Economics

Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek
οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos,
"house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)".[1] Current
economic models emerged from the broader field of political economy in the late 19th
century. A primary stimulus for the development of modern economics was the desire to
use an empirical approach more akin to the physical sciences.[2]

Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact.
Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business, finance and government,
but also in crime,[3] education,[4] the family, health, law, politics, religion,[5] social
institutions, war,[6] and science.[7] The expanding domain of economics in the social
sciences has been described as economic imperialism.[8]

Common distinctions are drawn between various dimensions of economics. The primary
textbook distinction is between microeconomics, which examines the behavior of basic
elements in the economy, including individual markets and agents (such as consumers
and firms, buyers and sellers), and macroeconomics, which addresses issues affecting an
entire economy, including unemployment, inflation, economic growth, and monetary and
fiscal policy. Other distinctions include: between positive economics (describing "what
is") and normative economics (advocating "what ought to be"); between economic theory
and applied economics; between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" dealing with
the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more
"radical" dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus");[9] and between
rational and behavioral economics.

Teacher

In education, a teacher (or, in the US, educator) is a person who provides schooling for pupils
and students. A teacher who facilitates education for an individual student may also be described
as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out by way of
occupation or profession at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a
person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain professional qualifications or
credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the study
of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers may have to continue their education after they
qualify. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study
which is called the curriculum. A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide
education instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the Arts,
religion or spirituality, civics, community roles, or life skills.

Skills of class teacher

As a class teacher you will need to hone your personal and communication skills. In particular, your
listening skills, questioning skills, ability to give complex and difficult explanations and your ability to end
classes effectively. This section includes some advice in these areas.

Effective listening

1. Try to keep an open mind and listen to what is actually said.

2. Listen for meaning. For example a student maybe asks you a muddled question about a
small detail. Actually, what s/he may be telling you is that s/he is completely lost and
doesn't understand this at all - or this student may be dyslexic.
3. Try not to pre-empt what a student is saying, by cutting them off mid-question and giving
them an answer to a problem as you see it. As much as possible, let them explain their
uncertainties and confusions. According to a reasonable body of the Higher Education
research literature, concept development often requires that students first understand how
new ideas presented fit in relation to what they already know, and IF the new concept
requires them to let go of some previous understanding, this needs to be actively
acknowledged (ie: you can't simply overlay a new and contradictory set of ideas before
the old ones have been explored and deconstructed).
4. Try to find a workable balance between, on the one hand, thinking ahead in the
discussion in order to maintain the flow and focus and, on the other, being overly
directive and forcing the discussion along your set path.

Questioning skills

There are a number of techniques you can use to encourage students to ask questions and to open
up discussion.

The most obvious is to draw on students' questions and comments and to enlarge upon them with
your own remarks. What do you do if the subject matter is new and your students are too?

You may want to jot down several statements or questions beforehand and use these as a
springboard.

For many quantitative subjects, you may want to plan out a sequence of short questions aimed at
helping students work their way through a problem, or grasp a better understanding of a theory
or model. A number of class teachers in Economics, Maths, Statistics and Accounting and
Finance use this approach. Some will go round the class more or less sequentially, so students
know when their "time" to answer is approaching and can prepare. Others take a more random
approach, calling on people by name. Yet others ask questions to the group as a whole, and let
whoever wishes to respond.

This issue, of whether or not to call on students individually and by name to contribute to the
class, is one of the more controversial aspects of questioning. Clearly tutors have different styles
and students will have varied expectations. The advantage of addressing individual students is
that you can tailor comments and make interventions that are appropriate for specific students. It
may be a way of involving a very quiet student who you know has useful contributions to make
but finds it difficult to raise them in the class. However, great care should be used when
'spotlighting' students. If some students think that they may be 'picked on' to answer questions it
may make them very uncomfortable in the class and less able to think and work out their own
position or solution. (This may particularly affect the non-native speakers of English in your
class and those with disabilities.) This may also have a knock-on effect on the other students and
so the positive atmosphere in the class can be eroded.

