MHE Handout 52P

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
1MATERIAL HANDLING – DEFINITION

Material handling can be defined as the art and science of conveying, elevating, positioning, transporting
and packaging and storing of materials regardless of size, form and weight which effect a saving in
money, time and place.
The reference of materials handling as an art and science is made, because the solution of most handling
problems is not susceptible to a single definite answer but depends largely on the experience and
judgment of individual materials handling engineer.
MATERIAL HANDLING – OBJECTIVES
A. Reduce Unit Material Handling Cost D. Conserve Floor Space

® Eliminate Unnecessary Handling ® Avoid Excessive Stock Storage
® Handle Material in Batch Lots ® Move Materials in a Particular
® Minimize Required Handling Time Position to Save Space
® Replace Handling Equipment as ® Use Equipment Requiring no
appropriate Floor Space
B. Reduce Production Time E. Prevent Accidents
® Minimize Delays of Machine Operations ® Reduce Physical Load Required
® Maintain Uniform, ® Insure Handling Equipment.
appropriate Movement of Material F. Improve Employee Morale
® Use Automatic Processing when ® Provide Proper Relationship
appropriate between Employee & Work
C. Reduce Overhead
® Minimize Non-Productive Labor
® Prevent Damage to Materials
® Coordinate All Material Handling systems
1TWENTY PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL HANDLING

1. ORIENTATION PRINCIPLE: Study the system relationships thoroughly prior to preliminary planning
in order to identify existing methods and problems, physical and economic constraints, and to establish
future requirements and goals.
2. PLANNING PRINCIPLE: Establish a plan to include basic requirements, desirable options, and the
consideration of contingencies for all material handling and storage activities.
3. SYSTEMS PRINCIPLE: Integrate those handling and storage activities which are economically viable
into a coordinated system of operation including receiving, inspection, storage, production, assembly,
packaging, warehousing, shipping and transportation.
4. UNIT LOAD PRINCIPLE: Handle products in as large a unit as practical.
5. SPACE UTILIZATION PRINCIPLE: Make effective utilization of all cubic space.
MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 1
6. STANDARDIZATION PRINCIPLE: Standardize handling methods and equipment wherever possible.
7. ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLE: Recognize human capabilities and limitations by designing material
handling equipment and procedures for effective interaction with the people using the system.
8. ENERGY PRINCIPLE: Include energy consumption of material handling systems and material
handling procedures when making comparisons or preparing economic justifications.
9. ECOLOGY PRINCIPLE: Minimize adverse effects on the environment when selecting material
handling equipment.
10. MECHANIZATION PRINCIPLE: Mechanize the handling process where feasible to increase
efficiency and economy in the handling of materials.
11. FLEXIBILITY PRINCIPLE: Use methods and equipment which can perform a variety of tasks under a
variety of operating conditions.
12. SIMPLICITY PRINCIPLE: Simplify handling by eliminating, reducing, or combining unnecessary
movements and/or equipment.
13. GRAVITY PRINCIPLE: Utilize gravity to move material whenever possible, while respecting
limitations concerning safety, product damage and loss.
14. SAFETY PRINCIPLE: Provide safe material handling equipment and methods which follow existing
safety codes and regulations in addition to accrued experience.
15. COMPUTERIZATION PRINCIPLE: Consider computerization in materials handling and storage
systems, when circumstances warrant, for improved material and information control.
16. SYSTEM FLOW PRINCIPLE: Integrate data flow with physical material flow in handling and storage.
17. LAYOUT PRINCIPLE: Prepare an operational sequence and equipment layout for all viable system
solutions, and then select the alternative system which best integrates efficiency and effectiveness.
18. COST PRINCIPLE: Compare the economic justification of alternate solutions in equipment and
methods on the basis of economic effectiveness as measured by expense per unit handled.
19. MAINTENANCE PRINCIPLE: Prepare plan for preventive maintenance and scheduled repairs of all
material handling equipment.
20. OBSOLESCENCE PRINCIPLE: Prepare a long range and economically sound policy for replacement
of obsolete equipment and methods with special consideration to after-tax life cycle costs.
3MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Need of the present day is for the equipment to handle heavy loads with fast speed, reliability, safety and
economy. In order to meet the variety of requirements, equipments of different types and sizes have been
developed and are being manufactured. Application of material handling devices is a prime
consideration in designing new plants and for modifying existing plants. These devices increase output,
improve quality, speed up the deliveries and therefore, decrease the cost of production. Utility of these
devices have further been increased due to increase in labor costs and problems related to labor
management.

3SELECTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING DEVICES
Material handling devices should be able to give maximum efficiency, economy, life and reliability of
service. Under-utilization and faulty selection of the material handling equipment is an expensive luxury
which gives rise to increase in operating costs. The equipment selected should be according to the
requirement of the job in respect to the size, shape, weight, material to be handled etc.
According to George Hageman, the important “Engineering and Economic” factors to be considered in
every material handling installation can be classified as:
Factors relating to the plant and operating methods.
Factors depending on materials or parts handled.
Factors relating to the handling equipment.
Money factors.
1. FACTORS RELATING TO THE PLANT & OPERATING METHODS

Is the present manufacturing or operating method permanent or temporary?
How long will the present buildings remain in service?
Is the general plant layout the best for manufacturing and handling requirements?
What processes and departments must be tied together?
If trucks or floor type of equipment are to be used, are aisles and passage ways ample for conveniences
in handling speed, safety and non-interference with production? Is the floor made of water-resistant
materials? Are they leveled and smooth? Will they withstand the loads?
If overhead systems are contemplated, is the building structure strong enough to hold them and are
clearances sufficient for their installation?
2. FACTORS DEPENDING ON THE MATERIALS OR PARTS HANDLED
 Kinds or nature of materials of parts handled

- Bulk or units
- Large or small
- Heavy or light
- Shape
- Rough or fragile
 Handled separately or in containers
 Quantities handled
 Continuous or intermittent flow
 Under processing while moving
 Distances over which transported.
3. FACTORS RELATING TO THE HANDLING EQUIPMENT

 Kind or kinds suitable for the job
 Capacity of equipment
 Hours it will in service daily
 Size of equipment

 Space requirement for operation (for trucks this factor covers aisles, passage ways, elevators,
platform sizes etc.)
 Flexibility (according to loads etc.)
 Adaptability to other service
 Power requirements
 Ease of operation
 Speed of operation
 Durability
 Relationship to other handling equipment in use or contemplated
 Auxiliary equipment which is required, and economical to install loading platform. Etc.
4. MONEY FACTORS
 Initial cost of equipment.

• Cost of installation, re-arrangement, and alterations to present equipment, and buildings
etc.
• Cost of maintenance, repairs, supplies etc.
• Cost of power.
• Rate of depreciation.
• Rate of obsolescence.
• Probable salvage value when finally described.
• Cost of labor to operate.
• Cost of any necessary auxiliary equipment (such as charging equipment for truck
batteries, etc.)
 Taxes and Insurance.
• Interest on Investment.
• License fees (for trucks that may operate on highways).
• Rent of space (also garage rent for trucks).
• Cost of supervision.
• Savings that the equipment will bring about in direct labor cost (number of men released
for other work).
• Saving in labor burden (supervision P.tc.)
• Increased production brought about.
• Savings in fixed charges on equipment displaced.
• Unamortized value of equipment displaced.
3CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

A good device (materials handling equipment) should have following characteristics:
1. Material should not be damaged in handling.
2. Capable to handle material in required quantity.
3. Capable of delivering material at desired time.
4. Should be able to deliver goods at right place.
5. Should be safe in operation.
6. Should be economical both with respect to capital outlay and operational costs.

2PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Materials Handling Equipment
Hoisting Conveying Surface & Overhead

Equipment Equipment Equipment
The main groups of material handling equipment classified by their design features are shown in figure.
HOISTING EQUIPMENT is a group of machines with lifting gear intended for moving loads mainly
in batches.
CONVEYING EQUIPMENT is a group of machines which may have no lifting gear and which move
loads in a continuous flow.
SURFACE AND OVERHEAD EQUIPMENT is a group of machines which also may not be provided
with lifting gear and which usually handle loads in batches.
3MAIN GROUPS OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

2BULK OR UNIT LOADS
Loads can be classified as bulk or unit loads,
Bulk loads – Materials handled in bulk are composed of a large number of homogeneous particles or
lumps, for example: coal, ore, sand, gravel, stone, clay,
Unit loads may differ widely in form and weight.
Hoisting machines are intended mainly for unit loads – various parts of machines and whole machines,
elements of metal structures, hoppers and ladles, girders, building blocks and materials, etc. [girders – A
beam, as of steel, wood, or reinforced concrete, used as a main horizontal support in a building]
Conveyors can be used to handle either bulk or only unit loads.
Surface and Overhead facilities – can be used for both bulk and unit loads.
2CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN GROUPS OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

As a rule, the working movement in hoisting machines is intended either for raising or lowering the load.
Some hoisting machines can also travel horizontally, turn round, move radially, etc. Most of the
transporting facilities shift loads in a horizontal direction although many can also move them at various
angles to the horizon or in a vertical direction. Most hoisting mechanisms are designed to perform
controlled individual typical movements, for example, of many cranes which lift the load, slew it, hold it
at rest, if required, and carry it to its destination. [slew –change direction, move obliquely or sideways].
Many transporting facilities – conveyors, trucks and telphers – move along a fixed path to perform many
identical working operations. [telpher –A small traveling car, usually driven by electricity, suspended
from or moving on an overhead rail or cable] Identical working operations and uniform loads that they
carry enable the transporting facilities to be highly automated not only for moving but also for loading,
unloading and stacking operations. This cannot be achieved in many hoisting mechanisms which require
hand servicing not only for controlling the working movements but very often also for loading and
unloading, as, for instance, when different shaped loads are suspended on or removed from a hook.
2CHOICE OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Materials handling machines are manufactured in a great variety of designs. For this reason, the same
operation can be frequently performed by various methods and devices. The proper choice of a device
requires not only a special knowledge of the design and operational characteristics of the mechanism but
also a thorough understanding of the organization of production at the enterprise. A transporting facility
should move loads to their destinations in the scheduled time, i.e., loads should be delivered to the
department or enterprise in the required amounts. The materials handling equipment should be
mechanized to the fullest possible extent so as to employ only a few workers for control, maintenance
and auxiliary jobs. At the same time these devices should not damage the loads being moved, or
encumber in any way the premises or hamper the production processes. They should be safe in
operation and economical both with respect to capital outlay and operational costs. [encumber – to make
something hold].
N. RUDENKO
Principal technical factors that can be pointed out for guidance in the choice of the types of
devices which can be expediently employed to mechanize any handling process [expediently - quickly]
 Kind and properties of loads to be handled
 Required hourly capacity of the unit
 Direction and length of travel
 Methods of stacking loads at the initial, final and intermediate points
 Characteristics of production process involved in moving loads
 Specific local conditions
 Economic considerations

