A single copy of this document is licensed to

Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.

wchmht

On

05/01/2012

This is an uncontrolled copy. Ensure use of the

most current version of the document by searching
the Construction Information Service.
 CI/SfB i (A3u)
July 1996

Specifying Digest
dıgest structural
timber
416

Timber which is used to specified at the design specification for structural

sustain loads in buildings is stage, it is more likely to be timber and provides a
said to be ‘structural’. It supplied and fitted without guide to the fuller
includes joists which trouble and will give better information contained in
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.

support ceilings, floors and
flat roofs, and the rafters
and purlins of traditionally
built pitched roofs. If
timber is correctly
service throughout the life
of the building. This Digest
discusses those aspects
which should be
considered in a
relevant British Standards,
European CEN Standards,
and other documents
(listed on page 8).

There are thousands of different species of tree
but relatively few produce timber for structural
use. The terms ‘hardwood’ and ‘softwood’ are
based on botanical classification and are not
reliable indications of the properties of timbers;
within each group, timber properties may vary
between and within species. Hardwood timber is
obtained from broad-leaved trees, softwood from
coniferous trees. The majority of structural
timber used in the UK is softwood.
For structural use, where appearance is
generally not important, strength properties and
durability are usually the prime consideration
when making the choice of species. In the distant
past, the sizes of structural timbers were
determined by experience and tradition; this
resulted in unnecessarily large, undetermined
safety factors. For some years now, facilitated by
considerable research, timber has been strength
graded to enable the stronger pieces to be
assigned higher strength properties, resulting in
its more efficient and economical use. For much
of the information needed on timber, the designer
has used British Standard Code of practice BS
5268 Structural use of timber. This Code of
practice, which is published in a number of parts,
has now
undergone extensive revision to incorporate the
European CEN standards so that the material
specifications are the same in both BS 5268 and
the alternative European design code, Eurocode
5.
Specifications for structural timber require
clear, concise wording, as indeed they do for any
other material. For many jobs they will be quite
brief. It is important to specify only what can be
reasonably obtained.
A specification for structural timber should state:
● the strength class or combination of timber species
and stress grade,
● the lengths and cross-section sizes of the timbers,
● the surface finish or tolerance class,
● the moisture content of the timber,
● any preservative treatments which are required, and
● any extra requirements related to end use, eg glulam
or trussed rafters.
To reduce the number of clauses in a contract
specification, Standards should be quoted
whenever possible; it is important to ensure that
the number, date and the relevant parts are given
in full. Examples of typical specifications are
given on page 7.
 2

Strength classification
Stress grades
Stress grading is the process by which individual
pieces of sawn structural timber are sorted into
grades to which strength values are assigned for
each species. There are two basic methods of
strength grading:
● visual grading, and
● machine grading.
Visual grading is carried out by visually
assessing each piece against the permissible
defect limits given in a Standard. Machine
grading is achieved by passing each piece of
timber through a computerised grading machine.
Both methods are equally acceptable but the
grading machines give higher yields of higher
grades.
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
the use which will be made of the timber and do
not correspond to the BS 4978 grades.
Machine grading is carried out to BS EN 519
which allows timber to be graded primarily to the
strength classes of BS EN 338 (see below) but
also allows for special purpose grades. In
addition, BS 5268:Part 2 permits the North
American machine-stress-rated (MSR) grades
and gives their strength properties.
Some end-uses for graded timber, eg trussed
rafters or glulam, require tighter limits for certain
timber characteristics such as wane or distortion.
Where this is the case, these limits can be found
in the relevant production or product Standard
and need to be quoted in the timber purchase
specification.
a number of strength classes. Each strength class
has its own set of clearly defined strength
properties (Table 2), and each combination of

The BSI committee responsible for

BS 5268:Part 2 and the National Application
Document for Eurocode 5 decide on the
acceptable British and foreign grades and species
for use in the UK. They have also decided that all
strength grading should be carried out under the
third-party quality control of a certification body
approved by the UK Timber Grading Committee.
The visual grades currently accepted are given
in Table 1. The strength properties for various
species of these grades are given in BS 5268:Part
2 and Eurocode 5.
All strength-graded timber is required to be
marked for identification. Figure 1 shows some
examples of typical marks. A full list of approved
certification bodies can be obtained from the
Timber Trade Federation.
A large proportion of structural timber used in
the UK is imported. Some of the timber from the
Nordic countries is graded at source to the visual Figure 1 Markings on strength-graded timber
grades of BS 4978 or machine graded to BS EN Top: Timber graded by machine to strength class C16.

