SKELETAL SYSTEM • Epiphyseal plate: – site of growth

Functions – between diaphysis

1. Support and epiphysis
2. Protect • Medullary cavity: – center of diaphysis
3. Movement – red or yellow marrow
4. Storage • Periosteum: membrane around bone’s outer surface
5. Blood cell production • Endosteum: membrane that lines medullary cavity

Components of Skeletal System Compact Bone Tissue

Bone
Cartilage: reduce friction and model for bone
formation
Tendons: attach bone to muscle
Ligaments: attach bone to bone
• Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are
connective tissues.
Proteoglycans - large polysaccharides attached to
proteins
- part of ground substance
- store water
• Bone’s extracellular matrix is collagen and
minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
• Cartilage’s extracellular matrix is collagen and
proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
• Tendons and ligaments’ extracellular matrix is
collagen (very tough)
Classification of Bones
• Based on shape: long, short, flat, irregular
• Type of bone tissue: compact and spongy
(cancellous)
Bone Shapes
• Long: - Ex. Femur, tibia, fibula
• Short: – Ex. Carpals, tarsals, phlanges
• Flat: – Ex. Ribs, sternum, skull
• Irregular: – Ex. Vertebrae and facial
Long Bone Structures
• Diaphysis: – shaft
– compact bone tissue (on outside)
• Epiphysis: – ends
– spongy bone tissue
• Articular cartilage: - covers epiphyses
- reduces friction
• Location: outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and
thinner surfaces of other bones
• Osteon: - structural unit of compact bone
- includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus,
central canal, osteocytes
• Lamella: rings of bone matrix
• Lacunae: spaces between lamella
• Canaliculus: - tiny canals
- transport nutrients and remove waste
• Central canal: - center of osteon
- contains blood vessels
Spongy Bone Tissue
• Cancellous bone
• Location: epiphyses of long bones and center of
other bones
• Trabeculae: interconnecting rods, spaces contain
marrow
• No osteons
Bone Cells
• Osteocytes: maintain bone matrix
• Osteoblasts: build bone
• Osteoclasts: carve bone
Bone Formation
• Ossification: process of bone formation (occurs in
utero)
• Osteoblast’s role: - build bone
- after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by
bone matrix it becomes an osteocyte
• Ossification center: where bone formation begins
• Primary ossification center: - where bone 1st begins
to appear
- forms diaphyses
• Secondary ossification center: forms epiphyses
Intramembranous Ossification
• Bone formation within connective tissue membranes
• Osteoblasts build bone
• Ex. Skull bones
Endochondral Ossification
• Bone formation inside cartilage
• Cartilage models are replaced by bone
• Ex. All bones (except skull)
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chrondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage.
Bone Growth
• Infancy and youth: - long bones lengthen at
epiphyseal plate
- long bones widen by adding more lamella
• End of bone growth (in length): epiphyseal plate is
replaced by an epiphyseal line
Bone Remodeling
- removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- occurs in all bones
- responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot
forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between
2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts
enter the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form
compact and cancellous bone.
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is a major storage site for calcium
• Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
determine blood levels of calcium
• Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone
• Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break
down bone
• Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
Blood
Hematopoietic Tissue: tissue that makes blood cells
• Red marrow: location of blood forming cells
• Yellow marrow: mostly fat
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns:
most bones (red marrow)
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:
- red is replaced with yellow marrow
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur
and humerus
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MAJOR FUNCTIONS:
1. Movement of the body
Ex. Contraction of skeletal muscle
- overall movements of the body (walking,
running)
2. Maintenance of Posture
Ex. Skeletal Muscle
-maintain tone
3. Respiration
Ex. Muscles of thorax
4. Production of Body Heat
Ex. Contraction of sk. muscles
-heat =>Byproduct
5. Communication
Ex. Speaking, writing, typing
6. Constrictions of organs and vessels
Ex. Contraction of sm. muscles
7. Contraction of the heart
Ex. Cardiac Muscle
-propel blood to all parts of body
SKELETAL MUSCLE
 With its associated connective tissues,
constitutes approximately 40% of body weight
 Most muscles are attached to the skeletal
 Also called STRIATED MUSCLE =>transverse
bands, or striations is seen
FOUR MAJOR FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:
1. CONTRACTILITY
- Ability of skeletal muscle to SHORTEN
with force
- Either GRAVITY or CONTRACTION OF
OPPOSING MUSCLE produces a force
that pulls on the shortened muscle
causing it to lengthen
2. EXCITABILITY
- Capacity of sk. muscle to RESPOND to
a stimulus
3. EXTENSIBILITY
- Sk. muscle STRETCH
- After a contraction, sk. muscle can be
stretched to their normal resting
length…
4. ELASTICITY
- Ability of sk. muscle to RECOIL to their original
resting length after being stretched.
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF MUSCLE
 EPIMYSIUM/ MUSCULAR FASCIA – connective
tissue sheath that surrounds each sk. muscle
 MUSCLE FASCICULI – numerous visible
bundles that composes a muscle
 PERIMYSIUM – loose connective tissue w/c
surrounds muscle fasciculi
 MUSLE FIBERS – several muscles that
composes a fasciculus
 ENDOMYSIUM – loose connective tissue w/c
surrounds muscle fiber
MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE
 MUSCLE FIBER
- A single cylindrical fiber with several nuclei
located at its periphery
- LARGEST HUMAN MUSCLE FIBERS => 30 cm
long / 0.15 mm in diameter
STRUCTURES:
 SARCOLEMMA – cell membrane of muscle
fiber
 TRANSVERSE TUBULES/ T TUBULES – tubelike
invaginations along the surface of
sarcolemma; occur at regular intervals along
the muscle fiber & extend inward into it;
connect sarcolemma to sarco. reticulum
 SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM – highly organize
smooth e.r.; high conc. Of Ca →muscle
contraction
 SARCOPLASM – cytoplasm in each muscle
fiber
o Myofibrils –threadlike
structures that extend fr. one
end to other
= 2 kinds of protein fibers:
= Actin Myofilaments -THIN filaments; resembles two
minute strands of pearls twisted together, have
attachment sites for the myosin myofilaments
- 3 components:
Actin
Troponin- attached at spec. intervals along the actin
myofilaments
-have binding sites for Ca
Tropomyosin -located along the groove bet. the
twisted strands of actin myofilaments subunits
-block the myosin myofilament
binding sites ont the actin
myofilaments
= Myosin Myofilaments -THICK myofilaments,
resemble bundles of minute golf clubs.
o MYOSIN HEADS – parts of
myosin molecule that resemble
golf club heads
3 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES:
Can bind to attachment sites on actin
myofilaments
Can bend and straighten during contraction
Can break down ATP; releasing energy
Actin and Myosin are arranged into
highly ordered, repeating units called
SARCOMERES – joined end to end to
form the myofibrils.

