Techniques and Principles in Language

Teaching
Yueh-chiu Helen Wang

Introduction

The actions are the techniques and the thoughts are the principles.
It is important to recognize that methods link thoughts and actions
because teaching is not entirely about one or the other.

Techniques=actions

Principles=thoughts

Actions Methods Thoughts

You have thoughts about your subject matter—what language is,

what culture is—and about your students—who they are as
learners and how it is they learn. You have also have thoughts
about yourself as a teacher and what you can do to help your
students learn.

It is very important for you to become aware of the thoughts that

guide your actions in the classroom.

Everyone knows that being a good teacher means giving positive

feedback to students and being concerned about their affective
side on their feelings.

Learning to listen to themselves is part of lessening their reliance

(dependence on or trust in someone or something) on the
teacher. The teacher will not always be there. Also, they will be
encouraged to form criteria (principle, standard) for correcting
their mistakes—for monitoring their own progress.

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 Observing a class will give you a greater understanding of a
particular method and will give you more of an opportunity to
reflect on your own practice than if you were to simply read a
description of it.

Ten questions

1. What are the goals of teachers who use this method?

2. What is the role of the

teacher? What is the role of the students?

3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the

nature of student-student interaction?

5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills

are emphasized?

8. What is the role of the students’ native language?

9. How is evaluation accomplished?

10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

I-The Grammar-Translation Method

The Grammar-Translation Method was called the Classical

Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical
languages, Latin and Greek (Chastian, 1988).

This method was used for the purpose of helping students read
and appreciate (recognize the value or significance of. be grateful

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for.) foreign language literature. Through the study of the
grammar of the target language, students would become more
familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this
familiarity with the grammar of their native language better.

Finally, it was thought that foreign language learning would help

students grow intellectually.

Principles

Learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written

in it. Literary language is superior to spoken language. If students
can translate from one language into another, they are considered
successful language learners.

The ability to communicate in the target language is not a goal of

foreign language instruction.

The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing. Little

attention is given to speaking and listening and almost none to
pronunciation.

The teacher is the authority in the classroom. It is very important

that students get the correct answer.

Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between

the target language and the native language.

Deductive application of an explicit grammar rule is a useful

pedagogical technique.

Language learning provides good mental exercise.

Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the

target language.

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There is little student initiation and little student-student
interaction.

There are no principles of the method which relate to students’

feelings.

Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing

are the primary skills that the students work on.

The role of the students’ native language

The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating

the students’ native language. The language that is used in class is
mostly the students’ native language.

How is evaluation accomplished?

Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their

native language to the target language or vice versa are often
used.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Having the students get the correct answer is considered very

important.

II-The Direct Method

The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is

allowed. Meaning is to be conveyed (1-transport or carry to a
place. 2-communicate (an idea, impression, or feeling).

) directly in the target language through the use of demonstration

and visual aids.

Principles

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The reading skill will be developed through practice with speaking.
Language is primarily speech. Culture consists of more than the
fine arts (e.g. the students study geography and cultural attitudes).

Objects (e.g. realia or pictures) present in the immediate

classroom environment should be used to help students
understand the meaning.

The native language should not be used in the classroom.

The teacher should demonstrate, not explain or translate. It is

desirable that students make a direct association between the
target language and meaning.

Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as

possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it
in full sentences rather than memorizing word lists.

The purpose of language learning is communication.

Pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning of

language instruction.

Self-correction facilitates language learning.

Lessons should contain some conversational activity—some

opportunity for students to use language in real contexts.
Students should be encouraged to speak as much as possible.

Grammar should be taught inductively. There may never be an

explicit grammar rule given.

Writing is an important skill, to be developed from the beginning

of language instruction.

The syllabus is based on situations or topics, not usually on

linguistic structures.

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Learning another language also involves learning how speakers of
that language live.

What are the goals of teachers who use the Direct Method?

Teachers who use the Direct Method intend (have as one's aim or
plan) that students learn how to communicate in the target
language. In order to do this successfully, students should learn to
think in the target language.

What is the role of teacher?

Although the teacher directs the class activities, the student role is
less passive than in the Grammar-Translation Method. The
teacher and the students are more like partners in the
teaching/learning process.

What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

Teachers believe students need to associate meaning and the

target language directly. Students speak in the target language a
great deal and communicate as if they were in real situations. The
syllabus is based upon situations or topics.

What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?

The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to

students and from student to teacher, although the latter is often
teacher-directed.

How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

There are no principles of the methods which relate to this area.

How is language viewed?

Language is primarily spoken, not written.

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 What areas of language are emphasized?

Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar.

What is the role of the students’ native language?

Students’ native language should not be used in the classroom.

How is evaluation accomplished?

The students might be interviewed orally by the teacher or might

be asked to write a paragraph about something they have studied.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

The teacher, employing various techniques, tries to get students to

self-correct whenever possible.

III-The Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is also an oral-

based approach. However, it is very different in that the Audio-
Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence
patterns.

It also, unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical base in

linguistics and psychology. It has principles from behavioral
psychology (Skinner, 1957)were incorporated.

It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the
target language was through conditioning—helping learners to
respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.

Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and

from the new habits required to be target language speakers.

The Audiolingual Method

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The Audio-lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is also an oral-
based approach. However, it is very different in that the Audio-
Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence
patterns.

It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of

the target language was through conditioning—helping learners to
respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.
Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and
form the new habits required to be target language speakers.

Principles

Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most

naturally within a context.

The native language and the target language have separate

linguistic systems. They should be kept apart so that the students’
native language interferes as little as possible with the students’
attempts to acquire the target language.

The language teacher’s role

One of the language teacher’s major roles is that of a model of the

target language. Teachers should provide students with a good
model. By listening to how it is supposed to sound, students
should be able to mimic the model.

Language learning is a process of habit formation. The more often

something is repeated, the stronger the habit and the greater the
learning.

It is important to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead

to the formation of bad habits. When errors do occur, they should
be immediately corrected by the teacher.

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The purpose of language learning is to learn how to use the
language to communicate.

Particular parts of speech occupy particular ‘slots’ in sentences. In

order to create new sentences, students must learn which part of
speech occupies which slot.

Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct

habits.

Students should learn to respond to both verbal (spoken) and

nonverbal stimuli.

Pattern practice helps students to form habits which enable the

students to use the patterns.

Students should ‘overlearn’, learn to answer automatically without

stopping to think.

The teacher should be like an orchestra leader—conducting,

guiding, and controlling the students’ behavior in the target
language.

The major objective of language teaching should be for students to

acquire the structural patterns; students will learn vocabulary
afterward.

The learning of a foreign language should be the same as the

acquisition of the native language. The rules necessary to use the
target language will be figured out or induced from examples.

The major challenge of foreign language teaching is getting

students to overcome the habits of their native language.

Speech is more basic to language than the written form. The

‘natural order’ –the order children follow when learning their

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native language—of skill acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading,
and writing.

Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is not only

literature and the arts, but also the everyday behavior of the
people who use the target language. One of the teacher’s
responsibilities is to present information about that culture.

The nature of student-teacher interaction

Most of the interactions is between teacher and students and is

initiated (caused to being) by the teacher.

How is language viewed?

Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-lingual Method. The

level of complexity of the speech is graded, so that beginning
students are presented with only simple patterns. Culture consists
of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language
speakers.

What areas of language are emphasized?

Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering

the sound system and grammatical patterns.

The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention. Pronunciation

is taught from the beginning, often by students working in
language laboratories on discriminating between members of
minimal pairs.

The role of the students’ native language

The target language is used in the classroom, not the students’

native language.

How is evaluation accomplished?

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Students might be asked to distinguish between words in a
minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate verb form
in a sentence.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the

teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty and
restriction of what they are taught to say.

The role of instructional materials

Instructional materials in the Audiolingual Method assist the

teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. They are
primary teacher-oriented.

Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often have central

roles in an audiolingual course.

The decline (decrease) of Audioligualism

Audiolingualism reached its period of most widespread use in the

1960s and was applied both to the teaching of foreign language in
the United States and to the teaching of English as a second or
foreign language.

Audiolingualism stresses the mechanistic aspects of language

learning and language use.

IV-Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination

of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through
physical motor activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of
psychology at San Jose State University, California.

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He claims that speech directed to young children consists primarily
of commands, which children respond to physically before they
begin to produce verbal responses.

Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a concern

for the role of affective factors in language learning.

Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels facilitates or

inhibits foreign language learning. For this dimension of his
learning theory he draws on three influential learning hypotheses:

1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for language learning

which defines an optimal path for first and second language
development.

2. Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the

left-and-right brain hemispheres.

3. Stress intervenes (come between so as to prevent or alter

something) between the act of learning and what is to be learned;
the lower the stress, the greater the learning.

Listening should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech

and other productive skills should come later.

Asher sees TPR as directed to right-brain learning, whereas most

second language teaching methods are directed to left-brain
learning. Asher hold that the child language learner acquires
language through motor movement.

Similarly, the adult should proceed (1-begin a course of action. go

on to do something. (of an action) carry on or continue. 2-move
forward.) to language mastery through right hemisphere motor
activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.

The objective of TPR

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The objective of TPR is to teach oral proficiency (competent or
skilled) at a beginning level. Comprehension is a means to an end.
The ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. TPR requires
initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items.
Grammar is thus taught inductively.

Learners in TPR have the primary roles of listener and performer.

They listen attentively and respond physically to commands given
by the teacher. Learners are also expected to recognize and
respond to novel combinations of previously taught items.

Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are

encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak—that is, when
a sufficient basis in the language has been internalized. The
teacher plays an active and direct role in TPR.

V-The Silent Way

The Silent Way is the name of a method of a language teaching

devised by Caleb Gattegno.

It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as

much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be
encouraged to produce as much language as possible.

Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and
the colored Cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gattegno’s previous
experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics
programs.

Learning hypotheses

1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather

than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. (so it is
opposite to the theory of reinforcement)

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Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.

3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material

to be learned.

Theory of language and learning

The sentence is the basic unit of teaching, and the teacher focuses
on propositional meaning, rather than communicative value.
Students are presented with the structural patterns of the target
language and learn the grammatical rules of the language through
largely inductive processes.

Gattegno sees vocabulary as a central dimension of language

learning and the choice of vocabulary as crucial.

Gattegno looked at language learning from the perspective of the

learner by studying the way babies and young children learn.

The teacher points to five blocks of color without saying anything.

The blocks of color represent the sounds of five English vowels
close to the five simple vowels of Portuguese.

Principles (thoughts)

The teacher should start with something the students already

know and build from that to the unknown. Languages share a
number of features, sounds being the most basic.

Language learners are intelligent and bring with them the

experience of already learning a language. The teacher should
give only what help is necessary.

Language is not learned by repeating after a model. Students

need to develop their own ‘inner criteria’ for correctness—to trust

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and to be responsible for their own production in the target
language.

Students’ actions can tell the teacher whether or not they have
learned.

The teacher makes use of what students already know. The more
the teacher does for the students what they can do for
themselves, the less they will do for themselves.

Learning involves transferring what one knows to new contexts.

Reading is worked on from the beginning but follows from what

students have learned to say.

Silence is a tool. It helps to foster autonomy, or the exercise of

initiative. It also removes the teacher from the center of attention
so he can listen to and work with students. The teacher speaks,
but only when necessary.

Meaning is made clear by focusing students’ perceptions, not

through translation.

Students can learn from one another. The teacher’s silence

encourages group cooperation.

Student attention is a key to learning.

Students should engage in a great deal of meaningful practice

without repetition.

Language is for self-expression.

The teacher can gain valuable information from student feedback.

What are the goals of teachers who use the Silent Way?

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Students should be able to use the language for self-expression—
to express their thought, perception, and feelings.

What is the role of teacher?

The teacher is a technician or engineer.

The teacher should respect the autonomy of the learners in their

attempts at relating and interacting with the new challenges.

What is the role of the students?

The role of the students is to make use of what they know, to free
themselves of any obstacles that would interfere with giving their
utmost attention to the learning task.

What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

Students begin their study of the language through its basic

building blocks, its sounds.

This provides valuable information for the teacher and encourages

students to take responsibility for their own learning.

What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?

For much of the student-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent.

Student-student verbal interaction is desirable (students can learn

from one another) and is therefore encouraged.

How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

The teacher constantly observes the students. When their feelings

interfere, the teacher tries to find ways for the students to
overcome them.

How is language viewed?

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Languages of the world share a number of features. However,
each language also has its own unique reality since it is the
expression of a particular group of people.

How is culture viewed?

Their culture, as reflected in their own unique world view, is

inseparable from their language.

What areas of language are emphasized?

Since the sounds are basic to any language, pronunciation is

worked on from the beginning.

What language skills are emphasized?

All four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course,
although there is a sequence in that students learn to read and
write what they already produced orally.

What is the role of the students’ native language?

Meaning is made clear by focusing the students’ perceptions, not

by translation.

How is evaluation accomplished?

The teacher’s silence frees him to attend to his students and to be

aware of these needs.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Student errors are seen as a natural, indispensable part of the

learning process. Errors are inevitable since the students are
encouraged to explore the language.

VI-Desuggestopedia

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 In order to make better use of our reserved (slow to reveal
emotion or opinions) capacity, the limitations we think we have
need to be ‘desuggested.’

Desuggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to

pedagogy, has been developed to help students

Eliminate (completely remove or get rid of) the feeling that they
cannot be successful or the negative association they may have
toward studying and, thus, to help them overcome the barriers to
learning.

Principles

Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment. The classroom is

bright and colorful.

Students can learn from what is present in the environment, even

if their attention is not directed to it (‘Peripheral (marginal, not
integral) learning).

If students trust and respect the teacher’s authority, they will

accept and retain (continue to have; keep possession of)
information better. (The teacher speaker confidently.)

The teacher gives the students the impression that learning the
target language will be easy and enjoyable.

-In our country, It is difficult for teachers to understand because it

needs yoga, parapsycolology…it needs teacher preparation..

The students choose new names and identities and feel less
inhibited (hinder, restrain, or prevent ) since their performance is
really that of a different person.

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The dialogue that students learn contains language they can use
immediately. Songs are useful for ‘freeing the speech muscles’
and evoking positive emotions.

Fine art provides positive suggestions for students.

One way that meaning is made clear is through native language

translation.

Communication takes place on ‘two planes’:

1-on one the linguistic message is encoded; and on the other are
factors which influence the linguistic message. On the conscious
plane, the learner attends to the language; on the

2-subconscious plane, the music suggests that learning is easy and

pleasant.

When there is a unity between conscious and subconscious,

learning is enhanced.

A calm state, such as one experiences when listening to a concert,

is ideal for overcoming psychological barriers and for taking
advantage of learning potential.

The fine arts (music, art, and drama) enable suggestions to reach
the subconscious. The arts should, therefore, be integrated as
much as possible into the teaching process.

The teacher should help the students ‘activate’ the material to

which they have been exposed. Novelty (new)aids acquisition.

Music and movement reinforce the linguistic material. If they

trust the teacher, they will reach this state more easily.

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In an atmosphere of play, the conscious attention of the learner
does not focus on linguistic forms, but rather on using the
language. Learning can be fun.

Errors are corrected gently, not in a direct, confrontational

manner.

Confront= stand or meet face to face with hostile intent. (of a

problem) present itself to (someone). -face up to and deal with (a
problem). -compel (someone) to face or consider something. )

What are the goals of teachers who use Desuggestopedia?

Teachers hope to accelerate (begin to move more quickly. increase

in rate, amount, or extent) the process by which students learn to
use a foreign language for everyday communication. In order to
do this, more of the students’ mental powers must be tapped
(obtained or make use of it).

What is the role of teacher?

The teacher is the authority in the classroom. In order for the

method to be successful, the students must trust and respect her.
Once the students trust the teacher, they can feel more secure. If
they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous (performed or
occurring as a result of an unpremeditated inner impulse and
without external stimulus) and less inhibited.

What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

The posters are change every few weeks to create a sense of

novelty in the environment. Students select target language
names and choose new occupations. During the course they
create whole biographies to go along with their new identities.
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What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?

The teacher initiates (cause to being) interactions with the whole

group of students and with individuals right from the beginning of
a language course.

How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

If students are relaxed and confident, they will not need to try
hard to learn the language. It will just come naturally and easily.

How is language viewed?

Language is the first two planes in the two-plane process of

communication. In the second plane are the factors which
influence linguistic message.

How is culture viewed?

The culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of

people who speak the language. The use of fine arts is also
important in Desuggestopedic classes.

What areas of language are emphasized?

Vocabulary is emphasized. Grammar is dealt with explicitly but

minimally (of a minimum amount, quantity, or degree.).

What language skills are emphasized?

Speaking communicatively is emphasized. Students also read in

the target language (for example, dialogs) and write (for example,
imaginative compositions).

What is the role of the students’ native language?

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Native-language translation is used to make the meaning of the
dialog clear. The teacher also uses the native language in class
when necessary.

How is evaluation accomplished?

Evaluation usually is conducted on students’ normal in-class

performance and not through formal tests, which would threaten
the relaxed atmosphere considered essential for accelerated
learning.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.

VII-Community Language Learning Method (CLL)

It takes its principles from more general Counseling-Learning

approach developed by Charles A. Curran.

Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is for
teachers to become ‘language counselors.’

By understanding students’ fears and being sensitive to them, he

can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them
into positive energy to further their learning.

Principles

Building a relationship with and among students is very important.

Any new learning experience can be threatening. When students

have an idea of what will happen in each activity, they often feel
more secure.

Language is for communication.

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The superior knowledge and power of the teacher can be
threatening. If the teacher does not remain in the front of the
classroom, the threat is reduced and the students’ learning is
facilitated.

The teacher should be sensitive to students’ level of confidence

and give them just what they need to be successful.

Students feel more secure when they know the limits of an

activity.

Teacher and students are whole persons. Sharing about their

learning experience allows learners to get to know one another
and to build community.

Guided by the knowledge that each learner is unique, the teacher

creates an accepting atmosphere. Learners feel free to lower their
defenses and the learning experience becomes less threatening.

The teacher understands what the students say.

The students’ native language is used to make the meaning clear

and to build a bridge from the known to the unknown. Students
feel more secure when they understand everything.

The teacher asks the students to form a semicircle in front of the

blackboard so they can see easily.

Learning at the beginning stages is facilitated if students attend to

one task at a time.

The teacher encourages student initiative and independence, but

does not let student flounder in uncomfortable silences.

Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn.

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In groups, students can begin to feel a sense of community and
can learn from each other as well as the teacher. Cooperation, not
competition, is encouraged.

The teacher should work in a non-threatening way with what the

learner has produced.

Developing a community among the class members builds trust

and can help to reduce the threat of the new learning situation.

Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty and

familiarity.

What are the goals of teachers who use CLL Methods?

Teachers who use the Community language Learning Method want

their students to learn how to use the target language
communicatively.

What is the role of the teacher?

The teacher’s initial role is primarily that of a counselor. Rather, it

means that the teacher recognizes how threatening a new
learning situation can be for adult learners.

What is the role of the students?

Initially the learners are very dependent upon the teacher. It is

recognized that as the learners continue to study, they become
increasingly independent. CLT methodologists have identified five
stages in this movement from dependency to mutual
interdependency with the teacher.

It should be noted that accuracy is always a focus even in the first

three stages; however, it is subordinated to fluency.

What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

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In a beginning class, which is what we observed, students typically
have a conversation using their native language. The teacher
helps them express what they want to say by giving them the
target language translation in chunks. These chunks are recorded,
and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid
conversation.

During the course of the lesson, students are invited to say how
they feel, and in return the teacher understands them.

According to Curran, there are six elements necessary for non-

defensive learning: security, aggression, attention, reflection, and
retention.

What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?

The Community Language Learning Method is neither student-

centered, nor teacher-centered, but rather teacher-student-
centered. Teacher-student-centered, with both being decision-
makers in the class.

How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

Responding to the students’ feelings is considered very important

in Counseling-Learning. The teacher listens and responds to each
comment carefully. While security is a basic element of the
learning process, the way in which it is provided will change
depending upon the stage of learner.

How is language viewed?

Language is for communication. Curran writes that ‘learning is

persons, meaning that both teacher and students work at building
trust in one another and the learning process.

How is culture viewed?

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Curran believes that in this kind of supportive learning process,
language becomes the means for developing creative and critical
thinking. Culture is an integral part of language learning.

What areas of language are emphasized?

The most important skills are understanding and speaking the

language at the beginning, with the reinforcement through
reading and writing.

What is the role of the students’ native language?

Where possible, literal native language equivalents are given to

the target language words that have been transcribed.

How is evaluation accomplished?

Although no particular mode of evaluation is prescribed in the CLL

Method, whatever evaluation is conducted should be in keeping
with the principles of the method. Finally, it is likely that teachers
would encourage their students to self-evaluate—to look at their
own learning and to become aware of their own progress.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Teachers should work with what the learner has produced in a

non-threatening way. One way of doing this is for the teacher to
repeat correctly what the student has said incorrectly.

The two most basic principles which underlie the kind of learning
that can take place in the CLL Method are summed up in the
following phrases: (1) ‘Learning is persons,’ which means that
whole-person learning of another language takes place best in a
relationship of trust, support, and cooperation between teacher
and students and among students. (2)

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‘Learning is dynamic and creative,’ which means that learning is a
living and developmental process.

VIII-Communicative Language Teaching

It became clear that communication required that students

perform certain functions as well, such as promising, inviting, and
declining invitations within a social context (Wilkins, 1976). In
short, being able to communicate required more than linguistic
competence; it required communicative competence (Hymes,
1971)—knowing when and how to say what to whom.

Such observations contributed to a shift in the field in the late

1970s and early 1980s from a linguistic structure-centered
approach to a Communicative Approach (Widdowson, 1990).

CLT aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of the

Communicative Approach by making communicative competence
the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the
interdependence of language and communication.

Principles

Whenever possible, ‘authentic language’ –language as it is used in

a real context—should be introduced.

Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s intentions is part

of being communicatively competent.

The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not

just the object of study.

One function can have many different linguistic forms. Since the
focus of the course is on real language use, a variety of linguistic
forms are presented together. The emphasis is on the process of
communication rather than just mastery of language forms.
27
Students should work with language at the discourse or
suprasentential (above the sentence) level. They must learn about
cohesion and coherence, those properties of language which bind
the sentences together.

Games are important because they have certain features in

common with real communicative events—there is a purpose to
the exchange. Also, the speaker receives immediate feedback
from the listener on whether or not he or she has successfully
communicated.

Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and

opinions.

Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the

development of communication skills. Since this activity was
working on fluency, the teacher did not correct the student, but
simply noted the error, which he will return to at a later point.

One pf the teacher’s major responsibilities is to establish situations

likely to promote communication.

Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships

among students. It gives students an opportunity to work on
negotiating meaning.

The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving

meaning to the utterances.

Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important part

of communicative competence.

The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative

activities and as an advisor during the activities.

28
In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to
say, but also how to say it.

The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from
the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors.

Students should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is

used in authentic communication. They may be coached on
strategies for how to improve their comprehension.

What are the goals of teachers who use CLT?

The goal is to enable students to communicate in the target

language. To do this students need knowledge of linguistic forms,
meanings, and functions. Communication is a process; knowledge
of the forms of language is insufficient.

What is the role of the teacher?

The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this

role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situations
likely to promote communication. During the activities he acts as
an adviser, answering students’ questions and monitoring their
performance. He might make note of their errors to be worked on
at a later time during more accuracy-based activities. At other
times he might be

A ‘co-communicator’ engaging in the communicative activity along

with students (Littlewood, 1981).

What is the role of the students?

29
Students are, above all, communicators. They are actively
engaged in negotiating meaning—in trying to make themselves
understood and in understanding others.

Since the teacher’s role is less dominant than in a teacher-

centered method, students are seen as more

Responsible managers of their own learning.

What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

The most obvious characteristics of CLT is that almost everything

that is done is done with a communicative intent. Students use the
language a great deal through communicative activities such as
games, role plays, and problem-solving tasks.

According to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow, 1981), activities

that are truly communicative have three features in common:
information gap, choice, and feedback.

In communicative, the speaker has a choice of what she will say

and how she will say it. True communication is purposeful. A
speaker can thus evaluate whether or not his purpose has been
achieved based upon the information she receives from his
listener.

Another characteristic of CLT is the use of authentic materials. It is

considered desirable to give students an opportunity to develop
strategies for understanding language as it is actually used.

Finally, we noted that activities in CLT are often carried out by

students in small groups. Small numbers of students interacting
are favored in order to maximize the time allotted to each student
for communicating.

What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?