519. Timber is also imported from North Centre: Timber graded visually to North American rules.

America, visually stress graded to the rules Bottom: Timber graded visually to BS 4978 GS grade.

developed in the USA and Canada. The North

American visual grades are defined in relation to

Table 1 Visual grades

Type of timber Grades Standard Origin of Standard

Softwood SS, GS BS 4978 UK

Joist & Plank
Selects, No 1, No 2 & No 3
Structural Light Framing NLGA orNGRDL Canada
Selects, No 1, No 2 & No 3 USA
Light Framing
Construction, Standard,
Utility, Stud
Tropical hardwood HS BS 5756 UK
Temperate hardwood TH1, TH2, THA, THB BS 5756 UK

Strength classes
Strength-reducing characteristics (such as knots
and sloping grain) within each visual grade, are
specified in a grading Standard. Because the
shape, size, distribution and frequency of knots
as well as the timber density, varies between
species, the strength properties of, say SS grade
of one timber species may not be the same as
those of SS grade of another species. A stress
grade of one timber species is not, therefore,
necessarily interchangeable with the same stress
grade of a different timber species. This makes it
difficult for designers and suppliers to agree
alternatives if the original grade and species
specified becomes unobtainable or more
expensive. Bearing in mind that there are
hundreds of possible combinations of species
and grade, this was not an uncommon
experience, particularly as many designers were
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
3
visual grade and species is assigned to a class on
the basis of its mechanical properties. These
assignments are tabulated in BS 5268:Part 2 and
in Eurocode 5, from which the assignments of
some of the more common grades/species are
shown as an example in Table 3. Using a stress-
grading machine, where settings can be
controlled almost infinitely, it is possible to grade
pieces of timber direct to the strength class
boundaries.
The designer needs to determine only the
stresses and moduli required to satisfy the design
and, using the data in Table 2, specify the
Note
The strength and stiffness of a grade have to be equal to
or greater than the strength class values to which timber
is assigned. Therefore a grade and species can be used
for a strength class purchase specification, but timber
machine graded to a strength class cannot be assumed

not able to keep up-to-date with price to meet a grade/species purchase specification.
fluctuations of timber. To overcome these
problems, BS 5268 introduced a strength class appropriate strength class of timber. If particular
system in 1984 which has now been replaced by a species are not suitable (for example, because of
similar European system which is given in BS lack of durability or joint strength), the
EN 338. specification must list these as exceptions. To
The strength class system divides the strength meet the specification, the timber merchant can
requirements for structural timber into supply any one of the species/grade

Table 2 Mechanical properties for strength classes appropriate to service classes 1 and 2 in BS 5268
Compression
Bending Tension Compression perpendicular to grain* Shear Charac-
parallel parallel parallel Wane Wane parallel Modulus of elasticity teristic Average
Strength to grain to grain to grain prohibited allowed to grain Mean Minimum density† density†
class (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)

C14 4.1 2.5 5.2 2.1 1.6 0.6 6800 4600 290 350
C16 5.3 3.2 6.8 2.2 1.7 0.6 8800 5800 310 370
C18 5.8 3.5 7.1 2.2 1.7 0.6 9100 6000 320 380
C22 6.8 4.1 7.5 2.3 1.7 0.7 9700 6500 340 410
C24 7.5 4.5 7.9 2.4 1.9 0.7 10800 7200 350 420
TR26‡ 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.1 11000 7400 370 450
C27 10.0 6.0 8.2 2.5 2.0 1.1 12300 8200 370 450
C30 11.0 6.6 8.6 2.7 2.2 1.2 12300 8200 380 460
C35 12.0 7.2 8.7 2.9 2.4 1.3 13400 9000 400 480
C40 13.0 7.8 8.7 3.0 2.6 1.4 14500 10000 420 500
D30 9.0 5.4 8.1 2.8 2.2 1.4 9500 6000 530 640
D35 11.0 6.6 8.6 3.4 2.6 1.7 10000 6500 560 670
D40 12.5 7.5 12.6 3.9 3.0 2.0 10800 7500 590 700
D50 16.0 9.6 15.2 4.5 3.5 2.2 15000 12600 650 780
D60 18.0 10.8 18.0 5.2 4.0 2.4 18500 15600 700 840
D70 23.0 13.8 23.0 6.0 4.6 2.6 21000 18000 900 1080
The properties given above are examples only; design values should be taken from a structural code (BS 5268 or Eurocode 5) to ensure the relevant modification factors are used.