KIND AND PROPERTIES OF LOADS TO BE HANDLED:

For unit loads - their form, weight, convenient bearing surface of parts by which they can be suspended,
brittleness, temperature, etc,; for bulk loads – lump size, tendency to cake, volume weight, friability and
the amount of crumbling liable to occur during shipment, temperature, chemical properties, etc. [friable -
easily broken into smaller pieces, crumble - to break into small pieces] These characteristics of loads
can essentially narrow down the range of devices which can be applied in each definite case since the
different devices are not adapted equally to the various properties of loads.
REQUIRED HOURLY CAPACITY OF THE UNIT:

A particular unlimited hourly load moving capacity can be easily obtained with certain types of devices
as, for instance, with some continuous-action conveyors. On the other hand, there are devices, such as
power-driven trucks or overhead travelling cranes following a definite cycle of movements with a return
idle run, which can operate efficiently only if they possess an adequately high lifting capacity and speed
at strenuous duty. [Strenuous - requiring or showing great energy and effort]
DIRECTION AND LENGTH OF TRAVEL:

Various types of devices can carry loads in a horizontal or vertical direction or at an angle to the horizon.
Thus, a vertical movement or a movement close to the vertical requires a hoist, crane, bucket or tray
elevator; Horizontal movement is provided by self-propelled or hand trucks, fixed path facilities, various
types of conveyors, etc. Some devices can easily negotiate track curves while others move only
rectilinearly, in one direction. The length of path, the location of the load supplying points and the
ramification of the load delivery stations are also very important for the correct choice of a transporting
facility. [Ramification - The act or process of branching out or dividing into branches].
METHODS OF STACKING LOADS AT THE INITIAL, FINAL AND INTERMEDIATE POINTS:

Loading onto the vehicles and unloading at their destination differ considerably because some handling
machines can be loaded mechanically while others require special auxiliary fixtures or manual power.
Thus, for example, bulk loads can be stored either in lot, in a pile, from which they flow by gravity onto
the transporting facility. Unit loads can be stowed directly on the ground or on pallets, stands, racks,
trays, etc., from which they are delivered to and removed from the materials handling devices by
different methods. [Stowed - To place or arrange, especially in a neat, compact way]
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MOVING LOADS:

This most important factor essentially influences the choice of the type of transporting facility. As a rule,
the movements of materials handling equipment are closely linked with and depend on the
manufacturing process; sometimes these movements may even be directly involved in the performance
of certain processing operations. Such are, for example, special cranes employed in foundry, forging and
welding departments, assembly and foundry conveyors, processing conveyors in machining, painting
and other departments.
SPECIFIC LOCAL CONDITIONS:

Specific local conditions include the size and shape of the area, type and design of the building, ground
relief, possible arrangement of the processing units, dust or humidity conditions in the premises,
presence of vapors or gases, temperature, etc. The choice of devices is also influenced by the
considerations of a further expansion of the enterprise, the period it will be in existence (temporary or
permanent), the kind of energy available, and problems of sanitation, safety and operational
convenience.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS:
In economic evaluation of various types of devices both the total capital outlay [outlay - An amount
spent; an expenditure] and the operational costs should be taken into consideration. The capital outlay
includes the cost of equipment, the cost of its erection and transporting and construction costs involved
in its installation and operation. The difference in the cost of building and structures which can be
serviced by alternative transporting facilities should also be considered when comparing capital outlay.
Operational costs include:
1. Wages and salaries of the personnel plus additions for social services;
2. Cost of electric power;
3. Cost of lubricating, wiping, rigging and other materials;
4. Cost of repairs and maintenance.
HOISTING EQUIPMENT (Lifting, lowering or elevating equipment)

a. Lifting and lowering equipment: These are used in the operation of lifting a load, handling them
in suspension, Lowering and placing them at required locations.
b. Elevating equipment: Vertical motion over fixed vertical or steep inclined routes with continuous
or with intermittent motion is followed by these equipments.
Hoisting equipment is group of machines with lifting gear intended for moving loads mainly in batches.
Hoisting – [To raise; to lift; to elevate; specially to raise or lift to desired elevation, by means of tackle].
Tackle – [a mechanism or apparatus, as a rope and block or a combination of ropes and brakes, for
hoisting, lowering, and shifting objects or materials].
HOISTING EQUIPMENT CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO FOLLOWING THREE GROUPS:

1. HOISTING MACHINES:
Hoisting machines are a group of periodic action devices designed as self-lifting gear, or for hoisting and
moving loads, or else as independent mechanisms of cranes and elevators. The hoisting mechanisms are
generally required to facilitate other operations, viz. transport, assembly, mounting on a machine tool.
The jacks, pulleys, hoists, special purpose monorail, winches, crane trolleys etc. are the main hoisting
machines.
2. CRANES:
Cranes are a combination of separate hoisting mechanisms with a frame for lifting or both for lifting and
moving loads which can be freely suspended on or secured to them.
3. ELEVATORS:
Elevators are a group of periodic-action machines intended for raising loads or passengers in guideways.
1. HOISTS: Hoists are devices for lifting or lowering the loads, suspended from a hook on the end of
retractable chains or cables. The loads are generally supported from overhead by a hook or travelling
on a track. These devices are rugged, simple, dependable, easy to install, versatile, and economical.
Hoists have limitation of handling lesser loads, slow, manual operation, and fixed path and require an
overhead support.
Hourly capacity of hoisting machines can be expressed by the formula:
C = n.Q. tons/hr.
where, C = Hourly capacity of hoisting machines;

n = Number of machine cycles per hr.
Q = Weight of live load, in tons.
When handling unit loads, Q = weight of 1-unit load
When handling bulk materials, Q=V.w.Φ
where, V = Capacity of grab, bucket etc. in cu m.
w = weight of one-unit volume of materials in tons/m3
Φ = filling factor.
COMPONENTS OF HOISTING EQUIPMENT

Hoisting equipment include following components:
1. Flexible hoisting appliances (chains and ropes),
2. Pulleys, pulley systems, sprockets and drums,
3. Load handling attachments,
4. Stopping and braking devices.
5. Drives (motors),
6. Transmissions,
7. Transmission components (axles and shafts, bearings, clutches etc.)
8. Rails and travelling wheels,
9. Machine structures (crane frames),
10. Control devices.
Main types of Hoisting Machines
1. JACKS: The jacks are simple lifting devices which are directly applied to the load to be lifted. They
are commonly employed in repair and erection jobs to lift loads through a short distance, say 0.3 to
1.0 m.
Jacks may be classified as:
(a) Rack and Lever Jack (b) Rack and Pinion Jack
(c) Screw Jack (d) Hydraulic Jack.
(a) Rack and Lever Jack (b) Rack and Pinion Jack (c) Screw Jack
Screw jack is an application of screw and offers the greatest mechanical advantage of all the simple
machines. It employs a screw spindle and nut. A detachable handle is used to rotate the screw spindle by
means of a ratchet and pawl mechanism. Pitch (P) of the screw is the distance between two successive
threads. It is the distance by which screw advances during one revolution. Then the lever arm (handle) of
the screw is moved through one complete revolution it traverses a circular distance equal to 2 π l. Where

l is the length of lever arm i.e. distance of point, where effort (E) is applied, from the center line of the
screw. During one revolution, weight W is lifted through a distance P. The relationship between E and
W can be written as: E x 2πl = W x P. Therefore, Mechanical Advantage = W/E = 2πl/P
Traversing Screw Jack: A hand operated traversing

screw jack, which is used for accurate positioning under
load. In this type of screw jack, a heavy steel screw of
the jack is threaded into a nut secured in a jack body.
The screw head is fitted with a checker bearing plate
rotatable relative to the screw.
The screw is turned by a lever with a double-ended
pawl held fixed in a certain position by a cam,
depending on the direction of screw rotation. Jack body
rests on a nut base which traverses along guides when
the screw is rotated with the aid of a lever and a pawl.
Such screw jacks are available in capacities ranging
between 2 to 20 tons.
(d) Hydraulic Jack: Hydraulic Jacks work on the principle that, the 'pressure’ exerted by a liquid on a
surface, is proportional to the ‘area of the surface'. Due to this principle, Jacks are capable of lifting great
eight. Surface pressure exerted by a liquid depends upon the ratio of face areas of the ram and plunger.
Hydraulic jack works on the same principle as that of hydraulic press. These are used to lift loads, and
are commonly used for lifting automobiles to facilitate cleaning and repair work. These are used to lift
heavy load through a short distance.
Hydraulic Jack Principle: Figure shows a

simple hydraulic jack. It is provided with
plunger on one side. This plunger is
reciprocated by a handle attached to it.
Another side of the jack is provided with a
ram, by means of which loads are lifted. Up
and down, motion of the handle reciprocates
the plunger. This movement of the plunger
draws the water/oil from the reservoir and
delivers to the cylinder fitted with the lifting
ram through the delivery valve. Both the
suction and delivery valves are the
nonreturnable valves. Addition of high
pressure water at the bottom of the ram causes
It to move upward. Loads can be lifted if
placed at the top of the ram.
Load is lowered with the help of a lowering screw. By unscrewing It, high pressure water from the
bottom of the ram rushes to the reservoir, thus reducing the pressure of the water below the ram and
causes the ram and hence the load to come down. Theoretical force on the ram = Force on the

plunger x Ratio of areas Actual force on the ram = Theoretical force x Efficiency
Velocity ratio of jack = (Area of Ram/Area of plunger) x Leverage.
2. Pulleys: A pulley is a small sheave or wheel

with a grooved rim usually mounted on a
pin on which it turns, a frame or block in
which it runs and with a flexible rope or
chain passing through the groove.
A unit consisting of one or more sheaves
mounted in a frame is known as 'block'. Block
is mostly equipped with an eye, a hook or some
similar device at one or both ends of the frame,
by which objects can be attached.
In pulley system fixed or movable pulleys are connected in different combinations. The system of
pulley block is used for lifting loads through vertical distance and is most simple and inexpensive
in cost. This is one of the oldest systems of getting mechanical advantages.
3. Winch: Figure shows a winch. Winches are used to

lift loads vertically by winding the rope or cable on a
drum. These can be operated manually or by power to
get a much greater mechanical advantage than that
obtained with the help of a block and tackle (pulley
system). It is frequently used in loading heavy
equipment into ships, building construction and in
similar other jobs. Capacity of a winch can be increased
by increasing the number of gear trains. These are very
useful, simple and low cost equipment for lifting heavy
loads. Ratchet brakes may be fitted on the winch to hold
a suspended load and to prevent reverse travel of gears
and thus provide safety against accidental dropping of
load.
4. Power Hoist: Figure shows a power hoist, which often operated between fixed guide rails, for
lifting things vertically. There is an infinite variety of hoists suitable for different purposes. The
simplest is the chain hoist, which is operated by hand. There are also hoists operated by compressed
air, diesel engine, or by electric power. The hoists are smaller to elevators except that, a hoist does
not carry the operator in it, but is operated from one or two other points. Hoists used for - short
distance horizontal hauls are suspended from trolleys or carriers travelling over an overhead single
rail track, commonly a rolled I-beam. In this case trollies are pushed by hand for capacity less than
1 ton or they are fitted with hand or mechanically operated drives.
Power Hoist Hand operated monorail Hoist

Electrical Hoists: Electrical hoists capable of hoisting speeds· between 5 and 25 m/min are
available in capacities ranging between 0.25 and 15 tons. The speed of their travel over a single-rail
track varies depending on the distance to be covered and the purpose the hoist serves.
Electric hoists are of two types: floor controlled and cabin controlled
A floor-controlled electric hoist has travelling speed of32 m/min or less.
Higher speed hoists are controlled from an overhead cabin.
Such monorail hoist carrying trolleys are used for transferring loads from shop to shop, in stock-
piling and reclaiming operations, in charging cupolas, etc. In this case, handling attachments used
are: hook, lifting magnet or a grip adapted to handle unit loads or bulk materials.
Electric Hoist Floor Controlled Cabin Controlled

1. Electric motor, 2. drum, 3. motor torque reducer.
5. Worm-Wheel Hoists:
In these hoists, worm-wheel arrangement is
employed with two chains. There use two
chains, one is called the hand chain while the
other as the load chain. The pull applied to the
hand chain is transmitted to the load chain after
being multiplied by the mechanical advantage.
The worm is mounted on the shaft of load chain
wheel and moves when this chain is pulled,
while the wheel is provided with an extended
hub to which two load sheaves are screwed.
The load chain is reeved (to pass a rope or rod through a hole, ring, pulley, or block) over these two
sheaves and the load hook is secured to both ends of this chain. As the worm rotates the rotation is
conveyed to the load sheaves through the wheel, and this raises or lowers the load depending upon
the direction of pull of the hand chain. To pass (a rope or rod) through a hole, ring, pulley, or block.
CRANES: Cranes have wide application in construction projects, industries and in shipping etc. These
are used for lifting the loads (may be construction materials, loose materials, packages, containers,
finished and semi-finished products in industries etc.) and placing them at desired place. For this
purpose, the cranes have three motions in general, namely hoisting, derricking and slewing. The cranes
are generally electrically operated; diesel operated or may have diesel-electric drive. The cranes can be
classified in following classes:
1. Derrick cranes.
2. Mobile cranes.
3. Hydraulic Cranes
4. Overhead cranes, also known as Gantry cranes.
5. Traveler Cranes
6. Jib Cranes.
7. Tower cranes.
1. Derrick Cranes: Derrick cranes consists of a mast, a boom, a bull wheel on which it rotates about a
vertical axis, and supporting members (also known as guys). These cranes are very widely used in
construction projects, industrial and multi-storeyed building construction, plant errection, loading and
unloading of cargoes at ports, ship building etc. When used with grabs it can handle loose materials like
sand, ballast, coal etc. As shown in the figure the most of the derrick cranes are supported by a number
of guys. The boom can revolve through 360° and can pass below these guys. A bull wheel is attached to
the mast and rotates it. These are operated by either a diesel engine or by an electric motor. As
mentioned above, mast is generally supported by guy ropes but when this is replaced by trussed structure
it becomes stiff leg derrick. In this case the mast is supported at its upper end by two braced stiff leg,
therefore the boom Fig, 8,43. Guyed boom crane rotates through angle of 2700 to 290°. The derrick
cranes are sometimes mounted on rail wagons for quick transportation and for working near rail lines,
and are known as Whirler cranes. These cranes are available upto capacities of 40 tonnes with 25 metres
boom length and 15 metre work radius. The Derrick cranes can be used as Tower cranes for the purpose
of errection of high industrial and residential buildings of height 100 metre or above. The Derrick cranes
are also designed to work as Port tower cranes (for use in ports for container and general cargo
handling), as shipyard cranes (for use in ship building and ship repairing works with longer capacities
and larger working radii).
2. Mobile Cranes
Mobile cranes are either crawler mounted or wheel mounted. Crawler mounted cranes are highly
maneuverable and have the ability to operate on unmade ground. Long wide crawler mountings and wide
crawler shoes give low ground bearing pressures and they improve crane stability. Since these move
slowly, they are used in rough terrain where truck mounted cranes can not travel and hence are
economically used where ground conditions are poor and required to operate in a limited area.
Wheel mounted mobile cranes are generally truck mounted and have high mobility, and can travel up to
70 to 75 km per hr on good roads. These are designed for long distance travel with high road speeds. The
number of axles and drive depends upon load lifting capacity and the length of the boom. These cranes
can operate on firm ground. For increasing base width and to improve stability during operations,
outriggers are used.
The mobile cranes have four motions viz., hoisting, and derricking, slewing and travelling. Thus it has
travelling motion as an extra feature as compared to Derrick cranes.
Rail-mounted cranes are also manufactured to move on rail tracks. Such cranes are used in steel industry,
dockyards and railways. These cranes can be driven by steam engines, by diesel engines or by
electricity. These are designed to suit the railway gauge clearances available, so as to enable negotiating
while travelling, to lift high loads such as required for salvage operations after accidents etc.

3. Hydraulic Cranes
Hydraulic cranes are usually truck-mounted cranes. All operations of these cranes are hydraulically
powered including extension and retraction of out riggers, extension and shortening of boom. The
hydraulic power is supplied through oil pressure, generated by rotary oil pumps. Because of simplicity,
quick change of boom
length and easy and quick change of angle, mobility and maneuverability of the telescopic boom, no
requirement of a separate crew for extending or shortening of the boom, these have attained the wide
popularity over conventional cable operated, latticed boom. Besides, the operations of hoisting, slewing
and derricking can be performed simultaneously and that too without any jerks which are unavoidable in
conventional cranes.
Craning arrangement: The crane consists of a hollow vertical post (known as mast) to which a jib and
a tie is attached as shown in Fig. 8.48. The mast is supported on a bearing and can be revolved with its
vertical axis, so that load from all directions can be handled. The jib can be raised or lowered together
with the load.
Working: When the ram is at the end of the stroke, water under pressure is admitted in the cylinder.
This water forces the ram to go in outward direction. While ram is making outward stroke, the wire rope
is pulled and the heavy weight hanged with the hook will be lifted upward. The mast can be revolved in
a desired direction, for placing load, water from the cylinder is then taken out and ram makes inward
stroke. Thus the hook with load comes down on the ground.

4. Overhead and Gantry Cranes
These are used for handling loads over a long rectangular area in factories, power stations, in shipyards
and in workshops. The simplest form mainly consists of (i) structural bridge support on elevated tracks
and (ii) supporting a lifting block or hoist trolley. Control is from a cabin on the bridge or by pendant; at
floor level. Due to freedom from floor obstructions, these are widely used in errection, foundries, steel
plants, power houses, shipyards etc.
The bridge consists of two main girders which are fixed at the end and supported on tram wheels and can
move on gantry rails. The hoist trolley also known as crab is supported on these girders and is capable of
travelling across main girders. Thus load hook has three motions viz. hoisting i.e. lifting and lowering;
cross travelling with trolley in both directions; and longitudinal traversing with the bridge in both
directions.
5. Traveler (or Goliath) Cranes

These have their crabs (hoisting trollies) moving on girders which are supported on legs instead of
overhead gantry tracks as used in overhead cranes. The legs moves on tracks laid on the floor. Since
these do not need overhead gantries, hence are very useful as dock site cranes for lifting cargoes, in
shipyards and in docks etc.
6. Jib Cranes
A jib crane is a typical revolving crane. It has a horizontal jib. It has the appearance of an arm that
extends over a work area. A hoist is attached to the arm to provide lifting capability. The arm can rotate
and the hoist can move along the arm to achieve a wide coverage. It may be projected from a wall,
attached to a self-supporting mast (pillar) or mounted on a column. Different types of jib cranes are
shown in Figs. 8.53 to 8.55.

7. Tower Cranes
Tower cranes are used in various construction projects of high buildings, bridges, cooling towers,
television towers or power plants. The construction of the tower crane is such that it can work and then
dismantled in restricted space. The tower has a truss structure welded from angle bars and channels.
Tower extension pieces are available to increase the height as per requirement. Ladders are provided
inside the whole height of the tower. An operator's cabin is provided so as to enable full view. Jib is
attached to the last highest section of the tower. Two sections of the jib, opposite to one another, are
provided, one is saddle jib and another is counter weight jib. A saddle moves horizontally on rails
provided on the saddle jib and is controlled from the hook block. The upper portion of the tower is fixed
on the slewing head.
CONVEYING EQUIPMENT (CONVEYORS)

Conveyors of different types and sizes are available in production, mining, and construction industry. It
is possible to start and stop conveyors, interrupting the flow of materials when required. Materials can be
diverted, transferred, raised or lowered, loaded or unloaded by means of conveyors at one or more
locations. Conveyors may be portable or fixed.
Limitation of fixed or stationary conveyor is that, once installed, it is almost inflexible regarding
alteration in location, shape, capacity etc. These are suitable for direct routes at high capacity rates, and
can be placed at floor level or elevated level above the operational levels, to save valuable floor space.

Conveyors do not necessarily require an operator. These are reliable in operation and have minimum
downtime, require very less time for preventive maintenance. These can be used to handle large variety
of materials including different type of packages, loose materials, bulk materials etc.
If the path for the flow of material is fixed, then the provision of the conveyors at suitable levels
eliminate
a good deal of lifting and lowering of materials. Conveyors require no stopping or starting but are
continuous in operation. In these, transportation is effected by friction between materials being
transported and the belt.
These conveyors have the advantage that they largely save labor cost, but have disadvantage that they
take up considerable space, are relatively fixed and in most cases the investment cost is high. Conveyors
may be used for horizontal, vertical (also known as elevators) or inclined conveying of materials.
Conveying machinery is intended to move loads in a continuous stream without stops for loading and
unloading. Bulk materials are handled by these machineries in a continuous or intermittent flow, and
unit loads can be moved in piecemeal. Conveying operations follow a standard pattern so that conveyors
lend themselves to automation more rapidly than cranes.
Performance of the conveyor can be known by its capacity, which is the volume or mass of a load
moved per unit time. Capacity of conveyor is,
Q=wV
where, Q = Capacity of conveyor in tons/hr,
V = Volumetric capacity of conveyor in m3/hr, and
w = Bulk weight i.e. mass per unit volume of material.
Capacity of conveyor moving bulk material in a steady stream is shown in the figure below.
Bulk material on a belt conveyor

It can be expressed in m3/hr as V = 3600 A.v. and
in tons/hr as Q = 3600 A.v.w.
where, A is the cross sectional area of material in m2, and
v is the conveying speed in m/sec.
Types of loads
Bulk weight of a load depends on its physical properties, moisture content, and the size of particles and
lumps. Loads depending upon the bulk weight can be grouped into four groups.
i. Light Load, having bulk weight under 0.6 tons/m3,
e.g. sawdust.
ii. Medium weight loads, having a bulk weight between 0.6 and 1.1 tons/m3,
e.g. grain, slag, coal.
iii. Heavy loads, having weights between 1.1 to 2.0 tons/m3,
sand, gravel etc., and
iv. Extra heavy loads, having bulk weight exceeding 2.0 ton/m3,
ore, pebble, stone.