30
The teacher may present some part of the lesson, such as when
working with linguistic accuracy. At other times, he is the
facilitator of the activities, but he does not always himself interact
with the students.

Students interact a great deal with one another. They do this in

various configurations: pairs, triads, small groups, and whole
group.

How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

One of the basic assumptions of CLT is that by learning to

communicate students will be more motivated to study a foreign
language since they will feel they are learning to do something
useful with the language.

How is language viewed?

Language is for communication. Linguistic competence, the

knowledge of forms and their meanings, is just one part of
communicative competence. Another aspect of communicative
competence is knowledge of the functions language is used for.

Thus, learners need knowledge of forms and meanings and

functions. However, they must also use this knowledge and take
into consideration the social situation in order to convey their
intended meaning appropriately.

How is culture viewed?

Culture is the everyday lifestyle of people who use the language.

There are certain aspects of it that are especially important to
communication—the use of nonverbal behavior which might
receive greater attention in CLT.

What areas of language are emphasized?

31
Language functions might be emphasized over forms. Typically, a
functional syllabus is used. A variety of forms are introduced for
each function. Only the simpler forms would be presented at first,
but as students get more proficient in the target language, the
functions are reintroduced and more complex forms are learned.

What language skills are emphasized?

Students work on all four skills from the beginning. Just as oral
communication is seen to take place through negotiation between
speaker and listener, so too is meaning thought to be derived from
the written word through an interaction between the reader and
the writer.

What is the role of the students’ native language?

Judicious use of the students’ native language is permitted in CLT.

However, whenever possible, the target language should be used
not only during communicative activities, but also for explaining
the activities to the students or in assigning homework.

How is evaluation accomplished?

A teacher evaluates not only the students’ accuracy, but also their
fluency.

A teacher can informally evaluate his students’ performance in his

role as an adviser or co-communicator.

How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Errors of form are tolerated during fluency-based activities and are

seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication
skills.

IX-Content-based Approach

32
There are three more approaches that make communication central:

1-content-based instruction,

2-task-based instruction, and

3-participatory approach.

The difference is a matter of their focus.

CLT lessons centered on giving students opportunities to practice

using the communicative function of making predictions. In this
chapter, the approaches we examine do not begin with functions
or any other language items. Instead, they give priority to process
(of learning)over predetermined linguistic content.

In these approaches rather than ‘learning to use English, ‘students

use ‘English to learn it’ (Howatt, 1984:279).

it is closely related to immersion teaching….

Using content from other disciplines in language courses is not a

new idea. For years, specialized language courses have included
content relevant to a particular profession or academic discipline.

The special contribution (give in order to help achieve or provide

something. (contribute to) help to cause or bring about.) of
content-based instruction is that it integrates the learning of
language with the learning of some other content, often academic
subject matter. It has been observed that academic subjects
provide natural content for language instruction(syllabus for
language learning).

Such observations(integration between the content and language

instructions or syllabi) motivated the ‘language across the
curriculum’ movement for native English speakers in England,

33
which was launched in the 1970s to integrate the teaching of
reading and writing into all other subject areas(speaking and
listening). Of course, when students study academic subjects in a
non-native language, they will need a great deal

of assistance in understanding subject matter texts. Content-

based instruction fits in with the other methods in this chapter
where the selection and sequence of language items arise from
communicative needs, not predetermined by syllabi.

Principles

The subject matter content is used for language teaching

purposes.

Teaching should build on students’ previous experience.

When learners perceive (become aware or conscious of. regard as.

) the relevance of their language use, they are motivated to learn.
They know that it is a means to an end (aim), rather than an end in
itself.

The teacher ‘scaffolds’ (to put things in series like a ladder

example:- child: oh. Mother: what. Child: this. Mother: it is an ant.
Child: ant! ) the linguistic content, i.e. helps learners say what it is
they want to say by building together with the students a
complete utterance.

Language is learned most effectively when it is used as a medium

to convey informational content of interest to the students.

Vocabulary is easier to acquire when there are contextual clues to

help convey meaning.

When they work with authentic subject matter, students need

language support.
34
 Learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding (requiring
much skill or effort: a demanding job.)language and content within
the context of authentic material and tasks.

Communicative competence involves more than using language

conversationally (communicating). It also includes the ability to
read, discuss, and write about content from other fields.

Another content-based instruction ‘face,’ where content and

language instruction have been integrated, is the adjunct (an
additional and supplementary part.) model. Students enroll in a
regular academic course. In addition, they take a language course
that is linked to the academic course.

In sheltered–language instruction in a second language

environment, both native speakers and non-native speakers of a
particular language follow a regular academic curriculum. For
classes with non-native speakers, however, ‘sheltered’ instruction
is geared to students’ developing second language proficiency.

(sheltered : the content of the target language)

Sheltered-language instructors support that their students through

the use of particular instructional techniques and materials. It
offers the significant advantage that second language students do
not have to postpone their academic study until their language
control reaches a high level. (the curriculum will be modified)

In sum, what all modes of content-based instruction have in

common is learning both specific content and related language
skills. In content-based language teaching, the claim in a sense is
that students get “two for one”—both content knowledge and
increased language proficiency’ (Wesche, 1993).

IIX- Lexical Approach

35
Carlos Islam, The University of Maine
Ivor Timmis, Leeds Metropolitan University

Principles (fundamental) and implications (show to be involved in

a crime. (be implicated in) bear some of the responsibility for (an
action or process). 2-convey (a meaning) indirectly; imply.) of the
Lexical Approach

The Lexical Approach develops many of the fundamental principles

advanced by proponents of Communicative Approaches. The most
important difference.is the increased understanding of the nature
of lexis in naturally occurring language, and its potential
contribution to language pedagogy.

Key principles:- Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not

lexicalized grammar.

The grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid; much language

consists of multi-word 'chunks'.

A central element of language teaching is raising students‘

awareness of, (thick, solid piece. a large amount. v. divide into
chunks or make a muffled, metallic sound)and developing their
ability to 'chunk' language successfully.

Although structural patterns are acknowledged (accept or admit

the existence or truth of) as useful, Iexical and metaphorical (a
thing regarded as symbolic of something else) patterning are
accorded (give or grant someone) appropriate status.

Collocation is integrated as an organizing principle within

syllabuses.

Evidence from computational linguistics and discourse analysis

influence syllabus content and sequence.

36
Language is recognized as a personal resource, not an abstract
idealization.

Successful language is a wider concept than accurate language

The central metaphor of language is holistic-an organism; not

atomistic a machine.

The primacy of speech over writing is recognized; writing is

acknowledged as a secondary encodement, with a radically
different grammar from that of the spoken language.

It is the co-textual rather than situational elements of context

which are of primary importance for language teaching.

Socio-linguistic competence---communicative power-precedes and

is the basis, not the product, of grammatical competence.

Grammar as structure is subordinate to lexis.

Grammatical error is recognized as intrinsic to the learning

process.

Grammar as a receptive skill, involving the perception of similarity

and difference , is prioritized.

Sub-sentential and supra-sentential grammatical ideas are given

greater emphasis, at the expense of earlier concentration on
sentence grammar and the verb phrase.

Task and process, rather than exercise and product, are

emphasized.

Receptive skills, particularly listening, are given enhanced status.

The Present-Practice-Produce paradigm is rejected, in favour of a

paradigm based on the Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment cycle.

37
Contemporary language teaching methods and material tend to be
similar for students at different levels of competence; within the
Lexical Approach the materials and methods appropriate to
beginner or elementary students are radically different from those
employed for upper-intermediate or advanced students.
Significant re-ordering of the learning programme is implicit in the
Lexical Approach.

Lexical Approach

Carlos Islam, The University of Maine

Ivor Timmis, Leeds Metropolitan University

The theory of language

Task 1
Look at this version of the introduction. What do the parts printed
in bold in square brackets have in common?

The principles of the Lexical Approach have [been around] since

Michael Lewis published 'The Lexical Approach' [10 years ago]. [It
seems, however, that] many teachers and researchers do not
[have a clear idea of] what the Lexical Approach actually [looks
like] [in practice].

Explanation:

All the parts in brackets are fixed or set phrases. Different

commentators use different and overlapping terms -
'prefabricated phrases', 'lexical phrases', 'formulaic language',
'frozen and semi-frozen phrases', are just some of these terms. We
use just two: 'lexical chunks' and 'collocations'.

Formulaic language:- Sequences of two or more words that

operate as a single unit. They are not generated word by word, but

38
are restored in the memory and retried, as if they were one-word
vocabulary items. Also called (lexical) chunks, multi-word units,
ready-mades, prefabricated language and holophrase, Formulistic
language can be classified into:-

1-Collocation; such as ‘’densely populated’’ rich and famous, set

the table.

2-phrasal verbs; get up, run out of, go on about.

3-Idioms, catch phrases and idioms: you live and learn, make ends
meet.

4-Sentence frames: would you like a…..? What we are going to do

is…..

5-Social formulae: see you later, Have a nice day, your we/come

6-Discourse markers: By the way, I take your point. To cut a long

short story….

May formulaic are fixed, others are semi sixed. Learning of

formulaic language is the central platform of the lexical Approach.

'Lexical chunk'

'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other

terms. We define a lexical chunk as any pair or group of words
which is commonly found together, or in close proximity.

'Collocation'

'Collocation' is also included in the term 'lexical chunk', but we

refer to it separately from time to time, so we define it as a pair of
lexical content words commonly found together. Following this
definition, 'basic' + 'principles' is a collocation, but 'look' + 'at' is
not because it combines a lexical content word and a grammar

39
function word. Identifying chunks and collocations is often a
question of intuition, unless you have access to a corpus.

Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations)

by the way
up to now
upside down
If I were you
a long way off
out of my mind

Lexical Chunks (that are collocations)

totally convinced
strong accent
terrible accident
sense of humour
sounds exciting
brings good luck

A theory of learning

According to Lewis (1997, 2000) native speakers carry a pool of

hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions, of lexical chunks in
their heads ready to draw upon in order to produce fluent,
accurate and meaningful language.

How then are the learners going to learn the lexical items they
need?

Criticism :

One of the criticisms levelled at the Lexical Approach is its lack of a

detailed learning theory. It is worth noting, however, that Lewis

40
(1993) argues the Lexical Approach is not a break with the
Communicative Approach, but a development of it.

According to Lewis:

Language is not learnt by learning individual sounds and structures

and then combining them, but by an increasing ability to break
down wholes into parts.

Grammar is acquired by a process of observation, hypothesis and

experiment.

We can use whole phrases without understanding their

constituent parts.

Acquisition is accelerated by contact with a sympathetic

interlocutor with a higher level of competence in the target
language.

Schmitt (2000) :

Schmitt : 'the mind stores and processes these [lexical] chunks as

individual wholes.' The mind is able to store large amounts of
information in long term memory but its short term capacity is
much more limited, when producing language in speech for
example, so it is much more efficient for the brain to recall a
chunk of language as if it were one piece of information. 'Figment
of his imagination' is, therefore, recalled as one piece of
information rather than four separate words.

Lexical approach: Principle 1- Grammaticalised lexis

I-The basic principle of the lexical approach is: "Language is

grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar"(Lewis 1993). In
other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a
subservient managerial role. If you accept this principle then the
41
logical implication is that we should spend more time helping
learners develop their stock of phrases, and less time on
grammatical structures.

Example :

-Chris: Carlos tells me Naomi fancies him.

-Ivor:: It's just a figment of his imagination.

Has Ivor accessed 'figment' and 'imagination' from his

vocabulary store and then accessed the structure: it+to be+
adverb + article + noun + of + possessive adjective + noun from
the grammar store?

Or is it more likely that Ivor has accessed the whole chunk in one
go?

Lexical Approach:Principle 2 - Collocation in action

In an application form a candidate referred to a 'large theme' in his

thesis. This sounded ugly, but there is nothing intrinsically ugly
about either word, it's just a strange combination to a native-
speaker ear. In the Lexical Approach, sensitising students to
acceptable collocations is very important, so you might find this
kind of task:

Underline the word which does not collocate with 'theme':

main theme / large theme / important theme / central theme /

major theme

Task 2

Complete the following sentences with as many different words as

you can.

(a) The Lexical Approach has had a strong…………….on me.

42
(b) Carlos and Ivor ……………..me to try out the Lexical Approach.

II-A second important aspect of the Lexical Approach is that lexis

and grammar are closely related. If you look at the examples
above, you will see in (a) that 3 semantically related words -
impact, influence, effect - behave the same way grammatically:
have a/an impact/influence/effect on something. In (b) verbs
connected with initiating action - encourage, persuade, urge,
advise etc all follow the pattern verb + object + infinitive. This kind
of 'pattern grammar' is considered to be important in the Lexical
Approach.

Lecical Approach: Principle 3 - Noticing

Sometimes the noticing is guided by the teacher i.e. the teacher

directs the students' attention to lexical features thought to be
useful;

sometimes the noticing is 'self-directed', i.e. the students

themselves select features they think will be useful for them.

Sometimes the noticing is explicit, e.g. when items in a text are

highlighted;

sometimes it is implicit e.g. when the teacher reformulates a

student's text ( how reconstruction and reformulation can
enhance noticing and practical suggestions for reformulating).

Lexical Approach: Principle 4 - Language Awareness

Learning materials and teachers can best help learners achieve

noticing of lexical chunks by combining a Language Awareness

43
approach to learning with a Lexical Approach to describing
language.

Tomlinson (2003) sums up the principles, objectives and

procedures of a language awareness approach as

'Paying deliberate attention to features of language in use can

help learners to notice the gap between their own performance in
the target language and the performance of proficient users of the
language.

Noticing can give salience to a feature, so that it becomes more

noticeable in future input, so contributing to the learner's
psychological readiness to acquire that feature.

The main objective is to help learners to notice for themselves

how language is typically used so that they will note the gaps and
'achieve learning readiness' [as well as independence from the
teacher and teaching materials].

The first procedures are usually experiential rather than analytical

and aim to involve the learners in affective interaction with a
potentially engaging text. [That is, learners read a text, and
respond with their own views and opinions before studying the
language in the text or answering comprehension type questions.]

Learners are later encouraged to focus on a particular feature of

the text, identify instances of the feature, make discoveries and
articulate generalizations about its use.'

Research project at The University of Maine

groups of students were exposed to materials based on the

principles and procedures Tomlinson outlines. The noticing

44
activities asked students to identify, analyse and make
generalisations about lexical chunks and collocations.

The students involved in the research were surveyed after using

these materials and asked how useful and enjoyable they found
the materials.

Responses:

All but one of the students said the materials were very useful and
all the students reported the class was either very useful or useful.

All the students said the materials would help them learn
independently.

Over half the students thought the materials were useful for
learning vocabulary.

All the students said they enjoyed the stories.

The teachers said that the readings were 'great', the students
understood and could appreciate the materials relevance for
developing reading as well a productive skills.

One teacher said he was not sure if making the distinction

between different types of lexical chunks was necessary.

45