TWI Radiographic Interpretation Part3 PDF

Radiographic Interpretation
Part 3.
Course Reference WIS 20
Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Radiographic
Techniques

Radiographic Techniques
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
Single Wall Single Image
SWSI
Film
Film
IQI’s should be placed source side

Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
SWSI panoramic
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the film side

 Source inside film outside (single exposure)
Double Wall single Image
DWSI
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the film side
 Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
 This technique is intended for pipe diameters over
100mm
Identification
• Unique identification
EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks A B
indicating readable ID MR11
film length
Radiograph
Radiograph

Double Wall Double Image
DWDI
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
 A minimum of two exposures
 This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than
100mm
Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks 1 2
indicating readable ID MR12
film length
Shot A Radiograph

4 3
1 2
Elliptical Radiograph
Double Wall Double Image perpendicular
DWDI
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
 A minimum of three exposures
 Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld
 This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two

intensifying screens
There are three main there are three main types of

intensifying screens
 Lead screens
 Fluorescent screens
 Fluorometallic screens

Lead Intensifying Screens
 Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
 Intensification action achieved by emitting

particulate radiation (electrons/beta)
 Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm
 Front screen shortens exposure time and

improves quality by filtering out scatter
 Back screen acts as a filter only

Salt Intensifying Screens
 Intensification action achieved by emitting

Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)
 Intensification action twice that of lead
screens
 No filtration action achieved
 Salt used calcium tungstate

Fluoromatallic Intensifying Screens
 Intensification action achieved by emitting light

radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate
radiation electrons)
 High cost
 Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
 Salt used calcium tungstate

Comparison Chart, Intensifying Screens
Screen type Order of Order of Intensification How

image speed factor intensificatio
quality n is achieved
Lead Electrons -ve

1 3 2-3
Beta radiation
Fluorescent 4 1 8-15 Light radiation
Fluorometallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation
None 2 4 N/A None
An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six

minutes to two minutes

Radiographic Film

Radiographic Film
Base

Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing

Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion AgBr
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat

What are the advantages of Double Coated Film?
•Improve contrast
• Reduce the exposure time

Radiographic Film
Film Types
Grain size Speed Quality Film Factor
Coarse Fast Poor 10
Medium Medium Medium 35
Fine Slow Good 90
Ultra Fine V Slow V Good 200
Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systems

Image Formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any
differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the
latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into

metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are then amplified by the
developer, the developer completely converts the
affected crystals into metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation
Film Processing
Film processing is carried out using the following
 Developer tank - alkali

 Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic
 Fixer tank - acidic
 Final wash tank - running water
 Wetting agent - detergent
 Drying - drying cabinet or drying room
Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver
3-5 min at 20OC
Main Constituents
Developing agent metol-hydroquinone
Accelerator keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted
Preservative prevents oxidation by air
Replenishment
Purpose – to ensure that the activity of the developer and the
developing time required remains constant
Guideline – 1. After 1m2 of film has been developed,
about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added
Film Processing
Development
 Supplied as a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to
1 part developer to 4 parts water
 Developer temperatures for manual processing
20oC
 Development times are 4 to 5 minutes
 During the development process agitation should
take place to avoid bromide streaking
 Replenishment may be added to maintain
development times and the activity of the
developer
Film Processing
Fixer
 Supplied as a liquid concentrated acid mixed to 1
part fixer to 3 parts water
 Fixing temperatures for manual processing 20oC
 Fixing times are twice the clearing time, clearing
time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes
 During the fixing process agitation should take
place to avoid light spots on the radiograph
 When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer
should be replaced, replenishment is not normally
added
Film Processing
Washing / Drying
 After washing in running water the films may be placed in a
wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even
drying, preventing black streaky marks on the radiograph
 Before drying excess water should be removed with the use
of a squeegee
 Drying should take place in a dust free environment
 Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes
 Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes
 Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to appear
on the drying films, this may cause black marks to appear
on the radiograph
Film Characteristic Curve
Sensitometric curve
H & D Curve (Hurter & Driffield)
The point of solarisation
3.5
Density 3.0
(Log) 2.5
2.0
1.0
Maximum 0.5
inherent film
density 0.3
Log Relative Exposure
Information which can be obtained from a

films characteristic curve
 The position of the curve on the exposure axis
gives information about the films speed

Density
A B C D E
Film A is faster than

Film B
Film B faster then C
Log Relative Exposure M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd
Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve
 The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives
information about the films speed
 The gradient of the curve gives information on the films
contrast

Density obtained in
Density a photographic
(Log) emulsion does not
vary linearly with
applied exposure
Steeper gradient
Highest contrast

Information which can be obtained from a films characteristic
curve
contrast
 The position of the straight line portion of the curve against
the density axis will show the density range within which the
film is at its optimal

Shoulder
Density
(Log)
Straight line
section
Toe

Information which can be obtained from a films
characteristic curve
contrast
 The position of the straight line portion of the curve against
the density axis will show the density range range within
which the film is at its optimal
 A new exposure can be determined for a change of film
type

Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5 Density
Density required 2.5 2.5
Determine interval between logs

1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5
1.5
Antilog of 0.5 = 3.18
Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18

1.3 1.8
(measured density is lower than the required density)
Log Relative
Original exposure 10 mA mins Exposure
NewCopyright
exposure© 2004 TWI Ltd 31.8mA mins M.S.Rogers
Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A A B
Density
and B at required density 2.5
Interval between logs = 0.15
Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42
Multiply exposure by 1.42

1.7 1.85
Original exposure 10 mA mins Log Relative
New exposure 14.2 mA mins Exposure
Determination of Exposure
 Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable

 Intensity - Gamma curies fixed, X-ray mA
variable
 Film density to be achieved
 Film speed
 Source to film distance
 Material type
 Material thickness

Gamma exposures are calculated by the use

of a gamma calculators/slide rule
Gamma calculators take into consideration
 Film density to be achieved
 Source type
 Activity of the source
 Film speed
 Source to film distance
 Material type
 Material thickness
X-ray exposures are less straight forward

because the wavelength and intensity are
variable
X-ray exposures are determined by the following
 By using exposure charts
 By reference to previous exposure records
 By trial and error test shots
 By a combination of the above

Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5
5.5
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
3.5
• Philips 300kV
• Screen = pb
2.5
• Dev = to spec
1.5 • Density = 2.0
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Material thickness M.S.Rogers
Density Equivalent Factor
st Density Required
1 Density
Achieved 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.0
0.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.00

0.75 2.60 3.90 4.90 6.00
1.00 1.75 2.50 3.33 4.00
1.50 1.00 1.40 1.90 2.40
2.00 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.60
2.50 0.55 0.80 1.00 1.20
2.75 0.50 0.70 0.95 1.10
3.00 0.45 0.60 0.80 1.00
3.50 0.38 0.55 0.70 0.86
3.75 0.36 0.53 0.65 0.80
4.00 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.75
Multiply 1st exposure by the above factors to achieve the density required.

Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5
5.5
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
3.5 • Philips 300kV
• Screen = pb
2.5 • Dev = to spec
• Density = 2.0
1.5 • Material C/S
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Exposure Equivalent Chart
Radiographic Equivalence Chart

50kv 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV
Mg 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.08
Al 1 1 0.12 0.08
Ti 0.45 0.35
Cu 18 1.6 1.4 1.4
Steel 12 1 1 1
Zi 1.4 1.3 1.3

Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5
5.5
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
• Philips 300kV
3.5
• Screen = pb
• Dev = to spec
2.5
• Density = 2.0

• Film Type
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Relative Film Exposures
Film Speed Chart
D7 D5 D4
Agfa
CX AX MX
Kodak
150 100 80
Fuji
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14

Relative Film Exposures
Change of Film From CX to MX

Original Exposure 4 mins
Film factor for CX 2.5
Film factor for MX 10
New Exposure = New film type X original exposure

original film
New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins
2.5

Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5
5.5
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
3.5 • Philips 300kV

• Screen = pb
2.5 • Dev = to spec
• Density = 2.0
• Film Type
1.0 • FFD = 900
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Exposure Calculation
Exposure = intensity x time

example 3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
Exposure formula
old exposure = old distance2
new exposure new distance2
E1 = D12
E2 D22
Exposure control
• For FFD/SFD change
T1 D1 2
=
T2 D2 2
T1 = New exposure time
T2 = Original exposure time
D1 = New FFD
D2 = Original FFD

Exposure control
• For FFD/SFD change
Example:
Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600 mm
Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min
(600) 2
T1 = 2
X 10 = 14.4 mins
(500)

Any Questions

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Radiographic Interpretation

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

IQI’s should be placed source side

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

 IQI’s are placed on the film side

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two

There are three main there are three main types of

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

 Film placed between 2 intensifying screens

 Intensification action achieved by emitting

 Front screen shortens exposure time and

 Back screen acts as a filter only

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

 Film placed between 2 intensifying screens

 Intensification action achieved by emitting

 No filtration action achieved

 Salt used calcium tungstate

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

 Film placed between 2 intensifying screens

 Intensification action achieved by emitting light

 Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier

 Salt used calcium tungstate

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Screen type Order of Order of Intensification How

Lead Electrons -ve

Fluorescent 4 1 8-15 Light radiation

Fluorometallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation

None 2 4 N/A None

An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systems

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into

 Developer tank - alkali

Information which can be obtained from a

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Film A is faster than

Log Relative Exposure M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Log Relative Exposure M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Log Relative Exposure M.S.Rogers

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Determine interval between logs

Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18

Interval between logs = 0.15

Antilog of 0.15 = 1.42

Multiply exposure by 1.42

 Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

Gamma exposures are calculated by the use

X-ray exposures are less straight forward

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers

1.5 • Density = 2.0

0.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.00