Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials (2018) 1:635–648

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-018-0053-2

REVIEW

A review on dielectric properties of biofiber-based composites

H. B. Bhuvaneswari 1 & Narendra Reddy 2

Received: 5 May 2018 / Accepted: 6 August 2018 / Published online: 29 August 2018
# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

Abstract
The ever increasing consumption and subsequent disposal of electronic goods is a major concern to the environment since
most electronic goods contain non-biodegradable components. Regulations on disposal of e-goods and increasing environ-
mental awareness on their use and disposal will necessitate finding alternative materials for electronic goods in the near
future. One approach of making electronic goods more environmentally friendly is by developing biodegradable electronic
components using natural cellulose and protein fibers. In fact, several studies have been done on using natural fiber-based
materials for various electronic components. The presence of various functional groups that are amicable to modifications
and the ability to be easily fabricated into various shapes and sizes are some of the advantages of using natural fibers for
electronic and electrical applications. However, natural fibers and fibrous materials have considerably high variations in
their properties which makes it difficult to precisely control the properties of the products developed. Also, the type of
electronic components and the fabrication and testing conditions also vary significantly between reports which makes it
difficult to make a comparison between studies Dielectric materials are one of the most common and critical components in
electronic goods. A comprehensive report on the type of natural fibers used in the development of dielectric materials and
their electrical properties would be useful to select the appropriate fibers and conditions for specific applications. In this
review, we provide an overview of the various types of natural fibers used to develop composites for dielectric applications.
Dielectric constants of fibers and composites made from the fibers with and without chemical modifications and at various
frequencies and fiber contents have been discussed.

Keywords Dielectric materials . Natural fibers . Biocomposites . Electronic waste . Biodegradable

1 Introduction of disposed electronic waste is a major concern across the

Electrical and electronic goods have become an inherent part
of modern life. Globalization has a particular impact on e-
goods where a product designed at one continent gets
manufactured at another, but is used across the globe and gets
disposed at a different location. Although modern electronic
gadgets make life comfortable, there are several side effects of
using these instruments. For instance, most commodity elec-
tronic e-goods such as cell phones have relatively short life
span and quickly end up in landfills. Therefore, management
* Narendra Reddy
narendra.r@ciirc.jyothyit.ac.in
1 combined together could form explosives. Transistors, capac-
ACS College of Engineering, Mysore Road, Bengaluru 560074,
India
2 the most common components in electronic devices which in
Center for Incubation, Innovation, Research and Consultancy, Jyothy
Institute of Technology, Thathaguni Post, Bengaluru 560082, India
globe [1, 2]. Despite several initiatives, particularly in the
developed nations, efforts to reuse or recycle e-waste have
met with limited success. Less than 30% of the e-goods are
recycled and most of these goods end up in landfills. Majority
(up to 50%) of the e-waste is composed of large household
appliances, about 30% is from information and communica-
tion technology-related equipment and about 10% is
accounted from consumer electronics. Most of the compo-
nents in electronic devices contain silica, glass fibers, and
resins which are derived from non-renewable petroleum-
based resources. Hence, discarding these electronic goods
amounts to disposing of valuable resources. In addition, there
are more than 1000 different chemicals and additives that have
been identified as part of e-waste and these chemicals when
itors, printed circuit boards, diodes, and antennas are some of
turn consist of dielectric materials as major components [3].
636
Dielectric materials are used as insulating layers between
transistors in semiconductor chips, in antennas, in capaci-
tors, and in many electronic devices. Some of the classic
dielectric materials include ceramic, mica, glass, plastics,
and metal oxides, whereas dry air, distilled water, and vac-
uum are considered to be an excellent and exceptional di-
electric materials. Conventionally, dielectric materials are
classified as low dielectric (low-k) and high dielectric
(high-k) materials [4]. Although both high and low dielec-
tric materials are commonly used, the need for low-k dielec-
tric materials becomes more critical as the dimensions of the
electronic components keep decreasing [5]. Organic mate-
rials are considered ideal for low dielectric applications due
to their higher hydrophilicity and presence of functional
groups [6]. Currently, materials having a dielectric constant