If you choose to use a direct questioning approach it is also sensible to think through what you
will do when a student cannot answer your question or gives a muddled or an incorrect response.
It is likely to fall to the tutor to 'rescue' the situation and in some circumstances to help re-build
the confidence of an embarrassed or flustered student. Because of these potential difficulties it is,
therefore, suggested that you do not ask individual students to answer your questions so directly
until you have established a good rapport with your class and you have got to know your
students better.

With more discursive subjects, it is generally preferable to open up discussion with open-ended
questions which will get students thinking about relationships, applications, consequences, and
contingencies, rather than merely the basic facts. Open questions often begin with words like
"how" and "why" rather than "who", "where" and "when", which are more likely to elicit short
factual answers and stifle the flow of the discussion. This more closed questioning approach
tends to set up a "teacher/student" "question/answer" routine that does not lead into more fruitful
discussion of underlying issues. You will want to ask your students the sorts of questions that
will draw them out and actively involve them, and you will also want to encourage your students
to ask questions of one another. Again, it is for you to decide whether to call on students directly,
or leave the discussion and discussant "open". Above all, you must convey to your students that
their ideas are welcomed as well as valued.

Very occasionally you may have a student in your class who suffers from more than the normal
level of anxiety or shyness when called upon to contribute to the class discussions or to present
their work. In some circumstances this may be related to a disability, or to language proficiency.
Treat such situations with sensitivity and if appropriate seek specialist guidance.

Top Tip

"On the introductory workshop we heard about a discussion technique that works well for me. I
ask a question, I then ask the students to write down their answer and then compare it with the
person sitting next to them. I then ask the question out loud to the group again and I always get
someone happy to kick off the discussion."

There are a number of pitfalls in asking questions in class. Here are the four most common ones:

1. Phrasing a question so that your implicit message is, "I know something you don't know
and you'll look stupid if you don't guess what's in my head!";
 2. Constantly rephrasing student answers to "fit" your answer without actually considering
the answer that they have given;
3. Phrasing a question at a level of abstraction inappropriate for the level of the class -
questions are often best when phrased as problems that are meaningful to the students;
4. Not waiting long enough to give students a chance to think.

The issue of comfortable "thinking time" is an often-ignored component of questioning

techniques. If you are too eager to impart your views, students will get the message that you're
not really interested in their opinions. Most teachers tend not to wait long enough between
questions or before answering their own questions because a silent classroom induces too much
anxiety for the class teacher. It can be stressful if you pick on a student for an answer and all the
group are waiting for a reply (see below). Many students, particularly those with certain
disabilities or dyslexia, students who are not confident in speaking in public, or not confident in
speaking English, may become unduly flustered in such a situation. Creating a more comfortable
space in which to think is likely to induce a better 'quality' of answer and increase the
opportunities for all students to contribute effectively.

The above approach is likely to help make your students feel more confident for a number of
reasons. First the students have the chance to 'check out' their answers with a peer; secondly,
they are required to 'rehearse' and put their thoughts into words; and thirdly the answer gains a
form of endorsement from the peer which increases confidence in its value. Once the students
have confidence that you will give them time to think their responses through, and you show
them that you really do want to hear their views, they will participate more freely in future.

Clarity of explanation

The first piece of advice here is to try not to do too much explaining in class. This may sound a
little strange but it is all too easy to be drawn into the trap of giving mini-lectures rather than
facilitating learning. However, there are times when your students will look to you to help in
clarifying points or linking class discussions and course work with related lectures.

In giving a clear explanation you should start from where your learners are. You may choose to
summarise "what we know already" or indeed ask one of the students to do this task for the
group. There are four quick tips to help structure your explanation:

1. Structure what you say so that you have a clear beginning, middle and ending;
2. Signpost your explanation to make the structure clear to everybody;
3. Stress key points; and
4. Make links to the learners' interests and current understanding. You can do the latter
through the use of thoughtful examples, by drawing comparisons and by using analogy.