SARCOMERES
-Basic structural and functional unit of sk. muscle
-smallest portion of sk. m. that is capable of
contracting
-extends from one Z disk to another Z disk
 Z Disk
-network of protein fibers forming an attachment site
for actin myofilaments
 Light I Band
-consist only of actin myofilaments
-span each Z disk and ends of myosin myofilaments
 A Band
-darker, central region in each sarcomere
-extends the length of the myosin myofilaments
 H Zone
-second light zone, center of sarcomere
-consist only oy myosin myofilaments
 M Line
-dark-staining band w/c anchors myosin myofilaments
at center of sarcomere
EXCITABILITY OF MUSCLE FIBERS
POLARIZED
-inside of most cell membranes is negatively charged
compared to the outside of cell membrane
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
-charge difference
-occurs because there is an uneven distributions of
ions across cell membrane.
3 REASON WHY IT DEVELOPS:
1. Conc. of K+ is inside the cell membrane is
higher than that of the outside of the cell
memb.
2. Concentration NA+ outside the cell memb. is
higher than that the inside cell memb.
3. Cell membrane is more permeable to K+ thn it
is to Na+
(READ p. 154)
DEPOLARIZATION
-Na+ channels are open. Na+ diffuses down its
concentration gradient through the open Na+
channels, making the inside of the cell memb.
positively charged compared to the outside.
REPOLARIZATION
-The change back to the resting membrane potential
- Na+ channels are closed and, Na+ movement into
the cells stops. More K+ channels open. K+ movement
out of the cell increases, making the inside cell memb.
negatively charged compared to the outside
ACTION POTENTIAL
-Rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell
membrane
-in a muscle fiber → muscle contraction
NERVE SUPPLY
 Motor Neurons
-specialized nerve cells that stimulate muscles to
contract
-generate action potential
 Neuromuscular Junction
-junction with a muscle fiber
-near center of muscle fiber
 Synapse
-cell-to-cell junction between a nerve cell and
either another nerve cell or an effector cell (
muscle, gland)
 Motor Unit
-single motor neuron & all the skeletal muscle
fibers it innervates
-small, precisely controlled muscle
e.g.
hand -may have one or few muscle fibers per units
large thigh muscles- 1000 muscle fibers per motor
unit
** the fewer fibers in motor unit, the greater control
over that muscle.
 Presynaptic Terminal
 -enlarged axon terminal 2. Contraction Phase
-time during w/c the muscle contracts
 Synaptic Cleft -results from cross-bridge movement and
-space between presynaptic terminal and muscle cycling w/c increases the tension
fiber membrane produced by the muscle fibers.