< 2 are considered to be low dielectric material [4].
However, in addition to the dielectric constant, materials
for dielectric application should also have good thermal
stability and adhesion to the substrate, low thermal shrink-
age, ability to resist cracking, low solubility in water, and
low moisture absorption [5–9].
Natural fibers and fibrous materials have been extensively
studied for dielectric applications. Composites for dielectric
materials have been developed using both natural and
synthetic-based polymers. Natural fibers are preferred as di-
electric materials since they are hydrophilic, have good me-
chanical and dielectric properties, and can be made into prod-
ucts of various shapes [10, 11]. Some of the mechanical prop-
erties of common natural cellulose fibers are listed in Table 1
[12]. In addition to their hydrophilicity and good dielectric
properties, some fibrous materials such as coir and feathers
have a hollow center that facilitates noise absorption which
could be beneficial for dielectric applications. Unlike the tra-
ditional (glass, ceramic) dielectric materials, the natural fiber-
based dielectrics are biodegradable and are derived from sus-
tainable and environmentally friendly sources. Electronic
components containing the dielectric materials made from
biodegradable fibers will have lesser impact on the environ-
ment. Dielectric constants of some of the common fibers
along with their densities are mentioned in Table 2. As seen
from the table, natural cellulosic fibers have the same density
and similar loss tangent and dielectric constant, whereas nat-
ural protein fibers (wool and silk) particularly wool has lower
permittivity. The inorganic glass fibers have the highest den-
sity and lowest dielectric constant among the various fibers
compared. However, dielectric constants of natural fibers are
highly dependent on the moisture content and the humidity
levels [13]. For instance, cotton fibers have a dielectric con-
stant in the range of 3.0 to 3.2 when the relative humidity is
0%, whereas the dielectric constant was 18 when measured at
65% humidity and a frequency of 1 kHz [13]. Although con-
siderable research has been done on developing dielectric-
based materials (Table 3), there are several challenges that
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
have to be overcome to make natural fiber-based dielectric
materials adoptable for commodity electronic products.
Composites are one of the most common applications for
natural fibers. When natural fibers are used, the composites
become partially or completely biodegradable depending on
the matrix adopted. For instance, many researchers have used
natural fibers along with synthetic polymers such as epoxy,
polypropylene, or polyethylene as the matrix resulting in par-
tially degradable composites. Contrarily, natural fibers have
been combined with biodegradable resins such as proteins,
soy-based resins, and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) which lead to
completely biodegradable composites [32]. In terms of
manufacturing, composites are generally made using the com-
pression molding, resin transfer molding, or injection molding
depending on whether a thermoplastic or thermoset matrix is
used. In addition to the type of material and manufacturing
method, the ratio of the reinforcement and matrix and the
orientation of the fibers in the composites influence the prop-
erties and potential applications.
Although natural fiber-based composites have been exten-
sively studied for dielectric applications, use of the natural
dielectric materials in electronic goods is not in practice or is
negligible. However, there are considerable reports on the
dielectric properties of biocomposites. Unfortunately, each of
these reports use different fibers, fabrication methods, and also
testing conditions. Similarly, the intended applications and
discussions in the manuscripts also vary. Hence, it is difficult
to compare and contrast the results from different studies. In
this review, we have summarized the reports available on de-
veloping dielectric materials using natural fibers. The focus of
this paper is on the dielectric properties of the biocomposites.
Advantages and limitations of the different fibers used and
potential applications of the dielectric materials have been
discussed.
2 Natural cellulose fiber-reinforced
composites
2.1 Cotton
Cotton is the most common natural fiber known to humans
and has been used for clothing, medical, electrical, and many
other applications. Yarns made from cotton and polyester were
wound onto a steel plate in various ratios and configurations,
with and without surface treatments. Composites were made
using the blend yarns as reinforcement and polyester as matrix
by compression molding and their mechanical and dielectric
properties were investigated [17]. Pure polyester had the low-
est dielectric constant which increased with increase in pro-
portion of cotton yarns. However, a reduction in the dielectric
constant for all composites was noted due to decrease in hy-
drophilic groups at higher frequencies. Similar phenomenon
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648 637

Table 1 Mechanical properties of some of the common natural fibers [12]

Fiber property Corn Wool Linen Jute Ramie Kenaf Hemp PALF Sisal

Tenacity, g/den 1.4–1.6 1.2–1.6 5.8–6.1 3.2–3.5 6.4–7.3 1.0–2.3 5.2–6.8 0.7–3.8 4.1–5.3
Elongation, % 13–16 29–43 2.0–3.0 0.9–1.2 2.3–4.6 1.3–5.5 1.7–2.6 0.8–1.6 3.0–7.0
Modulus, g/den 36.0 24–34 203.0 195.0 161–300 92 203–245 – 285
Work of rupture g cm/den 0.23 0.36 0.09 0.03 0.12 0.09 0.06 – –
Moisture regain, % 8.5–9.5 14–19 12.0 13.8 8.5 17 12 10–13 1.9–4.5

was observed [33], when chemically modified (KMnO4; DCP constant and did not show any significant change with increas-
and MAPP) yarns were used in the composites. Wet condi- ing age of the composites (Fig. 3). However, flax-reinforced
tions provide substantially higher dielectric constants than the composites initially had dielectric constant (about 2) similar to
dry condition for the cotton-reinforced composites. An in- that of PP but increased substantially (to about 17) as the com-
crease in dielectric constant by about 8 times has been report- posites aged which led to increase in surface polarization. The
ed. Among all the composites, MAPP (maleic anhydride- extent of increase in dielectric constant for the acetylated flax-PP
grafted polypropylene)-treated composites had lower constant composites was lower than that of the composites containing
than the untreated composites due to the reduction in the hy- unacetylated flax [21] due to the reduction in the number of
drophilic groups [33]. Although cotton is the most widely hydroxyl groups after acetylation [21]. However, increasing
available natural cellulose fiber, there are relatively fewer stud- the amount of fibers in the composites leads to an increase in
ies on developing cotton-based composites due to the higher conductivity and consequently decreases in volume resistivity
moisture sorption and lower modulus of the cotton fibers. due to increase in the hydroxyl group content. Further, the dis-
sipation factor showed contrasting changes for the untreated and
2.2 Flax acetylated fibers due to the variations in the hydrophylicity [21].
Non-woven flax fibers treated with the corn protein zein were
Flax is one of the natural vegetable fibers whose density, dielec- combined with polypropylene and made into composites. The
tric constant, and tan δ are 1.53 g/cm3, 4.4–7.3, and 0.120, dielectric constant decreased when the fiber was coated with
respectively. Flax fibers have excellent strength but relatively zein (Fig. 1), as the chemical linkages between them reduced
low elongation and have been extensively used to develop the number of hydroxyl groups available, which leads to a de-
biocomposites with or without chemical modifications. crease in moisture absorption [34]. Although easy to modify and
However, when compared to jute and cotton, flax fibers are obtain desired properties, higher price and limited availability
considerably expensive. Composites were developed using acet- make flax undesirable for developing composites.
ylated flax fibers as reinforcement and polypropylene (PP) as
matrix. Acetylation was done using acetic anhydride to reduce 2.3 Kenaf
moisture absorption and the level of acetylation was controlled
at 18% [20]. Neat/pure PP had considerably low dielectric Unsaturated polyester was reinforced with kenaf or chicken
feathers and their potential as composites for electrical applica-
Table 2 Comparison of the density and dielectric properties of various tions was studied. Fiber content in the composites varied from
natural and man-made fibers [9] 12 to 41% and their electrical performance (Fig. 2) was studied
Fibers Density ɛr tan δ
at different frequencies and fiber contents [35]. Increasing fiber
content increased the dielectric constant from 1.8 to 6.1 at a
Cotton 1.53 4.4–7.3 0.120 frequency of 1 kHz but decreased to lower values at higher
Flax 1.53 4.4–7.3 0.120 frequency. Kenaf-reinforced composites had low frequency
Jute 1.53 4.4–7.3 0.120 loss but high dielectric loss than pure polyester composites
Wool 1.31 1.52 0.016 mainly due to the hydrophilicity of the fibers [35]. When kenaf
Silk 1.30 3.4 0.016 fibers of 1–3 mm length were used as reinforcement (0 to 15%)
Rayon 1.52 2.03 0.031 for polyurethane foam, the dielectric constant was between 1.6
Acetate 1.33 2.2 0.015 and 1.7 at a frequency of 10 Hz but decreased substantially to
Nylon 1.14 2.51 0.053 about 1.05 when the frequency was 1 MHz [25]. The kenaf-PP
Terylene (polyester) 1.38 1.97 0.030 composites had an ideal dielectric constant of close to 1. Also,
Teflon 2.30 1.9–2.2 0.001–0.003 increasing the amount of fibers did not significantly change the
Fiberglass 2.54 5.0–7.0 0.01–0.0025 dielectric constant whereas increase in temperature continually
increased the constant to about 1.8 [25].
638 Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648

Table 3 Composites reinforced with natural fibrous materials and used for dielectric applications

Fiber Matrix Frequency Dielectric constant Modifications Reference

Alfa/wool PET/PE, Unsaturated 0–1 MHz 2.6–250 NaOH, NaClO [14]

Polyester
Banana Phenol formaldehyde 1–4 Hz 4–33 NaOH, silane, acetylation, [15]
cyanoethylation
Banana Polyester 4–7.0 2.25–8.25 NaOH/silane [15]
glass 4–7.0 Hz 1–7.7 [15]
Bamboo Epoxy 0–1 MHz 5–7 Alkali, silane [11]
Bamboo Poly(lactic acid) 100 Hz–1 MHz 4.5–14 Nanoclay, mercerization [16]
Cotton Polypropylene 3.0–6.0 Hz 3.2–5.7 Orientation, DCP MAPP, KMNO4, [17]
benzoyl peroxide
Feather Unsaturated Polyester 1–1000 KHz 1.8–9.7 MAPP [18]
Feather/e-glass Epoxy 10 kHz–1 MHz 3.4–5.4 Hybrid composites [19]
Flax Polypropylene – 2.5–18 Acetylation [20]
Flax Polypropylene 50 Hz–1 MHz 1.7–3.5 (4.4–7.3) Zein [21]
Hibiscus sabdariffa Polyester 2–6 Hz 1.0-7.5 Grafted with ethyl acrylate and [22]
acrylonitrile
Jute Polypropylene 10 kHz 40–180 Gamma radiation [23]
Jute fabrics – 10 kHz 60–300 EGDMA, photo-initiator [24]
Kenaf Unsaturated Polyester 1–1000 kHz 1.7–6.2 – [18]
Kenaf Polyurethane 1 Hz–1 MHz 1.15–1.65 (RT) – [25]
Oil palm Rubber 10–100 K 3.2–10.5 NaOH, silane [26]
Palm sugar Epoxy 1 kHz 8–24 Alkali [27]
Palm fiber Acrylonitrile butadiene 2.9–6.0 9–20 – [28]
rubber
Sisal, oil palm Rubber 4–7.0 Hz 1–5.0 Alkali, silane [29]
Short sisal Polyester 0.7–4.2 Hz 2.7–3.55 – [30]
Sisal Polypropylene 1–10 kHz 1–6.5 Methyl acrylate cenospheres, silane [31]