Top Tips

"All too often students come to class unprepared, sometimes without even having read the
question. Thus, reading the question before getting into the answer can be very important. One of
the greatest skills is to succeed in making relatively unprepared students understand, and take an
interest in the questions at hand, without compromising the level of the explanation offered or
delaying the progress of the class." One class teacher goes round the class each week to check
who has attempted that week's problem set. Students only need to hand in two pieces of work per
term for tutor marking. However he finds that by doing the round weekly, most students do the
exercises in advance most weeks, and will be candid (and generally give convincing
explanations) when for some reason they have not been able to do the work.

"I try to think of really good examples to illustrate the main points I want to make. If you can
find something current from the papers or the news then you are often onto a winner - I like to
bring along the paper and hand it round the group. I thought about asking the group to bring in
their own examples too and I might try this next year."

Teaching diverse classes

 Give "minority" students equal attention in class, and equal access to advising outside
class. Don't overlook capable but less experienced students.
 Give "minority" students equal amounts of helpful and honest criticism. Don't prejudge
students' capabilities.
 Revise curricula if necessary to include different kinds of racial and cultural experiences,
and to include them in more than just stereotypical ways.
 Ensure that the teaching methods and materials you use are accessible to students with
different learning abilities and disabilities
 Monitor classroom dynamics to ensure that "minority" students do not become isolated.
 Vary the structure during the course to appeal to different learning styles and modes of
learning.
 Don't call on "minority" students as "spokespersons" for their group, e.g.: "So how do
Moslems feel about...?".
 Recognise and acknowledge the history and emotions your students may bring to class.
 Respond to non-academic experiences, such as racial incidents, that may affect classroom
atmosphere and performance.

Bringing classes to a close

Getting the timing of classes right can be a challenge to most teachers. There is inevitably
pressure on time, as many classes try to "do" as much as possible in the time available. Finding
that time has simply run out is a common experience. With that in mind, it is useful to plan the
end of sessions as carefully as planning the beginning, and then to watch the clock so that you
can decide when the "end game" needs to start. An obvious element in "ending" that many class
teachers include is to summarise the ground that has been covered, key learning points and main
issues raised. This can give a sense of "neatness" and closure to sessions.

Another way of looking at the end of a class though is to see it as an opportunity to prompt
students to further study. Rarely will a class manage to "complete" the topic under discussion. As
such, you may wish to consider ways of using the summing up more as an opportunity to identify
any "gaps" or issues that haven't been addressed, key readings which you may be have noted
students have not yet read, but probably would benefit from spending time on, and in giving
students some pointers as to further work they may engage with. Finally, it is often worth
reminding students what will be covered in the next class and prompting them to plan ahead, to
make links to the next lecture and class, and ensure that everyone is on track to make the most of
the next class in the series.

Top Tip

"I find important ending the class with a summary of the key arguments discussed, results found
and conclusions drawn."

"wishing them a nice weekend at the end of class, showing that they are cared for"

Preventing and resolving problems

At some point in your career as a class teacher you may have to deal with a student who causes
disruption in the class or who does not meet his/her course-related obligations, such as handing
in assignments, attending classes regularly, etc. Although each case will be different, you will
need to take some steps. Here are a few tips:

 If a student who is on the class register does not attend the first class/classes, check that
your class register is up to date and, if so, contact the student to remind them they should
be attending class, informing them of your office hours in case they wish to come and
discuss the course/classes they have missed with you. Typically, students will respond to
this and start attending more regularly. If such encouragement is ineffective, then alert
the student's tutor/other appropriate member of staff about the matter, copying in the
student.
 If a student does not submit the required assignments, then contact the student and give
them a reminder and, if appropriate, a final deadline for submitting work. Be flexible and
understanding if a student is facing some particular personal or academic difficulty, but
maintain a level playing field for the whole group. If failure to submit coursework
persists, alert the student's tutor and copy the student.
 Familiarise yourselves with the regulations relating to course assessment so as to advise
students accordingly.
 If a student causes disruption in class, for example is rude, aggressive to other students,
uncooperative etc, then you have to decide whether the level of class disruption is such as
to necessitate intervention (asking the student to stop or, in extreme cases, to leave the
room), or it is sufficient to speak to the student later, outside class, about the matter. If
you ask the student to leave the classroom, then contact the student's tutor and the
undergraduate/graduate tutor directly after the class and explain what occurred. Take care
not to offend or humiliate any student in front of his peers, even if his/her behaviour is
very challenging.
 Different class groups taught by the same GTA may have different atmospheres. Some
may be boisterous and loud, while others may be quieter. It is inevitable that the mix of
student personalities and that of the class teacher will jointly determine the atmosphere in
the classroom. Sometimes a simple solution is to move a student to a different class
group, if possible.
  Keep organised e-mail records for students that cause problems so as to be able to
provide an accurate account of the problems at a future date if the need arises.
 Students may try to undermine your authority as class teacher if they perceive you as not
being very assertive. Different approaches work for different people but deal with
problems professionally as soon as they arise in order to prevent escalation.
 Take time to understand what is motivating the poor attendance/challenging behaviour of
students and take steps to encourage and motivate them.
 Ask for advice if faced with problems that you are unsure how to tackle.

Getting feedback

Evaluating students progress

Feedback on your Class Teaching Approach

GOALS/OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL ECONOMICS

Economics is concerned with human behaviour such as how people earn their living
and make a choice between alternatives to satisfy their wants. It focuses on the
study of firms and the government whose activities are geared to the production of
goods and services for the satisfaction of human want since economics is
concerned with human behaviour. So economics is a social science, and like any
science subject, the reasoning procedure in economics is methodological, its
analysis is systematic, and the validity of its various theories can be tested. Thus an
attempt has been made to integrate the theoretical foundations of the subject with
their practical applications. Economics is one of the electives or group of subjects
expected to be studied at the Senior Secondary School (SSS) level under the new
National Policy on Education. This curriculum according to Osunnaiye (2005) has
been designed by the Comparative Education study and. Adaptation centre
(CESAC) to meet the requirements of Economics in the new system. The guiding
principle of this curriculum is the need to equip graduates of the Senior Secondary
School with the basic knowledge and skills that will enable them to better appreciate
the nature of economic problems in any society. In the light of this philosophy, the
following are the set objectives for the Economics course:
(i) to equip students with the basic principles of Economics necessary for useful
living and for higher education,
(ii) To prepare and encourage students to be prudent and effective in the
management of scarce resources
(iii) To raise students respect for the dignity of labour and their appreciation of
economic, cultural and social values of our society and
(iv) To enable students acquire knowledge for the practical solution of the economic
problems of society; Nigeria, developing countries and the world at large.
Importance of Economics in Education as follows:

By studying and anlysing the theories and policies in Economics, we can understand how it is
very vital in all the subjects, especially for Education.

1. When we study Economics, we automatically analyse the meaning thereby we study about
society
2. Unless we study economics, it is not possible to understand the country as a whole
3. It is inevitable to anyone who learns about the society's income and country's
4. Human behaviour,wants,money movements etc.,are very important. These are our integral part
of life.Hence, The Economics subject help us to ease this.
5. Economics is the only subject, that gives the best solution to everyday matter of
Demands,supplies,choices,wants,utilities etc.,
6. Without Economics, no single day can pass directly or indirectly. Even the illiterate should
touch the economics topic unknowingly in life journey
7. Other subjects can formulate theories only with the base of Economics assumptions and
matters.
8. Hence, The inculcation of Economics in Education system implies the "complete Education".