 Postsynaptic Membrane 3. Relaxation Phase

-muscle fiber membrane
 Synaptic Vesicles
-small vesicles in each presynaptic terminal
-contains actylcholine (Ach) →neurotransmitter
-time during w/c the muscle relaxes
-Ca2+ is actively transported back to
sarcoplasmic reticulum
-cross-bridge prevented; tension
decreases

 Neurotransmitter
-molecule release by presynaptic nerve cell
-stimulates or inhibits postsynaptic cell
** acetylcholine is broken down by an enzyme called
acteylcholinesterase
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
**occurs as actin and myosin slide past each other
Sliding Filament Model
-sliding of actin myofilaments past myosin
myofilaments
 Tetanus
-sustained contraction that occurs when frequency
of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation occurs.
- occurs because Ca2+ builds up in myofibrils
 Recruitment
-number of muscle fibers contracting is increased
by increasing the number of motor units
stimulated, and the muscle contracts with more
force.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

**CONTRACTION
-neither actin nor myosin shortens
-H zones and I bands shorten
-A bands don’t change in length
**RELAXATION
-sarcomeres lengthen

 Muscle Twitch
-contraction of muscle fiber in response to a
stimulus Functions
-usually involves all the muscle fibersin a motor 1. Sensory input: sensory receptors respond to
unit stimuli
3 PHASES: 2. Integration: brain and spinal cord process
1. Lag Phase (Latent Phase) stimuli
-time between the application of a 3. Control of muscles and glands
stimulus and the beginning of contraction 4. Mental activity: brain
-action potentials are produced in one or 5. Homeostasis
more motor neurons
Main Divisions of Nervous System Types of Neuroglia
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord Astrocytes
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all neurons - most abundant
outside CNS - star-shaped
- form blood-brain barrier
Neuron Characteristics Ependymal Cells
• Nerve cells - produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
• Require oxygen and glucose (CSF)
• Receive input, process input, produce a Microglia
response - help remove bacteria and cell debris from
CNS
Neuron Structures Oligodendrocytes
•Dendrite: receives stimulus from other neurons or - produce myelin sheath in CNS
sensory receptors
•Cell body: processes stimulus Schwann cells
-contains a nucleus - produce myelin sheath in PNS
•Axon: transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ,
or other neuron Organization of Nervous Tissue
• Gray matter: collection of dendrites and cell bodies
Myelin Sheath • White matter: collection of axons and their myelin
fatty, protective wrapping around axons sheath
- excellent insulator CNS PNS
•Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in myelin sheath where Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells
action potentials develop Produce myelin sheath
•Saltatory conduction: jumping of action potentials Nerve tracts Nerves
•Myelinated axons conduct action potentials Collection of axons
more quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than unmyelinated Nuclei Ganglion
due to Nodes of Ranvier. Collection of cell bodies
•Multiple sclerosis: disease of myelin sheath that Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
causes loss of muscle function
Resting Membrane Potential
Types of Neurons • Outside of cell is more + (Na+) • Inside of cell is
•Multipolar: many dendrites and a single axon more – (K+)
-Ex. CNS and most motor neurons • Leak ion channels: -always open
•Bipolar: one dendrite and one axon K+ channels
-Ex. Eye and nasal cavity • Gated ion channels: closed until opened by specific
•Pseudo-unipolar:one axon and no dendrites signal and Na+ channels
-Ex. Sensory neurons
Action Potentials
Neuroglia Characteristics • “Electricity” that cause depolarization and
•Supporting cells for neurons repolarization
•More numerous than neurons • Change resting membrane potential by activating
•Can divide to produce more cells gated ion channels
•5 types • Local Current: movement of Na+ which causes inside
of cell to be more positive (depolarize)
• If enough Na+ enters then threshold is reached and Gray and White Matter in Spinal Cord
more Na+ channels open • Gray Matter:
• Once threshold is reached all or none law applies -center of spinal cord
• Action potentials continue until Na+ channels close, -looks like letter H or a butterfly
K+ channels open, and repolarization occurs •White Matter:
• Sodium/potassium pump restores -outside of spinal cord
-contains myelinated fibers
Synapse
- where an axon attaches to a muscle, gland, organ, or White Matter in Spinal Cord
other neuron • Contains 3 columns dorsal, ventral, lateral columns
- involved with release of neurotransmitters • Ascending tracts: axons that conduct action
- Ex. Neuromuscular junction potentials toward brain
• Descending tracts: axons that conduct action
Reflexes potentials away from brain
• involuntary response to a stimulus
• Reflex arc: path reflex travels Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
• Posterior horns: contain axons which synapse with
Components of Reflex Arc interneurons
1. Sensory receptors: pick up stimulus • Anterior horns: contain somatic neurons
- in skin • Lateral horns: contain autonomic neurons
2. Sensory (afferent) neurons: send stimulus to • Central canal: fluid filled space in center of cord
interneurons in spinal cord
3.Interneurons (Association) neuron: located in CNS Spinal Nerves
and connect to motor neurons • Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots
- process stimulus and ventral roots
4. Efferent (motor) neurons: send response to effector • Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons
5. Effector: muscle, gland, or organ • Located between vertebra
• Categorized by region of vertebral column from
Neuronal Pathways which it emerges (C for cervical)
•Converging: • 31 pairs
- two or more neurons synapse same neuron • Organized in 3 plexuses
- allows info. to be transmitted in more than one
neuronal pathway to converge into a single pathway Cervical Plexus
• Diverging: • Spinal nerves C1-4
- axon from one neuron divides and synapses with • Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and neck
more than one neuron • Contains phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm
- allows info. to be transmitted in one neuronal
pathway to diverge into 2 or more pathways Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
Spinal Cord • Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand
• Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar
vertebra Lumbosacral Plexus
• Protected by vertebral column • Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
• Spinal nerves allow movement • Supply nerves lower limbs
• If damaged paralysis can occur
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord
• Provides a protective cushion around the CNS
• Produced in choroid plexus of brain
Brainstem
Diencephalon Components
•Thalamus
Characteristics: largest portion of diencephalon
Function: influences moods and detects pain
•Epithalamus:
Location: above thalamus
Function: emotional and visceral response to odors
• Hypothalamus
Location: below thalamus
Characteristics: controls pituitary gland and is
connected to it by infundibulum
Function: controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst,
hunger, fear, rage, sexual emotions

Cerebrum Characteristics
Brainstem Components
•Largest portion of brain
• Medulla oblongata
•Divisions:
Location: continuous with spinal cord
–Right Hemisphere
Function: regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
–Left Hemisphere separated by
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,
sneezing, balance
longitudinal fissure
Other: pyramids: involved in conscious control of
• Lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
skeletal muscle
•Pons
Cerebrum Components
Location: above medulla, bridge between cerebrum
• Cerebral Cortex
and cerebellum
Location: surface of cerebrum, composed of gray
Function: breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing
matter
•Midbrain
Function: controls thinking, communicating,
Location: above pons
remembering, understanding, and initiates involuntary
Function: coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter,
movements
turning head toward noise
• Gyri: folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface
•Reticular Formation
area
Location: scattered throughout brainstem
• Sulci: shallow indentations
Function: regulates cyclical motor function,
Fissure: deep indentations
respiration, walking, chewing, arousing and
• Left hemisphere:
maintaining consciousness, regulates sleep-wake cycle
-controls right side of body
-responsible for math, analytic, and speech
Diencephalon
• Right hemisphere:
-controls left side of body
-responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
• Corpus callosum: connection between 2
hemispheres