2.4 Jute fibers
Unsaturated polyester and polypropylene were reinforced with
a mixture of bamboo and jute fibers and their dielectric prop-
erties were determined [10]. Considerable variation in their
dielectric properties were observed with different fiber load-
ings (Fig. 3). Prior to using as reinforcement, the raw material
was first powdered to obtain a mesh size of 20 to 40 and was
later combined with the matrix to form the composites. MAPP
was used as the compatibilizer for the PP composites. Fibers
were also treated with sodium hydroxide to remove impurities
and increase surface roughness. Dielectric constant decreased
with an increase in the frequency as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 1 Variations in the dielectric constant of the composites containing Fig. 2 Variation in the dielectric properties of the composites with
various levels of flax fibers and zein content [21]. Reproduced with increasing ratio of kenaf fibers and frequency [35]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier permission from North Carolina State University
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
Fig. 3 Variations of dielectric constant of PP composites reinforced with
acetylated and unacetylated flax at various aging times [20]. Reproduced
with permission from North Carolina State University
The dielectric constant, dissipation factor, and loss factor in-
creased with increasing fiber content because of increase in the
number of polar groups, which led to high orientation polariza-
tion [23]. In addition to chemical modifications, physical modi-
fications such as gamma irradiation were also performed on jute
fibers which were combined with layers of polypropylene sheets
and compression molded into composites [23]. Tensile strength
of the composites decreased considerably at high dosage rates
but tensile modulus showed marginal change. Dielectric constant
(40–180) of the composites increased from 50 to 85 °C whereas
decreased considerably at higher temperatures. Formation of di-
poles and alignment towards the electric field were considered to
be some of the reasons for the changing dielectric constant [23].
Instead of making a composite, jute fibers were treated with
ethylene glycol dimethylacrylate and methyl alcohol and a
photo-initiator and later UV cured to change the surface proper-
ties [24]. Dielectric constant and loss tangent were found to in-
crease up to the transition temperature and later decreased.
Raising temperature damaged the intramolecular hydrogen
bonds and increased the dipoles, which aligned with the applied
electric field leading to increase in the dielectric values [24].
2.5 Bamboo
The electrical properties of bamboo fiber-reinforced polypro-
pylene and unsaturated polyester hybrid composites were
Fig. 4 Influence of bamboo and
jute fiber content on the dielectric
constant as a function of
frequency at room temperature
[10]. Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier
639
investigated by Jayamani et al. [10]. The bamboo-reinforced
unsaturated polyester hybrid composites exhibited higher
values of dielectric properties compared with bamboo-
reinforced polypropylene hybrid composites mainly due to
the difference in hydrophilicity and orientation of the polymers.
Instead of using bamboo fibers, mats of bamboo were treated
with 5% sodium hydroxide (mercerized) and also with various
silanes. Initially, composites were made using epoxy as the ma-
trix and later 0.5–10% of nanoclay (Cloisite 30B) was introduced
to form composites [11]. These composites were developed by
using compression molding at 80 °C for 4 h. Amount of bamboo
in the fibers was controlled to be at 68%. Bamboo-epoxy com-
posites had dielectric constant of about 5 to 6.5 depending on the
frequency. Treating the bamboo fibers with longer duration of
alkali increased the dielectric constant significantly up to about
14 [11, 16]. Alkali treatment could remove the waxy substances
on the surface which decreased water resistance, leading to
higher dielectric constant. However, excessive chemical treat-
ment damages the crystal structure leading to lower mechanical
properties and water resistance. For instance, silane treatment
decreases water absorption which also reduces the dielectric con-
stant. Silane-treated composites had highest dielectric constant
(7.0) which decreased further with increasing frequency.
Similar to the dielectric constant, dissipation factor also decreased
with increasing frequency. Both the dielectric constant and dissi-
pation factor decreased with the inclusion of clay into the com-
posites. Although the silane treatment and addition of clay in-
creased the mechanical properties, there was no direct co-relation
between mechanical and electrical properties which implies that
addition of clay or the chemical modifications have limited effect
[11]. Instead of using epoxy as the matrix, bamboo mats with and
without treatment with alkali were combined with poly(lactic
acid) containing nanoclay [16]. Similar to that observed in the
bamboo-epoxy composites, inclusion of the nanoclay increased
the tensile and flexural strength marginally but the flexural mod-
ulus increased substantially. Composites containing nanoclay
had much higher dielectric constants especially at temperatures
above 100 °C. For example, dielectric constants of the compos-
ites were between 4.5–6.1 at room temperature but the constant
substantially increased to 14 at around 100 °C. The extent of
640
Fig. 5 Effects of chemical treatments on dielectric constant versus log
frequency for banana fiber-reinforced PF composites [38]. Reproduced
with permission from John Wiley and Sons
increase in dielectric constant depends on the type of composite,
frequency, and the temperature during testing [16]. Interfacial
polarization was suggested to be responsible for higher dielectric
constants for the nanoclay containing composites [16].
2.6 Palm fibers
Palm fibers are generated as byproducts after processing the
fruit. Due to the large availability and low cost, attempts have
been made to develop biocomposites and use palm fibers for
dielectric applications either alone or in combination with oth-
er fibers. When silane-treated sisal and oil palm fibers were
mixed with natural rubber and made into composites, increas-
ing fiber content increased whereas increasing frequency de-
creased the dielectric constant. Since rubber is a non-polar
material, it was suggested that adding the fibers increased
the polarizability leading to higher dielectric constants [36].
However, increasing frequency decreases the orientation po-
larization that reduces the dielectric constant. Mobility of the
electrical charges increased with increasing frequency and fi-
ber content [36]. Palm fibers were also esterified using maleic
anhydride to improve its interfacial adhesion and compatibil-
ity that could lead to better dielectric properties [36]. No sig-
nificance difference was observed in the electrical properties
of the treated and non-treated fibers [36].
Fig. 6 a, b Scanning electron
image of the surface of a
polypropylene impregnated with
short hemp fibers [41].
Reproduced with permission
from Budapest University of
Technology and Economics
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
Fibers mechanically extracted from Indian date palms were
made into composites using polyester resin as the matrix. Date
palm fibers were found to have a density of 1.01 g/cm3, lighter
than common natural fibers. This would enable developing
light-weight composites with good dielectric properties for
electrical applications [37]. Increasing the volume fraction of
the fibers in the composites decreased the dielectric strength
from 11 to 8 kV/mm. In another study, macrofibers and mi-
crofibrils extracted from oil palm were chemically treated by
benzoylation and used to reinforce natural rubber [37].
Introduction of oil palm fibers varied the permittivity from
3.2–10.5 at lower frequency (< 100 Hz) but decreased with
increase in frequencies. Palm fibers with and without the treat-
ment with alkali were used in various ratios to develop com-
posites using epoxy as the matrix [26]. Dielectric constant of
the composites varied from 8 to 24 depending on the extent of
modifications and the amount of fibers in the composite [26].
Fibers were extracted from oil palm leaves that had aged up
to 20 years. Extracted fibers were cut into lengths of 1–2 mm
and used as reinforcement for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS). Fiber content in the composites was varied from 5 to
20%. Dielectric measurements were performed using a Wayne
Kerr Precision Impedance Analyzer. Conductivity of the pure
ABS was found to be negligible for the complete range of
frequencies (0–1 MHz), whereas the conductivity of compos-
ites varied linearly with frequency and addition of palm fibers
due to interfacial polarization [28]. Dielectric constant also de-
creased with increasing frequency but increased with increasing
fiber content. Silane treatment decreases the hydrophilic groups
in the fibers which also decreases the dielectric constant.
Composites containing about 50% fibers had dielectric constant
of 5.0 when the frequency was 3.0 Hz [28]. Chemical modifi-
cation further decreased the dielectric constant to less than 1.
2.7 Banana fibers
Banana fibers treated with silane were used as reinforcement for
polyester resin and their dielectric properties were measured. The
composites did not show any remarkable change in dielectric
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648 641

Table 4 Parameters of PP matrix

reinforced with dried and undried Parameter Notations PP matrix Dried fibers Undried fibers
hemp fibers [41]
Maximum initial induced current Igmax [pA] 817 898 867
Induced current for 40 ms injection time Ig40 [pA] 206 435 406
Quantity of charges QIC [pC] 14.7 25.7 23.3
Quantity of trapped charges Qt [pC] 12.8 6 9.5
Voltage of beam Vd [V] 1800 1200 1600
Ration of charges Qt/QIC 0.826 0.34 0.37

properties when 10 to 30% of banana fibers were used but the
dielectric constant increased from 4.2 (or 4.7) to about 7.5 at a
frequency of 4 Hz when 40% fibers were used. The presence of
large number of hydrophilic groups leads to dipole/orientation
polarizability and consequently to higher dielectric constant [15].
The electrical conductivity of the composites was found to be
dependent on the chemical modification as well as the fiber
loading employed. The dielectric constant decreased with respect
to both frequency and chemical modification [15].
Dielectric constant of composites containing banana fibers
were lower than that of neat PP but chemical modifications to
the fibers decreased the dielectric constants (9–37) and also
the volume resistivity of the composites. As seen from Fig. 5,
unmodified fibers provided highest dielectric constant of
about 37 whereas cyanoethylated fibers had the lowest dielec-
tric constant of about 9 at a frequency of 1 Hz. Increasing
frequency decreased the dielectric constant of composites for
all types of banana fibers due to reduction in moisture content
and orientation polarization. For instance, moisture content of
composites containing chemically modified fibers reduced to
about 1.5 to 2% compared to 4% for composites containing
untreated fibers. As frequency increased above 3 Hz, the dif-
ferences in dielectric constants reduced from 15 to 5 and be-
came stable at around 4 Hz [38]. Due to differences in the
dielectric constant between various fibers and matrix, the
fiber/matrix interaction in composites could also be deter-
mined with the help of dielectric constant measurements.
Attempts have also been made to use multiple fibers
(hybridized) in composites intended for dielectric applica-
tions. However, dielectric properties were dependent on the
type, content, and arrangement of the fibers in the composites.
For instance, dielectric properties of the hybridized fibers were
dependent on the layering of the glass fibers, banana fibers,
and their relative proportion. Similar trends were observed for
the hybrid fibers as with the chemically modified fibers [39].
Instead of using banana fibers extracted from the stem,
banana fibers obtained by hydrolysis of banana pulp was treat-
ed with maleic anhydride and grounded into powder. The
banana fiber powder was mixed with waste polyurethane
foam solution to form the composites [40]. To increase the
insulation properties, 5 to 10% of aluminum silicate was
added into the composites. However, addition of aluminum
silicate decreased the strength and increased water absorption.
The dielectric constant and dielectric loss decreased with in-
creasing frequency and content of aluminum silicate.
However, values of dielectric constant (100 at higher frequen-
cy to 900 at very low frequency) reported in this research
should be considered carefully since the values were nearly
100 times higher than those reported by other researchers
using different natural fibers [40].

Table 5 Electrical properties of neat UPE and its composites reinforced

with raw and surface modified sisal fibers [42]

Sample Thickness Break With Dielectric

down stand strength,
voltage, voltage, KV/mm
KV KV

Neat 2 34 33 17.00
4 43 42 10.75
20% fibers 2 29 28 14.50
4 35 34 08.75
30% 2 32 31 16.00
silanated 4 39 38 9.75
fibers
30% 2 30 29 15.00
Fig. 7 Variations in the dielectric constant of composites made from grafted 4 38 37 9.50
Cannabis indica and ultrahigh polyethylene [29]. Reproduced with fibers
permission from Springer
642
Fig. 8 Variations in the dielectric constant of the sisal/polyester composites with increasing fiber content and frequency (a) and with increasing
temperature (b) [42]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
2.8 Hemp fibers
In a different approach of developing composites and measur-
ing dielectric properties, chopped hemp fibers with length of
25 mm and diameter of 26 μm were placed in the form of a
non-woven mat. The fibers were impregnated with ultrahigh
fluidity polypropylene and made into samples of 1 or 2 mm in
thickness [41]. Figure 6 shows the surface of the composite
having fibers in random orientation and embedded in the ma-
trix. Dielectric measurements were made using the induced
current method and the scanning electron mirror effect method
which work on the ability of the material to trap electric
charges or the capacity to diffuse electric charges. Electrical
properties of the materials are listed in Table 4.
Recently, fibers obtained from Cannabis indica (hemp) were
silanated and also grafted with acrylonitrile and combined with
unsaturated polyester (UPE) to prepare composites for potential
use as dielectric material [29]. Amount of fibers in these com-
posites varied between 10 and 40%. Surface modification of the
fibers resulted in a reduction in dielectric loss and dissipation
factor. Dielectric strength of the composites also decreased with
addition of fibers (Figure 7). Also, thicker composites had lower
dielectric strength with and without the reinforcement as seen
from Table 5 [29]. Among the different chemical modification,
grafting with acrylonitrile was found to provide better properties.
2.9 Sisal
Sisal fibers (20 to 50%) were combined with polyester to
prepare composites for dielectric applications [30]. The di-
electric constant increased with fiber content but decreased
with increasing frequency for a long range of frequencies as
shown in Fig. 8. Conductivity of the samples varied propor-
tionally with increasing fiber content and increased exponen-
tially at higher frequency due to changes in the moisture
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
absorption of the composites (as shown in Fig. 9 ). Further,
an increase in the temperature of the composites also led to
higher dielectric constant due to increased mobility of the
water molecules. Dielectric constant also increased due to
the same phenomenon even in neat polyester composites.
However, the dielectric constant attained a peak value around
90 °C for the polyester composites [30].
To increase porosity, sisal fiber-reinforced polypropylene
composite were added with cenospheres which are light-
weight, hollow spheres made of silica. The cenospheres used
had diameters of 150 μm, density of 0.6 g/cm3 [31]. Two to
8% of the cenospheres were added into the composites. In
addition to including the cenospheres, sisal fibers were also
treated with maleic anhydride to improve compatibility with
polypropylene. All the composites developed had dielectric
constant higher than that of neat PP (Tables 6 and 7).
Dielectric constants varied depending on the amount of fiber
or the modification done. Neat PP had dielectric constant from
2.1 to 2.6 kHz which increased up to 6.4 for composites con-
taining 30% of maleic anhydride-treated sisal fibers [31].
Changes in the ionic, dipole, and electric charges were
Fig. 9 Conductivity variation vs frequency for the sisal/polyester com-
posites [42]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648 643

Table 6 Dielectric constants of

sisal fiber composites after Sample Dielectric constants
various chemical modifications
and at different frequencies [31] 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz 10khz

Pure PP 2.56 2.43 2.32 2.12

PP/sisal fiber (70/30) 6.46 5.48 5.19 4.48
PP/sisal fiber (80/20) 5.79 4.82 4.34 3.82
PP/sisal fiber (90/10) 4.43 3.51 3.11 2.56
PP/MATr. sisal fiber (70/30) 6.36 5.38 5.09 4.44
PP/MATr. sisal fiber (80/20) 5.40 4.22 3.94 3.30
PP/MATr. Sisal fiber (90/10) 4.27 3.13 2.90 2.26
PP/Sisal fiber/cenosphere (80/20/8) 4.40 3.43 3.03 2.46
PP/Sisal fiber/cenosphere (80/20/6) 4.91 3.79 3.25 2.87
PP/Sisal fiber/cenosphere (80/20/4) 5.04 4.11 3.67 3.10
PP/Sisal fiber/cenosphere (80/20/2) 5.21 4.26 3.83 3.24
PP/MATr. sisal fiber/silane/cenosphere (80/20/8) 5.49 4.39 4.10 3.47
PP/MATr. sisal fiber/silane/cenosphere (80/20/6) 5.57 4.61 4.18 3.65
PP/MATr. sisal fiber/silane/cenosphere (80/20/4) 5.67 4.80 4.39 3.88
PP/MATr. sisal fiber/silane/cenosphere (80/20/2) 5.71 4.79 4.35 3.79

responsible for the changes in the dielectric values with fre-
quency. Introduction of the polar groups in the composites due
to the inclusion of the fibers was suggested to be the reason for
the higher dielectric constant [31]. However, the presence of
the cenospheres decreased the conductivity of the samples.
2.10 Coir fibers
Coir fibers are one of the most widely available and used
fibrous byproducts. Coir fibers are made into a wide va-
riety of products ranging from containers, furnishings,
carpets, and other consumer goods. Hybrid fibers from
sisal and coir were used to develop composites from
natural rubber for dielectric applications. Fibers were cut
into 10 mm length and subjected to various chemical
treatments [29] such as mercerization, acetylation,
benzoylation, and peroxide treatments. The chemically
modified fibers were combined with natural rubber to
form composites. A decrease in dielectric constant was
observed with an increase in fiber content and frequency.
Orientation and interfacial polarization were considered to
be the reasons for the changes in the dielectric constant.
Chemical treatments decreased the dielectric constant but
the difference between the various treatments was margin-
al. Dielectric constants varied from 3.4 to 4.5 for the
composites containing modified fibers.

Table 7 Electrical properties of neat UPE and its composites reinforced with raw and surface modified sisal fibers [22]

Sample Thickness, mm Breakdown voltage, kV Withstand voltage, kV Dielectric strength kV/mm

Neat UPE 2 34 33 17.00

4 43 42 10.75
UPE +30% raw particle fiber 2 26 25 13.00
4 36 35 9.00
UPE +30% mercerized particle fiber 2 28 27 14.00
4 36 35 9.00
UPE +30% silanated particle fiber 2 28 27 14.00
4 38 37 9.50
UPE +30% benzoylated particle fiber 2 24 23 12.00
4 32 31 8.00
UPE +30% AN grafted particle fiber 2 28 27 13.50
4 37 36 9.25
UPE +30% AAc grafted particle fiber 2 26 25 13.0
4 36 35 9.0
644 Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648

Fig. 10 a–d Morphology of the

Thysanolaena maxima grass
before and after treating with
different concentrations of
sodium hydroxide [44].
Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier

2.11 Uncommon natural fibers composite was found to be 82 MPa, 1 GPa, and 91 kJ/m2
respectively. Unlike many other reports, increasing the con-
The above discussion reveals that almost all commercially centration of the reinforcement in the composites decreased
available natural fibers have been considered to develop com- the dielectric strength from 11 to about 7 kV/mm.
posites for dielectric applications. Instead of using the com- Fibers obtained from Grewia optiva were used as rein-
mon fibers, attempts have also been made to use unconven- forcement for unsaturated polyester and the composites de-
tional fibers and agricultural residues as sources for fibers. veloped were tested for potential dielectric applications.
Natural fibers obtained from Roystonea regia with and Various chemical modifications were done to the fibers to
without alkali treatment were used to reinforce (20%) epoxy improve their performance. Two sets of composites were
and composites developed were characterized for their con- obtained in terms of their dielectric properties depending
ductivity and dielectric properties. Conductivity of the sam- on the type of chemical modification as shown in Fig. 11.
ples increased with increasing frequency and the alkali-treated One set of composites had dielectric constants between 3.5
fibers had slightly higher conductivity than the untreated fi- and 4.5 and the other set between 1.5 and 3.0 demonstrating
bers. Consequently, the dielectric constant (56–50) and loss that the composites with the desired properties can be ob-
tangent decreased with increasing frequency [43] and were tained by varying the fiber and fabrication conditions [45].
lower for the composites containing alkali-treated fibers. A Similar to dielectric constant varying from 6 to 1.5, the
decrease in dielectric constant was due to lower absorption dielectric strength decreased from 17 to 8.0 kV/mm and
of water and orientation polarization. Similar observations withstand voltage also varied with the type of fiber modifi-
were also made when palm sugar fibers were used as rein- cation [45].
forcement for epoxy [27]. In another study, fibers obtained
from Hibiscus sabdariffa were grafted with acrylonitrile and
ethyl acrylate. The grafted and ungrafted fibers were used to
reinforce phenol formaldehyde resin with a fiber ratio of
12.7%. Dielectric constant (1 to 7.5) and volume resistivity
decreased with increasing frequency which was attributed to
the interfacial polarization. However, the influence of grafting
on the dielectric properties were not reported [22].
A relatively unknown fiber source Thysanolaena maxima
which is a grass, commonly used as broom sticks was used in
it is original form as reinforcement for polyester matrix. The
grass was treated with various concentrations of sodium hy-
droxide to develop composites. Morphologically, the grass
had a porous structure (density between 0.47 and 0.63 g/
cm3) (Fig. 10). Polyester resin was reinforced with the fibers
to study their mechanical and electrical properties [44]. Fig. 11 Dielectric constant of composites developed using Grewia optiva
fibers after various chemical modifications [45]. Reproduced with
Tensile strength, modulus, and impact strength of the permission from Elsevier
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648 645

Table 8 Differences in the dielectric constant and dissipation factor for the unmodified and maleic anhydride modified feathers at different fiber
contents and frequencies [18]

Composites Fiber, % Dielectric constant Dissipation factor, tan δ

Frequency (kHz) Frequency (kHz)

1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000

CFF 0 1.823 1.799 1.754 1.712 0.0112 0.0114 0.0137 0.0175

10 1.894 1.844 1.812 1.753 0.0495 0.0277 0.0229 0.0203
20 1.962 1.88 1.835 1.774 0.0639 0.0318 0.0252 0.0234
30 2.055 1.918 1.872 1.798 0.0693 0.0352 0.0292 0.0271
40 2.126 1.969 1.887 1.809 0.0736 0.0393 0.03 0.03030
MACFF 0 1.854 1.821 1.786 1.737 0.0147 0.0148 0.015 0.0187
10 2.048 1.916 1.819 1.732 0.0808 0.047 0.0344 0.0315
20 2.286 2.14 1.962 1.842 0.133 0.0752 0.0502 0.0404
30 3.518 2.548 2.207 2.003 0.27 0.137 0.086 0.0617
40 9.654 5.189 3.621 2.838 0.511 0.3556 0.225 0.14

Fibers extracted from Sansevieria cylindrica and other
sources were used as reinforcement for polyester/rubber (85/
15) matrix and their mechanical and dielectric properties were
measured. Fibers obtained had tensile properties much higher
than that of common cellulose fibers and were similar to that
of silk. Dielectric strength (12.5 to 16.5 kV/mm) of the com-
posites increased with increasing fiber content for Sansevieria
cylindrica but decreased for composites containing silk, jute,
and fibers extracted from drumsticks. Reasons for the contrary
behavior of composites reinforced with different fibers were
not reported [46].
3 Poultry feathers
Poultry feathers are one of the most ubiquitous agricultural
wastes that have been extensively studied for their electrical
properties and considered for dielectric applications. Feathers
have unique advantages such as light weight, high moisture
content, easy availability, and biodegradability that make them
attractive for electronic and other applications. Increasing the
amount of feather fibers in the composites increased the di-
electric constant, whereas increasing frequency had the oppo-
site effect on the dielectric constant, similar to that seen when
kenaf fibers were used as reinforcement [47].
Instead of using raw feathers, maleic anhydride modified
feathers were used as reinforcement for composites.
Variation in dielectric constant and dissipation factor for
the unmodified and maleic anhydride-grafted feathers have
been reported in Table 8 [18]. A general trend observed in
most of the fiber-reinforced composites is that the chemical
modifications decrease hydrophilicity which in turn de-
creases dielectric constant. However, contradictory results
were presented when feathers were used as reinforcement
for epoxy composites.
Dielectric constant of the composites decreased from 4.5 to
2.1 with increase in feather content. Dielectric constant in-
creased (2.5–6.5) with increasing temperature but decreased
(4.7–2.2) with frequency [18]. Composites obtained were
light weight, were rigid, and had lower dielectric values than

Fig. 12 a, b Variations in the dielectric constant with change in chicken feather fiber content and frequency of measurement for the polyester composites
[18]
646
Fig. 13 Changes in the dielectric constant of the neat polymers, feather
fibers, and composites with varying frequency [19] Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier
common materials such as epoxies and polyimides. Feather
fibers (10–30%) were used as reinforcement for epoxy matrix
and composites were developed for potential application such
as data transferring and insulation [48]. Flexural strength of
the composite increased continually with increasing content of
feathers, whereas flexural strength decreases with increasing
frequency. Unreinforced epoxy had dielectric constant from
3.7 to about 4.7 and composites containing 30% feathers had
considerably lower dielectric constant from 2.0 to 2.6 (Figures
12 and 13). This result is contradictory to other reports where
addition or increasing fiber content generally increases the
dielectric constant due to availability of higher number of
hydroxyl groups. Increasing temperature was found to in-
crease dielectric constant marginally due to alignment of the
polar groups. The hollow structures in feathers also help in
trapping air and reducing the dielectric constant [19, 48].
Fig. 14 Properties of epoxy
composites reinforced with
different types of chicken feather
fibers [19]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
Hybrid composites containing feather fibers, epoxy, and glass
fibers were manufactured for potential use as printed circuit
boards [14]. A sandwich structure was created and composites
were developed by varying the fiber and epoxy content.
Interestingly, neat epoxy had the highest and feather fibers
have the lowest dielectric constants which decreased with in-
creasing frequency. At a frequency of 1 MHz, the dielectric
constant was highest for epoxy reinforced with short feather
fibers when compared to all other composites (Fig. 14).
Composites containing only the epoxy and glass fibers showed
considerably low loss tangents. No particular trend was ob-
served with increasing fiber content at fixed frequencies [14].
Another protein fiber (alfa and wool) with diameters of
205 and 37 μm have been combined with polyethylene tere-
phthalate or polyethylene fibers to develop composites for
dielectric applications [49]. Composites were formed by
adding a liquid resin and molding. Generally, addition of
the natural fibers and an increase in temperature increased
the dielectric constant, whereas an increase in dielectric
permittivity with temperature at low frequencies was ob-
served [49].
4 Conclusions
Natural fibers have been used to develop composites which
have been extensively studied for dielectric applications. A
large number of fibers with distinct properties have been
used to develop the dielectric materials mostly using syn-
thetic polymers as the matrix. Since natural fibers are hy-
drophilic and have poor compatibility with synthetic poly-
mers, chemical modifications are performed to obtain di-
electric materials with desired properties. Such modifica-
tions not only change the properties of the materials but
Adv Compos Hybrid Mater (2018) 1:635–648
also affect the dielectric values. In addition, the inherent
variations in fiber properties, differences in matrices, and
composite fabrications result in different dielectric proper-
ties. Even if the same fibers and matrices are used, the
range of dielectric values varied anywhere from 1 to 300
but were dependent on the fiber and composite properties.
Researchers have also attempted to use unconventional fi-
brous sources such as Hibiscus to extract fibers for com-
posites intended for electrical applications. Similarly, poul-
try feathers which are light weight and low cost are another
source that provide the desired dielectric properties to the
composites. Moisture content in the fibers is found to be
the single most contributing factor to the dielectric values
of the composites. Most of the studies on dielectric mate-
rials have only considered the effect of fibers, chemical
modifications, and frequency. However, other parameters
such as density of the composites, effect of voids, and
mechanical properties on the dielectric values have not
been thoroughly investigated. Similarly, protein fibers such
as wool and silk may provide better dielectric properties
but there are limited studies on using protein fibers for
dielectric applications. A better understanding of the rela-
tionships between fiber properties, composites properties,
and requirements for dielectric applications is necessary to
make fiber-based dielectric materials adaptable for elec-
tronic devices.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Center for Incubation,
Innovation, Research and Consultancy, Jyothy Institute of Technology,
for their support to complete this work. Narendra Reddy expresses his
thanks to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Department of
Biotechnology, for the financial support through the Ramalingaswami
Re-entry Fellowship.
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natural fibers: Sansevieria cylindrica, waste silk, jute and drum biomaterials obtained from agricultural residues and is carrying our sev-
stick fibers (Moringa Olefera) reinforced with rubber polyester eral projects funded by Government of India and other funding agencies.
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