Types of Conveyors
There are several kinds of conveyors such as:
A. Traction Type Conveyors B. Traction less-type Conveyors

• Belt conveyor • Gravity-type conveyors
• Chain conveyor • Chutes
• Cage elevators • Screw or Spiral conveyors
• Roller conveyor • Conveying by Hydraulic means
• Bucket elevators • Pneumatic conveyors
• Vibrating and Oscillating
conveyors
A-Traction Type Conveyors

1. Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors are the most common form of materials handling system used in manufacturing and
mining industry, thermal plants and in construction projects. Heavy industries like steel, fertilizer,
chemical and cement etc. cannot function without the belt conveyor. In construction projects the belt
conveyors are used for handling the materials in Asphalt Plants, Crushing and Screening Plants,
Aggregate-mixing plants etc.
In coal mining and other mining industries these are used for handling of coal or other raw material. The
belt conveyors are capable of conveying large quantities of material continuously over considerably long
distances at a fast speed.
For transporting the material for short distance conveyor may be a portable or a fixed unit. When a belt
conveyor system is used to transport materials for a considerable distance, up to several kilo meters in
some cases, the system consists of a number of flights. Each flight is complete conveyor unit discharging
its load onto the tail end of the successive unit.
Belt Materials
Belts-used in the system are costly and perishable item and, hence need to be carefully maintained. The
belts are generally made of rubber covered cotton or rayon laid up in plies. The strength of a rubber belt
depends on number of plies. Canvas plies, woven wire mesh and steel belts are also used depending
upon the strength required for the conveyors to convey various types of materials, their temperature,
quantity to be transported etc. Belts are specified by width, number of plies, and weight of each layer
of ply.
Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors consist of a belt running over drums or pulleys provided at the end and are supported at
intervals by a series of rollers knows as idlers. These idlers are supported on the conveyor frame.
These idlers help to support the conveyors and reduce the sag of the belt and prevent the loose material
from spilling. These idlers are free to move on bearings. Since 1000 to 1200 idlers per kilo meter of belt
length are provided, it is important to design, select and maintain for maximum life and to give best
performance.
Selection of proper bearings with minimum friction value, standardization, strict quality control and
proper finish/tolerance of shafting is essential. The dust proof bearings packed with lubricant with
efficient seals, require no further attention for years. The spacing of idlers depends upon the weight of
the material handled, if the idlers are widely spaced, the sag between them becomes excessive, which
will result in wastage of power, increase in belt wear, chances for spillage of material due to impact at
each idler.

Advantages of Belt Conveyors
Following are the main advantages of belt conveyors:
1. It is capable of handling light or heavy, fine or coarse, wet or dry material.
2. It can handle thousands of tons of material per hour for several kilo meters.
3. It can handle hot materials up to 160°C or so.
4. It is lighter in weight, and consumes less power.
5. It operates. -without noise.
6. It gives a continuous discharge and quantity of which can be varied by varying the speed of
conveyor belt.
7. It can carry the material horizontally or in an inclination.
8. It is used for carrying the material over rough country, where use of other means is difficult and
costly.
Power required to drive Belt Conveyor
Belt conveyor system requires external power for following purposes:
• To move the empty belt over the idlers.
• To move the load (i) horizontally and (ii) vertically.
• To rotate all pulleys.
• To compensate for friction and other losses.
The total external power required to drive a belt conveyor system is the algebraic sum of the power
required for all the above functions.
Economic aspects of Belt Conveyors
To assess the economy of a belt conveyor as compared to that of trucks for hauling, it is desired to
estimate
the cost of transportation by each method. To assess the cost of the conveyor system, the cost of the
system, its installation, maintenance, repair, electric energy, labor, depreciation, interest on investment,
taxes, insurance must all be considered. Then unit cost of moving the material be calculated. Whereas to
assess the cost of transporting the materials by truck, the cost of truck, its depreciation, operation,
maintenance, repair, interest on investment, etc. And cost of constructing and maintaining haul road be
considered. Then the unit cost of moving the material be calculated and compared with that obtained for
belt conveyor system, in order to take decision about the economy of either of the system.
Belt Conveyor components
Following are the main components in a belt conveyor system:
1. Belt:
Rubber belt is the costliest single component in the system. Conveyor belt consists of a car Cass
imbedded in rubber. The car Cass is made up of plies or layers of fabric (cotton or synthetic) bonded
together and carry tension and absorb impact. The rubber compound may be natural, synthetic or a
blend. Steel-wire stranded cables are now-a-days also used in place of fabric yarn in car Cass to have
higher tensile strength.
Vulcanizing or mechanical fasteners are used to make the conveyor belts endless at the job site.
Mechanical fasteners are also used for quick repairs of cuts and rips in conveyor belting in an
emergency.
2. Pulleys and idlers:
Pulleys are generally located at the terminals of a belt conveyor, where they support the belt and transmit
driving power. The conveyor belts are supported on idlers between the terminals. The idlers are

generally of the three-roll type, with the center roll horizontal and the two-side rolls inclined to form a
trough.
This angle is generally kept at 20°. The idler rolls are made up of steel tubing, with welded end discs
which house anti friction bearings. The idler supporting the loaded strand of the belt is known as upper
idler and the one which is supporting the return belt is called as lower idler. The upper idler is 3-roller
type or single roller type, but lower idler always have single roller. The belt runs flat on a single roller,
while takes the shape of a trough on multi-roller idlers.
3. Drives:
Nearly all belt conveyors are driven by electric
motors. Speed reduction may be achieved by chain
and sprockets, 'V' belts or gearing. The drives are
generally located at the discharge ends of inclined
conveyors.
4. Motors and Controls:
Squirrel-cage and wound-rotor type motors are Figure shows a belt conveyor, which consist of
commonly used in conveyors. moving endless belt and carries materials with in
The motor for a conveyor belt drive must have supporting frames.
sufficient torque to overcome the starting friction
of the system.
5. Conveyor Belt Take-ups:

Take-ups are provided to adjust the increase in length of the belt due to its elongation after it is put into
operation.
Take ups are of two types
a. Screw take-ups, which are used to increase the length of the conveyor by moving the head or tail
pulley. This system is used for short belts.
b. In another system, weighted pulleys are provided to create uniform tension in the returning belt.
6. Hold Backs:
Hold backs are provided on the driving pulley to prevent the load from causing the belt to run backward
in the event of a power failure, if the belt is operating on an incline. Holdbacks are mechanical devices
which allow the driving pulley to rotate only in normal direction, and prevent it from rotating in the
opposite direction.

7. Feeders:
These are used to deliver the material to a belt at a uniform rate. It may deliver the material onto the belt
either directly or through a chute in order to reduce the impact of falling material.
Power required for moving a Belt Conveyor
a) Power Required to move the empty belt:
Horse Power required to move an empty belt is given by the equation:
p=LSCW/4500
where, L = Length of conveyer, m
S = Speed of the belt, m per min.
C = Idler-friction factor
W= Weight of the moving parts per meter of conveyor.
b) Power required to move a load Horizontally:
Horse Power required to move a load horizontally may be expressed by,
P=LCT/3600
where, L = Length of conveyor, m
C = Idler-friction factor
T = Tons of material moved per hr.
c) Power required to move a load up an inclined:
When the load is moved up an inclined, the power required may be divided into two components, the
power required to move the load horizontally, and the power required to lift the load through the net
change in elevation. The power required for earlier component can be determined using the expression
given at (b) above, while that for later component i.e. to lift the load through the net change in elevation
is determined as follows:
P=TH/3600
where, T = Material moved in Tons/hr.
H = Net change in elevation in meters.
Special purpose Conveyor Belts
(i) Heat resisting belts: These are suitable for carrying hot and highly abrasive materials. Extreme heat
dries out both the fabric and the rubber in the belts and results in cracks and breakage.
(ii) Oil resisting belts: These are used to handle materials which leave residues of fat or oil resulting in
swelling of rubber.
Synthetic rubber. conveyor belts are mostly used for this purpose.
(iii) Submerged ash conveyor belts: Paste formed by water and ash is highly abrasive and requires a
quality belt treated against attack by mildew [mildew - a fungus that forms on organic matter, spoil due
to humidity]. These belts are specially designed and has stepped plies. Since wear is mostly on towards
pulley, the pulley side rubber cover is thicker than the carrying side. Breaker is used on the edges to
protect the edges.
(iv) Elevator belts: These belts are suitable for buckets where maximum strength and resistance to
severe wear are essential.
(v) Fire resistance belts: These are generally used for materials having fire hazards like coal. These
have tough and fire resistant covers like PVC or Neoprene.
Selection and Design of Conveyor Belts
A belt should have following qualities:
(i) Sufficient width:
The belt should be able to carry sufficient load at a desired speed. This depends on the capacity required,
density and size of the material. To carry a particular load there are two ways, either to have high speed
with a narrow belt or slow speed with a wider belt. Therefore, to decide the width it is necessary to first
decide the speed. Belts with narrow width and higher speeds are generally economical.
The size of the largest lumps in the material carried also determines the minimum width of belt to carry
without spillage. The larger the lump size, the wider will be the belt. The speed of the belt is decided by
considering capacity required, belt tension, nature of material being handled.
(ii) Sufficient strength:
The belt should be able to withstand the maximum working tension. This also depends on length, width,
speed, capacity etc. of conveyor
(iii) Sufficient thickness and grade:
In order to withstand the abrasion and cutting of material being carried, it is necessary that belt should
have sufficient thickness and correct grade of cover compound. This grading is governed by the abrasive
qualities of the material and method employed for loading the belt.
(iv) Sufficient lateral flexibility:
The belt should have adequate trough, which depends on the lateral flexibility of the belt, troughing
angle of the idlers and the belt width.
(v) Sufficient impact resistance:
The belt should be able to withstand the impact at the loading point. This depends on the type of cover
rubber and its thickness.
(vi) Sufficient lateral stiffness:
In order to avoid spilling of the material, the belt should have sufficient lateral stiffness.
(vii) Sufficient longitudinal flexibility:
The belt should be able to flex easily around pulleys. This depends on the number of plies and the type
of fabric used in the belt.
(viii) Angle of inclination:
The maximum inclination on which material can be carried on a belt with roll back or slip backs,
depends upon
a) shape, size and condition of material,
b) belt speed and method of loading,
c) load disturbance due to idler spacing and belt tension.
(ix) Cover Grades:
Conveyor belts are normally available in following grades of rubber covers:
• 'A' grade rubber covers: The outer ply is skim coated to give high cover adhesion. These are used for
conveying heavy, sharp, and abrasive materials, like crushed metallic ores, granite, limestone etc.
Belts with A grade covers, all plies skim coated and with a breaker on face are known as 'Super A'
grades.
• 'B' grade rubber covers : These are used for conditions which are not very severe, such as conveying
bauxite, asbestos, ash, cement, lime etc.

• Heat resisting grades:
These are used for handling materials at over 65°C. This grade of synthetic rubber compound offers
excellent resistance to abrasion.
(x) Cover thickness:
Protection given to the car Cass by the cover rubber against damage by impact is mainly determined by
thickness of the cover used. In simple words we can say that, the greater the impact, the more should be
the cover thickness.
(xi) Cover quality:
Cover should be resistant to cuttings, gouging, tearing, abrasion, ageing, moisture absorption, heat, oil
and chemicals.
Loading and unloading the Belt
Following precautions should be followed for correct loading of a conveyor belt:
• Material should be fed uniformly in the direction of belt travel at a speed as close as possible to the belt
speed.
• The material should be fed along the middle of the belt from a minimum possible height.
• The point where material lands should not be over the idler.
• Spillage on to the return belt should be prevented by means of skirt board.
The material is generally fed through chutes or feeders, having renewable liners as these wear out
rapidly due to abrasion. For fines the chutes are closed to decrease dust hazard. The width of the chute
should be such that it can handle two largest lumps. The chute should be of 70% to 80% width of the
belt. The angle of the chute should be correct (generally between 35° to 45°) depending upon the
material. Too steep chute will deliver the material too quickly with impact, while in too flat chutes the
material will hang back, build up and choke the chute. Fines should be fed to the belt first so as to form a
cushion for the more abrasive lumps while feeding from single chute, this can be achieved by installing a
grizzly screen at the bottom of the chute.
Skirt Boards
These are used with the chutes to guide the material centrally while loading on the belt to prevent
spillage.
These are generally 4 to 5 times the belt width in length in the shape of strips of sheet metal. They are
about two-thirds of the belt width at the commencement and widen out in the direction of belt travel. The
gap between the skirt board and the belt should be sealed by a wear strip of soft rubber. These seals
should be of rubber compound only and not from old belting.
Unloading the belt
Usually unloading is done over the head pulley but sometimes the conveyor belts discharge at one or
more intermediate points. Scrapers or plough can be used for this purpose in flat belts.
Cleaning of Belt
Most materials tend to cling to the belt after passing the discharge point and then fall of during return on
meeting the return idler. Where the idlers are near the floor, the material builds up and prevents it from
rotating and thereby causing premature wear. Therefore, thorough cleaning of the belt after the discharge
point is essential. Cleaning of the belt is done either by providing rapping roller (where material carried
is lumpy) or by rubber scrapers (for materials like gravel, coal etc.) or steel scrapers (for sticky materials
like clay). Now-a-days rotating brushes are becoming more popular.
Belt storage
Conveyor belts are received coiled on reels and these should not be opened until installation is required.

While handling, these may either rolled or lifted carefully by means of a hoist with the help of a bar
passing through the centre of the create and attached to slings. These should be stored in vertical
position.
Oil or grease should not be allowed to come into contact with these belts. If a part length is required to
be cut, conveyor belting solution should be applied on exposed ends to prevent absorption of moisture.
Increasing Belt Capacity
Belt capacity can be maximized by adopting following steps:
 Chute and skirt boards should be designed in such a way that maximum belt width is used at the
loading or transfer point.
 Belt should run in such a way that loading point is in the center of the belt.
 Proper idler spacing and belt tension be provided all along the belt in order to maintain smooth
flow of the load.
Joining Belt Ends
Both ends of the belt are required to be joined. The ends are joined either by fasteners or by vulcanizing.
Belt fasteners are of three types, namely: wire lacing, steel hinge or plate type.
Where, possible vulcanizing should be adopted as a safe and economical method of joining belt ends.
This method gives longer life and full strength (whereas metal fasteners give only 50% strength),
chances of tear out are very less, travel smoothly over idlers, ends are sealed to prevent entry of
moisture.
Repairing Conveyor Belts
It is very important to ensure that all injuries are repaired promptly to keep dirt and moisture out of the
belt car-cass. The belt should therefore be regularly inspected. The cover repairs should be large enough
to include the damage in a parallelogram area. Repairs involving the repair of fabric must be planned so
that the inner most ply to be repaired has the minimum size patch and each following ply is increased in
regular pattern.
Belt Capacity
Carrying capacity of a belt (tons per hr)= Cross-sectional area of material on the belt (m2)
x Speed of the belt (metres per hour) x Unit weight of the material (tons per m3).
Cross sectional area of the material depends on the width of the belt, depth of troughing.
As a thumb rule the material should be loaded on the belt so as to avoid spillage, in such a way that 2.5
+ 1/20 width of the belt, in cms, from sides are not loaded.
Following precautions should be taken for longer life of conveyer
Precautions for longer life of conveyor Belt
Following precautions should be taken for longer life of conveyer belts:
• Edges may not be damaged during storage, installation and working.
• The belts should be stored in cool, covered and dry places.
• These should be protected from oily substances.
• In case of any cut is noticed, it should immediately be sealed with conveyor belt solution to prevent
entry of moisture.
• Absorption of oxygen by rubber belt reduces the tensile strength and elasticity and fine cracks are
developed on the belt surface. Since absorption of oxygen is faster in sunlight or heat, it should be stored
in cool and dark places.
• Frequent starting and stopping of belt under load should be avoided.
• For longer life it should run flat, while for maximum output it should have deep troughing and more
speed which is responsible for reduced life. Hence a compromise is to be made for getting optimum
results.
Types of Belt Conveyors
1. Flat Belt Conveyors
This is an endless fabric, rubber, leather belt operating over suitable drive, tail end, bend terminals, and
over belt idlers for handling materials, packages, or objects placed directly upon the belt. These belts are
supported by flat rollers and carry units, cartons, bags, boxes, bales etc. These belts run on flat tables
(called as slider belts) or on rollers.
2. Troughed Belt Conveyors: These are the belt conveyors with

the edges elevated on the carrying run to form a trough supported
on idlers or other surfaces. These are suitable for bulk materials.
The material carrying capacity of the conveyor is controlled by the
speed, width and depth of trough. Like flat belts these are also
endless belts or vulcanized, or joined by belt fasteners at the site.
The trough is made by 3 or 5 roller pattern, the length and diameter
of rollers depends upon the capacity and type of material. The
rollers are set at 20° to 30° to the horizontal. For larger volume of
material, deep troughed conveyor belts with rollers set at 50° to 70°
to the horizontal with nylon and polyester belts are used.
3. Portable Belt Conveyors

These are ideal for quick, efficient, and economical loading of loose and free flowing materials from
heaps on the floor to the trucks. These are more productive and suitable for large production work.
Roller Conveyors (Gravity and Live Rollers)
Figure shows this type of equipment.

This is used to transport various shapes of products
such as boxes or materials, which extend over
several rollers.
This type consists of rollers supported in frames
over which materials are allowed to move.
They are driven by power or gravity. These are of
different varieties and can move materials in
horizontal direction as well as from the upper floor
to lower floor etc.
These have long life, readily assembled and
installed, easy to adjust and used for handling large
variety of loads. Loads with rigid and smooth base
are moved on the roller conveyors, other items can
be moved after placing them on flat boards. Pitch of
the rollers should. be such that minimum of 3
rollers must remain under load at all times. Spacing
is generally kept at 8 cms, 10 cms or 15 cms. In powered roller conveyors, power is
Rollers generally range from 2 cms to 8 cms in applied to some or all of the rollers to
diameter with length governed by load. The rollers propel the loads. In powered roller
are made of cylindrical tubing with a bearing on conveyors, the power is generally applied
each end. Generally tapered rollers are provided at by chain on sprockets.
the turns. Roller conveyors are used for relatively

short distances as compared to belt conveyors.
Roller conveyors using gravity are known as gravity roller conveyor, while those operated by power are
known as powered roller (or live rollers) conveyors. In powered roller conveyors, power is applied to
some or all of the rollers to propel the loads. In powered roller conveyors, the power is generally applied
by chain on sprockets. These are used for moving objects on level runs, up slight grades (upto about
10°), or descent on downgrades (up to 17°). These are more expensive than gravity roller conveyors or
belt conveyors, but are more rugged than belt conveyors.
Bulk Materials Handling in Mining
Bucket Wheel Excavator, belt-wagon, conveyors

Spreader for continuous mining
Bucket Wheel Excavator connected to Belt-Wagon

a cost effective link between excavator and conveyor

Environment-Friendly Overland Conveyors on trestles in Nigeria
Overland Conveyors in Brazil
Primary belt Cleaner Angled idler for forming trough Weighted pulley Conveyor take-up
3. Chain Conveyors
This is moved by chains or cables in horizontal direction and installed flush with floor or a little above it.
This is used for moving barrels and heavy boxes. This is also used for moving grates of big boilers.
These serve as a continuous moving table. Chain conveyors employ continuous chains wrapped around
head and tail end sprockets. The conveying units are generally operated by motor drives, attached to the
head drive shaft. Materials can be carried directly on aprons or pushed in a trough by flights attached to
the chain. The chain conveyors may be apron, flight, bucket, car conveyors depending upon the type of
attachment it uses. The units can be arranged for operation horizontally, inclined or in combination.
These can be designed to operate up to 45° inclination.

Some Special Chains used for Chain Conveyors
On these rollers the containers will be rolled

4. Elevating Conveyors (Bucket Elevators)
The elevating conveyors are-used for transporting dry granular materials (the material that will not stick
to the buckets) in the vertical direction with the help of buckets and trays. These are also known as
Bucket elevating conveyors or Bucket elevators and carry the material in buckets to vertical or near
vertical positions.
These are either
I. chain bucket elevator, in which buckets are attached to one or two chains which move on two end
wheels, or
II. Belt bucket elevator, in which buckets are attached to the belt moving on pulleys provided at two
ends.
Vertical Elevator Inclined Elevator
Bucket elevators are operated between head and foot terminal machinery in a supporting frame. The
buckets are loaded by scoop action at foot end or by a chute above. Belt types have higher speed and
capacity, smoother and quieter, while chain types are heavier duty and suitable for abrasive materials.
Such elevators are sometimes used as portable elevators, which are known as stackers, consists of a base
on wheels, a vertical frame or mast, a lifting or lowering mechanism, and a load carrying platform.
Lifting of such elevators is accomplished by hydraulic or mechanical action. The mast may be telescopic
or non-telescopic.
Bucket elevators consist of an endless chain of buckets which elevates the materials. The elevator is
usually enclosed in a sheet of metal casing with necessary inlet and outlet openings and chutes. These
are widely used in handling coals, chemicals, cement etc.
Bucket elevators consist of a line of pivoted buckets end mounted between two strands of rivet less
chains so that the center of gravity is below the pivot in every bucket. As a result, buckets travel in stable
equilibrium and automatically drop back into the horizontal position after being discharged by tilting.

Normal operating speeds of these conveyors is between 0.15 and 0.4 m/sec. These conveyors are
available up to 400 tons/hr. capacity. Normal lifts of these range up to 30 meters, but in special cases
these may range up to 100 meters.
For unloading, tripping arrangements are used in the form of fixed or movable devices. On being
overturned at the point of discharge, buckets come back into the original position on their own accord. In
a bucket conveyor, freely swinging (pivoted) buckets are carried between parallel, endless chains, which
can follow any path vertical, horizontal or inclined. The buckets are loaded by a specially designed
feeder and are unloaded when they are tripped or inverted at a set point. These are rugged, slow running
and capable of providing trouble-free service. The buckets are made of steel and can carry hot or
abrasive material s, thus widely used in Coal fired power houses, cement mills, stone crushing plants.
These are also used to handle free flowing materials and find application in grain storage, at food-
processing, chemical plants, and in the construction industry etc.
Capacity of a Bucket Elevating Conveyor
Handling capacity of a bucket elevating conveyors in tons/hr can be calculated by using the formula:
Q = 3.6(i x φ/t) v.w
where, i = struck volume of each bucket
t = bucket pitch in metres
φ= Capacity factor, varies between 0.7 to 0.9
v = bucket speed in metres/see
w = bulk weight in tons/m3

Bucket Elevating Conveyors
(a) Vertical Elevator (b) Inclined Elevator (c) Inclined Elevator

with unsupported sag in return run with supported return run
For loading in a bucket elevator, chute is used or the material is dug from the boot, the latter method is
used to load fine and granular materials offering little resistance to the buckets. Loading chutes are best
suitable for coarsely broken and abrasive loads.
For unloading, high speed bucket elevators rely on centrifugal discharge at the upper point. Less speedy
installations employ the positive discharge method which has a knuckle or snub shaft under the head
shaft the sprockets of which invert the buckets so that material is poured from the buckets as they pass
over the discharge spout.
Methods of Loading and Unloading a Bucket Elevating Conveyor
(a) Loading through a chute (b) Loading by digging from the boot (c) Centrifugal Discharge

(d) Positive Discharge (e) Unloading of a continuous bucket elevator

Cage Elevators (Lifts)
Cage elevators, also called lifts, are intended exclusively for vertical lifting of freight and passengers in a
cage which moves on rigid guide rails. These are extensively used in industrial enterprises, dwelling
houses, offices and departmental stores. Cage elevators are classified as freight or passenger lifts. The
type of drive employed classifies them as electric, and hydraulic. Electrically driven elevators are the
most popular type. Travel speed of freight elevators range from 0.1 to 1.5m/sec, while passenger lifts
travel at a speed of 0.5 to 3.5 m/sec. Passenger lifts are usually available in capacities of 0.25 to 1.5 tons,
freight elevators can handle from 0.25 to 15 tons. Electric cage elevator comprises the following main
parts: cage or car, self-supporting guide rails, shaft way, counterweight, suspension gear, hoisting
machine, safety devices and electric controls.
Electrically Driven Passenger Lift Electrically Driven Fright Cage Elevators

Escalator
Escalators are specially adopted chain conveyors for the vertical transportation of people. An escalator is
an inclined conveyor with the driving traction element in the form of steps, attached to step-drive chains.
These are used in undergrounds, department stores, public places like airports etc. They operate at
speeds between 0.5 and 1metre/sec.
Escalator capacity, denoted by the number of persons conveyed per hour and can be calculated by the
formula:
Q=3600 (n.v/tstep) φ
where, n = number of passengers per step,
v = step speed in meters/sec
tstep = spacing of steps in meters, and
Φ = stairway capacity factor
Studies have revealed that φ = 0.6 (2 - v)
Escalators mainly consist of a stepped apron with two hauling chains, a drive, take-up, supporting metal
structure with guide tracks, entry stages, and an enclosure with frame, hand rails, reduction units, brakes
(service and safety) and couplings. Escalators are supplemented by a standby drive, which is less
powerful and is used during inspection and repairs. Escalators are unidirectional and run continuously.
Pairs of escalators are necessary for two-way service. In this, people enjoy service, the moment they
reach the landing. Starting, stopping or reversal should be done only by an attendant and with the
assurance that no one is riding at that time.
Charles Seeberger in 1897 gave the term 'escalator' which was taken from the Latin term 'scala' meaning
steps and elevator. However, the escalator or moving steps first started off as an amusement device as
opposed to one of practicality. It was patented in 1892 by Jesse Reno. Presently, there are 245 million
escalator trips every day in the US and Canada on 33,000 escalators carrying 12,000 people a year.
Moscow is home to the world's longest escalator at Park Pobedy subway station. It has 740 steps, while
the metro station in Wheaton, Maryland holds the record for being the longest escalator in the US which
takes three minutes to complete a trip.

Aerial Rope Way (Tram system)

Grouse Mountain Sky ride,
North America’s
largest aerial tram system,
to the Alpine Station,
3,700 feet above sea level.
Cargo Tramways
Traction-less Conveyors
Sliding-friction gravity conveyors, chutes, screw or spiral conveyors, twin-helical conveyors, vibrating
and oscillating conveyors, hydraulic, pneumatic conveyors are the main conveyors of this type.
1. Gravity-type Conveyors: This type of conveyors depends on gravitation to perform its function. The
most simple are slides, chutes, and tubes arranged so as to enable the load to slide down. Gravity
conveyors have long been known simply as chutes. In these, bulk or unit loads move on a declined
surface or vertically under the force of gravity. The angle of incline is determined by the coefficient of
friction for the material of its surface and the material conveyed as well as by the angle of repose.
Gravity roller conveyor is a material handling installation in which the bed consists of rolls fitted to a
frame. These are equally suitable for the handling of unit loads and containerized high volume materials.
Smooth operation is obtained by spacing the rollers not more than 1/3 to 1/4 of the length of the load.

Rollers, which are at rest at the

beginning of a conveying cycle,
acquire circumferential speed
changing from zero to the rated value
Vr as shown in the figure, due to load
travelling over them.
When the load has passed, the speed
gradually decreases due to bearing
friction and may become zero.
2. Chute
This is one of the simplest devices which have both vertical and horizontal motion. These may either be
straight or spiral. These gravity chute conveyors, large or small, curved or straight, are used to move the
material from higher level to a lower level.
These are either in the form of flat-

bottomed troughs or with troughs curved
suitable for a particular type of load and
are manufactured of steel, wood, plastic or
lined with other materials and can handle
loose items or packages.
The number of different sizes and weights
of packages should be restricted, otherwise
heavier packages will travel very fast
while lighter ones will tend to come to
rest.
Spiral chutes are used when height is more in a given length. In this, load is lowered following a helical
path around a vertical axis. These are designed so that the outer edges is higher than the inner one, so as
to protect the load being thrown off the chute by the "centrifugal force set up during descent.
A transverse gradient of 10°to 15°is normal. Packages should always be fed and discharged from a
straight section of the chute. Spiral chutes has advantages of low price, no power requirement, low
maintenance cost, economical use of space and controlled speed of descent.
3. Screw or Spiral Conveyors

These are used to move materials over a trough by a rotating screw. This is formed by a helical blade
attached to a drive shaft which is coupled to a drive and supported by end bearings and by inner
bearings.
The trough of the round-bottom shape is topped by a cover plate with an opening for loading the
conveyor. A similar unloading opening is provided in the bottom of the trough. The helical blade forcing
the load along the trough when the shaft is set rotating is made of 4 to 8 mm steel plate and attached to

the shaft by welding. Helical spiral blades are used for dry materials ranging in size from powder to
medium lumps. Ribbon spiral blades are used to handle coarsely-broken and sticky loads. Paddle spirals
and cut flights are adopted to convey flow-resistant solids tending to cake. By virtue of their design
ensuring gas-tightness, screw conveyors are widely used to handle dusty or hot loads and those which
liberate harmful gases. Screw conveyors can be used for handling pulverized coal (for feeding into the
furnace) or other granular materials. For abrasive materials extra seals should be fitted to the screw shaft
bearings.
Screw conveyors easily negotiate rising gradients and can also operate vertically, lifting material upto 15
m. For lifting the material vertically, the vertical conveyor is assisted by a screw feeder or a horizontal
screw conveyor which serve to create a thrust at the foot of the lifting screw.
Vertical Screw Conveyor

4. Conveying by Hydraulic means
In hydraulic transport installations, also called as hydraulic conveyors, bulk loads are carded in a pipe or
trough by the stream of a liquid (usually water). The mixture of a material with water is called hydraulic
mixture, pulp or slurry. In troughs, the pulp is moved by gravity and the trough must be declined in the
direction of pulp motion. In pipes, the pulp can be carried by gravity or due to the pressure of the liquid
created by a pump. In the latter case, the material can also be transported horizontal or upwards.
Hydraulic pumps and pipe lines are generally used for transportation of liquids like petroleum products,
or materials like silt, soil etc. removed for throwing out in the form of slurry, e.g. during construction of
tunnels, digging of tube well etc. In hydraulic conveyors (Fig. 8.23) a solid pulp draws slurry from a
mixing pit 1 and delivers it over a pipeline 4. At the destination, the material is recovered from the
stream by means of a mesh filter 6, being then dumped into a hopper 7, and the water is drained into a
settling tank 8 from which it is returned to the mixing pit by a recirculating pump 5.
In gravity type hydraulic transport system, sluicing --method is used. In this method slurry is
conveyed over sluice ways at a slight down gradient due to gravity (refer Fig 8.24).
5. Pneumatic Conveyors
Free flowing light powdery materials like cement, fly-ash and minerals can be conveniently transported
through an air tight pipe or duct by air stream of high velocity.
This system is free from unhygienic dusty conditions and requires little maintenance. This is largely used
for transporting dry, pulverized or granular materials, chemical powder, sand, cement etc. It can be
operated by air pressure positive or negative (i.e. suction).
This system is cleaner, dust free, easy to install, requires lesser staff to handle or operate, and minimum
interruption. Maintenance is also less since moving parts are not involved. This system is popular for
handling cement on large scale construction works.
A system of vertical and horizontal pipes, which carry particles of solid materials by means of air
pressure in the system, are classified as:
I. Positive pressure system: In this system a blower creates the positive air flow in the pipeline, and
materials are injected into the air stream and blown via the pre-set conveying path to a storage
silo or a process bin.
II. Negative pressure (Vacuum) system: In this system vacuum is created in the pipe line, a suitable
intake mechanism with a hopper and a receiving station is provided where material particles are
separated from the moving air stream by tangential or cyclonic action and discharged to storage
or process bins.
III. Combination system: This employs both the positive and negative systems. In this system
vacuum is used for unloading of material from storage, thereafter positive pressure is used for
distributing into single or multiple storage silos

Pneumatic conveyors can handle small metal parts of densities ranging between 1.2 to 4.0 tons/m3.
These are self-cleaning type, and are flexible i.e. easy to add to, change in length, operating procedure or
layout. This requires minimum maintenance.
This type of conveyor system is economical because of the
I. saving in the cost of bags and other packages,
II. Less expenses on bulk handling,
III. Less labor costs,
IV. No chances of damage, spillage or residual materials in the discarded bags.
The factors determining the power requirements and the size of equipments are the vertical lift,
horizontal pipe length, size of material to be transported and throughput required.
A pneumatic conveying system consists of
(a) air supply unit,
(b) feeder unit,
(c) pipe lines, and
(d) separation unit.
Air supply unit is generally consisting of blower, gear box, and a motor. Feeder unit is used to transfer
the material into pipeline.
These should be able to withstand the abrasion of the material to be transported.
Pipe line should be strong enough to suit the properties of conveyed material and pressure of the system.
Separation unit, usually employed for separating the material at destination, is high-efficiency cyclone
separators.
6. Vibrating and Oscillating Conveyors
In vibrating conveyor vibrations are created at high frequency and small amplitude, while in oscillating
conveyors frequency is relatively lower and amplitude is larger. The vibrations are induced electrically
or mechanically. These conveyors are rugged, require low maintenance. These conveyors are generally
used as a feeder, and for screening, blending or separating.

These conveyors are fitted with metal or plastic trough over which materials consisting of fragments of
varying sizes are kept, which while moving are separated, larger ones travel at a higher speed then those
of smaller ones.
For designing a vibrating conveyor, it is essential to specify nature of material to be handled indicating
density, grain size and other characteristics.
Components of Hoisting Equipment
Load hoisting mechanism is the main element in each lifting device. Irrespective of design, it
incorporates the following components:
1. Motor or a hand drive (crank handle, ratchet, operating wheel);
2. Transmission between the driving and driven shafts (including any types of spur, worm or other
gearing together with their parts-shafts, bearings and clutches);
3. Drum or sprocket for collecting the rope or chain in hoisting;
4. Flexible hoisting element (rope or chain) ;
5. Load handling attachment;
6. Brake; and
7. Frame or base structure supporting the hoisting mechanism.
1. Hoisting Mechanisms
Hand driven hoisting mechanism electrically driven hoisting mechanism

2. Travelling Mechanisms
Travelling mechanisms serve to move the load horizontally.
These are classified as:
1. Rail travelling mechanisms.
2. Trackless travelling mechanisms.
2.1. Rail Travelling Mechanism

(a) Travelling mechanisms of crane trolleys.
These can be subdivided into three groups:
hand-operated; with an individual power drive (usually electric power); and with a rope power drive.
Irrespective of design, any travelling mechanism of a trolley incorporates the following elements:
(1) motor or operating wheel in a hand drive;
(2) transmission between the driving and driven shafts of the trolley wheels;
(3) wheels travelling on runway rails; and
(4) frame (body) of the trolley accommodating the travelling and hoisting mechanisms.
(b) Travelling mechanisms of overhead travelling and Gantry Cranes.
Overhead travelling cranes are of two types: hand propelled type and electrically driven type.
The components of hand propelled overhead travelling crane are generally designed on the same lines as
for crane trolleys.
Motion is transmitted from the operating wheel mounted on the main transmission shaft through two
parallel gear trains to two travelling wheels of the crane.
They are secured in the cross girders of the frame.
Travelling mechanisms of gantry cranes are more complex in design than those used in overhead
travelling cranes.
2.2. Trackless Travelling Mechanism
(a) Crawler Mechanisms.
Crawler mechanisms are used in travelling rotary cranes and various loaders and other heavy
earth moving equipment. Crawler tread comprises separate cast links hinge-jointed with pins. The load
due to the weight of the crane is transmitted through roller trucks directly to the crawler treads (to their
inner surface) resting on the ground.
As the crawler chain moves, the roller trucks run over it so that it acts as a continuous rail track.
A crawler crane is turned round by braking one crawler chain i.e. by reducing its speed or by
stopping it completely.
Due to their large adhesive force crawler travelling mechanisms can negotiate larger gradients than rail
transport.
(b) Rubber tyred Mechanisms.
The most frequently employed tyre design is a solid rubber rim fitted onto the wheel spider.
A recent innovation is tubeless low-pressure tyres.
3. Slewing Mechanisms
Slewing mechanism serves the purpose of imparting rotary motion to the metal structure of crane
integrally with the hook load.
It differs materially from the rest of crane mechanisms considered above in that involved in the motion
are gyrating masses alone, none of the rectilinearly displacing ones.
Revolving cranes fall into two distinctly different groups:
a. Those with a constant reach and a capacity which consequently, does not change.
b. Jib cranes of a capacity varying with the reach.
The slewing mechanism can be fitted either to the stationary structure of the crane, in which case the
revolving super structure displaces relatively to the mechanism, or to the super structure so that the
mechanism slews integrally with it.
Depending on the design of the supporting member’s crane slewing mechanisms may be classified into
the following three groups:
(a) The crane super-structure turns together with the pillar or post in bearings usually erected on a
foundation or attached to building columns.
(b) The crane super-structure turns about a pillar fixed on a foundation or in the crane truck.
(c) The crane turns around a control pivot shaft secured in its non-revolving part: the turn table of the
crane rests on a number of rollers running on a rail bent into a circle and erected on a foundation or on
the crane truck.

4. Jibs and Luffing Mechanisms
Mechanisms for changing the crane outreach can be classified into two groups:
(1) Jib mechanisms changing the outreach by a trolley travelling along a horizontal or inclined
girder.
(2) Luffing mechanisms which raise or lower the boom.
A trolley in both these groups can be moved by power or manually by a rope drive.
Jib Mechanisms.
A rotary (jib) crane with a variable outreach is shown in figure. Trolley a carries an endless length of
rope or chain b actuated by rope driving sheave c or by a drum (by friction force) or else by a chain
sprocket (by positive mesh). The sheave or sprocket is rotated by operating wheel d through gearing or
from an individual electric motor. The lifting rope e encircles sheaves f on the trolley and movable
sheave h in the hook casing. One end of the rope is attached to the outer end g of the boom and the other
is wound on the hoisting drum. The hoist is an independent unit and can raise the load irrespective of
whether the trolley moves or is at rest.
Luffing Mechanisms.
Luffing or derricking is the pivoting of the crane jib in a vertical plane so as to change the reach. The
reach can also be changed on certain jib and revolving cranes by means of trolley travelling over
horizontal or inclined flanges of the jib.
Components
1. Flexible Hoisting Appliances
A. Welded load chains.
These are formed from oval steel links in the

sequence shown in the Fig. 9.5. Depending upon
the ratio between the pitch (t) and the diameter of
the chain bar (d) welded chains (refer Fig. 9.6) are
classified as short-link (t :<; 3d) and long -link (t >
3d) chains.
Welded chains are manufactured from steel Cr. 2
and Cr. 3. These links are generally made either
forge welded or electric resistance welded. These
are used in low-capacity hoisting machines (hoists,
winches etc.) as the main lifting appliances,
especially as slings for suspending the load from
the hook or other device.
These chains have good flexibility but due to
susceptibility to jerks and overloads, intensive wear
of the links and sudden failure are the main
disadvantages.
Safe load carried by chain, = Breaking load, in
kg/Factor of safety in kg
B. Roller Chains.

These chains are composed of plates hinge jointed by pins.

Light load chains are made with two plates, while heavier
weight chains have more plates which can be increased to 12.
Now-a-days these roller chains are being replaced in power
driven mechanisms by steel wire ropes.
Due to solid plates used in roller chains, these are reliable. Since
roller chains have good flexibility, these can be used on
sprockets of small diameter and with a small number of teeth.
Roller chains should not be allowed to carry load at an angle to
the plane of rotation of links since this may break the pins.
Since joints of roller chains are susceptible to abrasive dust,
these may not be used in dusty premises.
The maximum speed of roller chains should not exceed 0.25
m/sec.
C. Hemp Ropes: Hemp ropes are formed from three hemp strands
and each strand from separate yarns. The twist of the strands is
opposite to that of the yarns. Mode of manufacture and the number of
strands classified the hemp ropes as plain laid and cable laid. The
latter are twisted from three ordinary ropes. Hemp ropes are generally
impregnated with tar to make them rotproof. Tarred ropes have better
resistance to external effects, but they are heavier and not sufficiently
flexible. Their strength is about 20 percent less than that of a white
rope.
The hemp ropes have poor mechanical properties, such as rapid
abrasion, inadequate strength, rapid damage from ropes, sharp objects
and atmospheric effects etc. Therefore, these are suitable only for
hand-operated hoisting machinery like rope pulleys. The diameter of
the sheaves over which the rope runs should be at lease 10 d where d
is the nominal diameter of the rope.
Load on the rope, in kg = πd2/4 = O.785d2 for white ropes
= 0.705d2 for tarred ropes
where, d is the diameter of a circle circumscribing the strands in mm
D. Steel Wire Ropes:

These are extensively used in hoisting machineries, and has following advantages as compared to
chains:
(a) lighter in weight,
(b) less susceptibility to damage from jerks,
(c) silent operation,
(d) greater reliability, and
(e) less costly.
In case of chains, failure take place suddenly while in wire ropes the outer wires break before the inner
wires; as they are subject to more intensive wear. Thus wire rope allows time to replace it.
Steel wire ropes are manufactured from steel wires with an ultimate strength of 130 kg/m m2. During the
manufacturing process the wire is subjected to special heat treatment which combined with cold
drawing, imparts high mechanical properties to the wire. During the manufacturing of steel wire ropes
by special machines, first separate wires are twisted into strands and then the strands are formed into a
round rope.
The steel wire ropes can be classified according to the lay of ropes.
(a) Regular lay ropes (Fig.a) are so constructed that

the direction of twist of wires in the strand is
opposite to that of the strands in the rope.
(b) In paralled lay ropes (Fig.b) the direction of twist
of the wires in the strand is the same as that of the
strands in the rope.
(c) In reverse lay ropes (Fig.c) the wires in two
adjacent strands are twisted in the opposite direction.
Cores for Wire Ropes

The core is the central member about which the
main strands are laid.
The principal function of the core is to provide a
bearing for the strand.
This foundation maintains the proper lateral
position of the strands and permits their relative
longitudinal motion in adjusting the distribution
of stress.
Three common types of cores used in wire rope
are shown in figure.
Wire Rope Lays

Various combinations of wire rope lays
Shown in figure.
The lay direction of a wire rope is the direction
in
which the strands rotate around the rope, as
seen receding from the observer
and viewed from above.
The lay direction of outer wires of a single strand
is determined in the same manner.