Lobes of Brain
•Frontal lobe
Location: front
Located between the brainstem and cerebrum
Function: controls voluntary motor functions, Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
aggression, moods, smell • Primary motor cortex:
•Parietal lobe -frontal lobe
Location: top -control voluntary motor movement
Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain, • Premotor area:
pressure, temp., taste -frontal lobe
• Occipital lobe -where motor functions are organized before
Location: back initiation
Function: vision • Prefrontal area: motivation and foresight to plan and
• Temporal lobe initiate
Location: sides movement
Function: hearing, smell, memory
Descending Tracts
Cerebellum • Project from upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex
Location: below cerebrum to lower motor neurons in spinal cord and brainstem
Characteristics: • Control different types of movements
-means little brain
-cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter Basal Nuclei
Functions: controls balance, muscle tone, • Group of functionally related nuclei
coordination of fine motor movement • Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements and
posture
Sensory Functions • Corpus striatum: deep in cerebrum
• CNS constantly receives sensory input • Substantia nigra: in midbrain
• We are unaware of most sensory input
• Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal Speech
functions • Mainly in left hemisphere
• Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
Ascending Tracts -parietal lobe
-pathways in brain and spinal cord -where words are heard and comprehended
-transmit info. via action potentials from • Motor speech (Bronca’s area): - frontal lobe
periphery to brain -where words are formulated
-each tract has limited type of sensory input
(temp, touch, pain, etc.) Brain Waves and Consciousness
-tracts are named that indicated origin and • Used to diagnose and determine treatment of brain
termination disorders
-made of 2-3 neurons in sequence • Electroencephalogram (EEG): electrodes plated on
scalp to record brain’s electrical activity
Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex • Alpha waves: person is awake in quiet state
• Primary sensory areas: • Beta waves: intense mental activity
-where ascending tracts project • Delta waves: deep sleep
-where sensations are perceived • Theta waves: in children
• Primary somatic sensory cortex:
-general sensory area Memory
-in parietal lobe • Encoding:
-sensory input such as pain, pressure, temp.
 -brief retention of sensory input received by -base of cerebellum
brain while something is scanned, evaluated, and -continuous with central canal of spinal cord
acted up
-also called sensory memory Cranial Nerves
-in temporal lobe • 12 pair of cranial nerves
-lasts less than a second • Named by roman numerals
• Consolidated: • 2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
-data that has been encoded
-temporal lobe - short term memory Peripheral Nervous System
• Storage: • Consists of all neurons outside brain and spinal cord
-long term memory • Collects input from different sources, relays input to
-few minutes or permanently (depends on CNS, and performs action
retrieval)
• Retrieval: how often info. is used Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
1. Afferent (Sensory): collects input from
Types of Memory periphery and sends it to CNS
• Short-term memory: 2. Efferent (Motor): carries processed input from
-info. is retained for a few seconds or min. CNS to effector
-bits of info. (usually 7)
• Long-term memory: can last for a few minutes or Divisions of Efferent (Motor)
permanently 1. Autonomic:
• Episodic memory: places or events - response is automatic (involuntary)
• Learning: utilizing past memories - controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
2. Somatic:
Meninges: protective wrapping around brain and - response is voluntary
spinal cord - controls skeletal muscles
infection of meninges (bacterial or viral)
Divisions of Autonomic
Types of Meninges 1. Sympathetic:
•Dura Mater: - superficial - activated during times of stress
-thickest layer - part of fight or flight response
• Arachnoid mater: 2nd layer –prepares you for physical activity by:
• Pia mater: - 3rd layer - ↑ HR
-surface of brain - ↑ BP
•Subarachnoid space: where cerebrospinal fluid sits - ↑ BR
•Epidural space: in vertebral column between dura - sending more blood to skeletal muscles
and vertebra - inhibiting digestive tract
-injection site for epidural anesthesia 2. Parasympathetic:
• Spinal block and spinal tap: in subarachnoid space - “housekeeper”
where cerebrospinal fluid can be removed or - activated under normal conditions
anesthetic inject - involved in digestion, urine production,
-numbs spinal nerves and dilation/constriction of pupils, etc.

Ventricles
• cavities in CNS that contain fluid
• Fourth ventricle: