has fully
extended to the embossing position and the preset pressure is reached. A roller lever
valve is to be used to confirm full extension. The signal for retracting must only be
generated when the piston rod has reached the embossing position. The pressure in the
piston chamber is indicated by a pressure gauge.

2.1 Components used

The pneumatic components to be used to implement this task are:
• double acting cylinder
• 3/2 push button valve
• 3/2 roller valve
• shuttle valve
• 5/3 pneumatic actuated direction control valve
• pressure sequence valve
• compressed air source
• pressure gauge and connecting piping

2.2 Working

Fig. 6.6.2 Pneumatic circuit for embossing application

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The proposed pneumatic circuit diagram for embossing application is shown in fig.
6.6.2. When the push button valve (S1) is pressed, the flow takes place through the
valve and a signal is sent to the control port 14 of the direction control valve (V2).
The left position of the direction control valve (V2) is switched-on and the flow enters
at the piston-end of the cylinder (A). It causes the extension of the cylinder. Even if
the push button is released the position of the DCV (V2) will not change due to its
memory function. As the piston nears the end position, the roller valve (S2) is
actuated and pressure line is connected to the pressure sequence valve (V1). During
the embossing process the pressure at the piston-side of the cylinder (A) increases.
This increase in pressure is indicated by the pressure regulator (Z1). When the
pressure reaches to its pre-set value in the pressure sequence valve (V1), the 3/2 valve
of pressure sequence valve switches and the signal is applied to port 12 of the DCV
(V2). The right position of the DCV is actuated and the piston retracts. During the
retracting movement, the roller valve (S2) is released and the signal at the control port
12 of the DCV (V2) is reset and the pressure sequence valve is also reset.

3. Case study C
Sequencing application
In process control applications such as sequencing, the Pneumatics systems are
generally employed. Electrical components such as relays, programmable logic
controllers are used to control the operations of Pneumatic systems. A simple example
of a pneumatic sequencing is shown in Figure 6.6.3.

Fig. 6.6.3 Cylinder sequencing- Oscillating cylinder

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3.1 Components used
The components used in the circuit are: double acting cylinder, 3/2 roller lever valve,
5/3 pilot operated direction control valve and a 3/2 push button valve. By using this circuit, a
continuous to and fro motion of the actuator is obtained.

3.2 Working

When the 3/2 push button is actuated, the air flows from the source through the push button
valve to the 3/2 roller valve (S1). The roller valve is already actuated by the cylinder when the
piston rod hits the lever of S1. Therefore, there is continuous flow to the 5/3 pilot operated
direction control valve (DCV). The flow given to the pilot line 14 actuates the first
position of DCV. The air flows from port 1-4 pushes the piston head which causes the
extension of the cylinder. As the cylinder fully extends it actuates the 3/2 roller lever valve
(S2). The roller valve is actuated and air flows through the valve to the 5/3 DCV. The air
enters the DCV through pilot port 12 actuating the second position. Hence the air flows from
port 1-2 to the actuator rod end, causing its retraction. The cylinder reciprocates till the
supply is stopped. In this way, we can achieve the sequencing operation by controlled
actuation of various valves in a pneumatic system.

FLUIDICS & PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT DESIGN

 Fluidics – Introduction to fluidic devices, simple circuits Introduction to Electro
Hydraulic Pneumatic logic circuits, PLC applications in fluid power control, ladder
diagrams
 Fluid Power Circuit Design: Sequential circuit design for simple applications using
classic, cascade, step counter, logic with Karnaugh- Veitch Mapping and combinational
circuit design methods.

Fluidics
Bistable flip flop
SRT flip flop

OR/NOR & AND/NAND

Fluidic control of pneumatic cylinders

PLC control of hydraulic circuit

Cascading circuit

FLUID POWER CIRCUITS

 Speed control circuits, synchronizing circuit, Pneumo hydraulic circuit, Accumulator

circuits, Intensifier circuits. Servo systems – Hydro Mechanical servo systems, Electro
hydraulic servo systems and proportional valves.
 Deceleration circuit, hydrostatics transmission circuits, control circuits for reciprocating
drives in machine tools, Material handling equipments. Fluid power circuits; failure and
troubleshooting.
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT

REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT
PRESSURE INTENSIFIER CIRCUIT

PNEUMATIC MOTOR CIRCUIT