Construction of Wire Rope
Wire Rope LAY
The lay as a unit of measure is the length of a single strand extends in making one complete turn
around the rope. Lay length is measured in a straight line parallel to the centerline of the rope; not by
following the path of the strand.
Rope Diameter
Right: Measure the larger dimension, Wrong: Do not measure the smaller Between the
outer limits of the strands. dimension Across the flats of the strands.
Rope Class: Wire rope is designed by class:
6x7 (6 strands, 7 wires); 6x19 (6 strands, 19 wires per strand);
6x37 (6 strands, nominally 37 wires per strand).
When “nominally” is used, the number of wires per strand may vary significantly
(i.e., 6x19 nominal may have from 9 to 26 wires per strand)

Joining Wire Ropes
Figure shows an acceptable method for joining wire ropes using a combination of clips and thimbles.

THREE COMMON TYPES OF CORES VARIOUS COMBINATIONS
WIRE ROPE LAYS
USED IN WIRE ROPES
Safe Usage Practices
Slings should be stored off of the floor and hung on Always hook with a “closed
racks whenever possible in a clean, dry environment. hook”
Never drag slings across the floor. arrangement (hooks facing out).
Center of Gravity:
A load is stable when:
The hook is directly above the center of gravity of the
load
Estimate the center of gravity
“Lift the load just enough to clear the ground”
If the hook is not over the center of gravity the hook
will travel to the center of gravity
If necessary, set the load down and adjust the rigging

If the load tips more than 3°, the rigging should be
adjusted
The longer the sling legs, the more stable the load will
be.
Before Lifting any load check for hazards

A) If not directly below the hook the load is unstable
B) If the sling is free to slide across the hook the center
of
gravity will shift directly below the hook
C) If two slings are used one will assume the greater
share of the load

Effect of Horizontal forces during lifting frames:

Horizontal forces act on the load causing damage by
compression or buckling
Horizontal forces are absorbed by using a spreader
beam making the sling legs between beam and load
vertical
Sling Load Capacity and Sling Angles

The load capacity of the sling is determined by its weakest component.
Never overload a sling.
Remember, the wider the sling legs are spread apart, the less the sling can lift!
How horizontal angle affects slings capacity
Load each sling leg =

=(Load  Number of legs) X (L  H)
Load = 10,000 Kg
Four Slings each leg is of 2.0 meters
Height from top of load to lifting device is 1.5 meter
Load each sling leg =
=(Load  Number of legs) X (L  H)
= (10,000 ÷ 4) x( 2.0 ÷ 1.5)
= 2500 x 1.33 = 3325 kg
Load on each sling leg is 3325 kg
Safe usage practices of cranes

1.Never shock load A sling should not be pulled

slings. from under a load when the
load is resting on the sling.
Make sure the hook is
Keep loads balanced to
always over the center of
prevent overloading
gravity of the load before
slings.
lifting it.
Always lift loads
Do not apply a load to a
straight up.
twisted, knotted or kinked
Never rest a load on a chain.
sling, or pinch a sling
Do not force or hammer
between the load and
hooks or chains into
the floor.
position.
Common Safety Factors and Maximum (Safe) Working Loads

Safety Factors. The total stress in a wire rope, in service, is composed of several separate elements.
These are reduced to a single tensile load value. When this value exceeds the breaking strength of the
wire rope, a failure occurs. The factor to provide a margin of safety between the applied tensile forces
and the
breaking strength of the rope is defined as the factor of safety. Minimum safety factors for wire rope
used in different types of service are contained in national standards (i.e., ANSI 17.1 safety code for
elevators and
escalators, ANSI/ASME B30.5 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes). Table D-3 shows a partial compilation
of approximate design safety factors. Refer to appropriate standards for precise requirements.
Maximum (Safe) Working Load. Calculate the maximum safe working load of wire rope, dividing the
manufacturers’ supplied breaking strength by the safety factor.
Example: Calculate the maximum safe working load of a single-leg sling made from a 1/2-inch-
diameter, 6X19 class wire rope constructed of improved plow steel (purple grade) material with poured
zinc fittings and
an independent wire rope core (IWRC).
(1) Obtain the breaking strength of the wire rope from the 6X19 class table shown under paragraph 2.4.1
of this appendix (11.5 tons or 23,000 pounds).
(2) Find the appropriate safety factor (5) for slings from table D-3 or from subsection 17.4 of the text.
(3) Divide the breaking strength (23,000 pounds) by the safety factor (5) to obtain the maximum (safe)
working load (4,600 pounds).
Max (safe) working load = 23,000 pounds/5 = 4,600 pounds
Conversely, to determine the actual safety factor under any condition of loading, multiply the rope
breaking strength by the number of parts of line under load and divide this product by the actual working
load.
Example: Using a 1/2-inch-diameter, 6X19 class wire rope with the breaking strength shown, in a two-
part line hoisting operation with a maximum load including weight of blocks, hooks, etc., of 9,200
pounds, calculate the actual safety factor.
23,000 pounds X 2/ 9200 = 46,000 pounds/9,200 = 5 safety factor

Inspection and Retirement of Wire Rope

Eventually, all wire ropes deteriorate to the point that they are no longer safe for use. The frequency of
inspections, the extent of the inspection, and the criteria for condemning wire ropes vary greatly for each
type of service. Inspection frequencies and rope retirement criteria are usually found in specific national
standards. If no standards exist for the type of service anticipated, the rope or equipment manufacturer or
a professional engineer must develop the criteria. In no case shall the rope retirement criteria allow rope
to be continued in any hoisting or load carrying service when one or more of the following deficiencies
exist:
(a) Ropes are not of proper size, grade, or construction for the particular performance or function.
(b) In running ropes, six randomly distributed broken wires in one rope lay, or three broken wires in one
strand in one rope lay. (A rope lay is the length along the rope in which one strand makes a complete
revolution around the rope.)
(c) In pendants or standing ropes, evidence of more than one broken wire in one lay.
(d) Abrasion, scrubbing, or peening causing loss of more than one-third of the original diameter of the
outside wires.
(e) Evidence of severe corrosion.
(f) Severe kinking, crushing, or other damage resulting in distortion of the rope structure.
(g) Evidence of any heat damage from a torch or arc caused by contact with electrical wires.
(h) Reduction from nominal rope diameter of more than 3/64 inch for diameters up to and including 3/4
inch; 1/16 inch for diameters 7/8 to 1-1/8 inches; and 3/32 inch for diameters 1-1/4 inch to 1-1/2 inches.
Marked reduction in diameter indicates deterioration of the core, resulting in lack of proper support for
the load carrying strands. Excessive rope stretch or elongation may also indicate internal deterioration.
(i) Evidence of “bird caging” or other distortion resulting in some members of the rope structure carrying
more load than others.
(j) Noticeable rusting or development of broken wires in the vicinity of attachments. See separate
appendix on “Slings” for retirement criteria for wire rope used in slings.
Design approach for hoist cranes:
1. Check for feasibility of the given rope for lifting the required load.
Given data:
Lifting capacity Q = 6,500 kg; Lifting height H = 8 meters; Medium service duty;
Weight of lifting magnet G = 2500 kg; weight of lifting tackle Go = 500 kg;
Factor of safety k = 4; efficiency of the pulley system ηp = 95%;
Rope notation for ordering the rope: 6x37+1-15-150 (Soviet Standard)
Find
i. Tension, S in each rope part in kg
ii. Number of rope bends, n and the ratio Dmin/d
iii. Area of useful cross section of the rope, F in cm2
iv. Breaking load of the rope, P in kg
v. Maximum permissible tension in the rope, S in kg
Hoist configuration shown in figures below:
Refer Fig46b and corresponding figure in Fig23



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FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

1MATERIAL HANDLING – DEFINITION

MATERIAL HANDLING – OBJECTIVES

A. Reduce Unit Material Handling Cost D. Conserve Floor Space

1TWENTY PRINCIPLES OF MATERIAL HANDLING

3MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 2

1. FACTORS RELATING TO THE PLANT & OPERATING METHODS

2. FACTORS DEPENDING ON THE MATERIALS OR PARTS HANDLED

 Kinds or nature of materials of parts handled

3. FACTORS RELATING TO THE HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 3

 Initial cost of equipment.

3CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 4

Materials Handling Equipment

Hoisting Conveying Surface & Overhead

3MAIN GROUPS OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 5

2CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN GROUPS OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

2CHOICE OF MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 6

KIND AND PROPERTIES OF LOADS TO BE HANDLED:

REQUIRED HOURLY CAPACITY OF THE UNIT:

DIRECTION AND LENGTH OF TRAVEL:

METHODS OF STACKING LOADS AT THE INITIAL, FINAL AND INTERMEDIATE POINTS:

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES INVOLVED IN MOVING LOADS:

SPECIFIC LOCAL CONDITIONS:

HOISTING EQUIPMENT (Lifting, lowering or elevating equipment)

HOISTING EQUIPMENT CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO FOLLOWING THREE GROUPS:

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 8

COMPONENTS OF HOISTING EQUIPMENT

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 9

Traversing Screw Jack: A hand operated traversing

Hydraulic Jack Principle: Figure shows a

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 10

2. Pulleys: A pulley is a small sheave or wheel

3. Winch: Figure shows a winch. Winches are used to

Power Hoist Hand operated monorail Hoist

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 11

Electric Hoist Floor Controlled Cabin Controlled

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 13

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 14

5. Traveler (or Goliath) Cranes

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 15

CONVEYING EQUIPMENT (CONVEYORS)

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 16

Bulk material on a belt conveyor

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 17

A. Traction Type Conveyors B. Traction less-type Conveyors

A-Traction Type Conveyors

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 18

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 19

5. Conveyor Belt Take-ups:

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 20

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 22

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 23

2. Troughed Belt Conveyors: These are the belt conveyors with

3. Portable Belt Conveyors

Figure shows this type of equipment.

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 25

Bucket Wheel Excavator, belt-wagon, conveyors

MEng 5184 MATERIALS HANDLING EQUPIPMENT IYASU.T PAGE: 26