The values given above are very different from the characteristic values needed for designing to Eurocode 5, which can be found in BS EN 338.

Strength classes C14 to C40 and TR26 are for softwoods, D30 to D70 are for hardwoods.

* When the specification specifically prohibits wane at bearing areas, the higher values of compression perpendicular to grain stress may be used, otherwise the lower values apply.
†
The values of characteristic density given above are for use when designing joints. For the calculation of dead load, the average density should be used.
‡
The strength class TR26 is essentially for the manufacture of trussed rafters but may be used for other applications with the grade stresses and moduli given above. For joints, the tabulated permissible
loads for strength class C27 should be used. When used with the provisos given in BS 5268:Part 3 the grade stresses are similar to the former M75 redwood/whitewood so timber and trussed rafter
designs to this M75 grade/species combination are interchangeable with timber and trussed rafter designs using the TR26 strength class.
 4

Table 3 Examples of the assignments of four common softwood species to the strength classes
Species Grading Standard C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30

European redwood/ BS 4978 GS SS

whitewood BS EN 519 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
British spruce BS 4978 GS SS
BS EN 519 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
British pine BS 4978 GS SS
BS EN 519 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Canadian S-P-F BS 4978 GS SS
NLGA J&P, SLF No 1, No 2 Sel
NLGA LF Const.
NLGA Stud Stud
MSR 1200f-1.2E 1450f-1.3E 1650f-1.5E 1800f-1.6E 1950f-1.7E 2100f-1.8E
BS EN 519 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Timber graded to BS EN 519 is most commonly graded directly to the strength class boundaries and is marked accordingly, eg ‘C27’

combinations in that strength class, as they are all A specification given under Standard
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.

equivalent. BS EN 336 thus includes the target size and

Strength classes C16, C24 and C27 are likely
to be the most readily available for softwoods.
The tropical hardwood grading Standard
BS 5756 will be republished in 1996 to include
grades for temperate hardwoods. Two grades for
temperate hardwoods, designated THA and
THB, are given for cross-sections having no
dimension less than 100 mm and cross-section
area greater than 20 000 mm2, and two grades,
TH1 and TH2, for smaller sizes. The strength
class assignments of all these grades and species
can be found in BS 5268:Part 2.
Sizes and surface finish
Softwood timber dimensions have to meet the
requirements of the European CEN Standard BS
EN 336 irrespective of whether a design is
carried out to BS 5268 or Eurocode 5. This
Standard refers to all timber dimensions as
‘target’ sizes.
Definition of target size
Target size is defined as the desired size (at 20%
moisture content), and the size to which the permitted
deviations, which would ideally be zero, are to be related.
There are two tolerance classes:
● tolerance class 1, designated T1, is appropriate to
sawn timber, and
● tolerance class 2, designated T2, is appropriate to
planed timber.
permitted deviations, but not the basic sawn size.
Much confusion has been caused with a previous
Standard when, for example, specifiers asked for
47 × 100 mm planed timber. The supplier did not
know whether the requirement was for:
a) planed timber with finished dimensions of 47
× 100 mm, or
b) sawn timber of 47 × 100 mm planed down to
44 × 97 mm.
Under the new BS EN 336 the specifier would
simply ask for 47 mm (T2) × 100 mm (T2), and
the requirement is clear.
For softwood timber, both the length and cross-
sectional sizes should be chosen from the range
of customary lengths and sizes given in the
national annex of BS EN 336; these are expected
to be readily available from the supplier.
Specifying other cross-sections may cause
supply difficulties and incur cost penalties.
Planing is the machine process by which the
thickness or the width of a piece of timber of
rectangular cross-section, or both, is made
uniform throughout its length, and a smooth
finish is achieved.
Regularising, which is now a redundant term,
is the process by which every piece of a batch of
constructional timber is sawn and/or machined to
a uniform width to enable a more even final
product to be obtained, eg floors. To achieve the
same result a designer now simply specifies 47
mm (T1) × 195 mm (T2): this indicates that the
47 mm dimension is sawn and the 195 mm
dimension is machined to the tighter permitted
deviations.

Moisture content
The moisture content of timber is defined as the
amount of water in the timber expressed as a
percentage of its oven-dry mass. In timber yards
and on building sites, moisture content is
commonly measured using an electrical
resistance moisture meter. These meters must be
regularly calibrated.
When first felled, timber contains a great deal
of water. Since most timber is used in relatively
dry situations it will lose water to the
surrounding air. It must therefore be dried before
use or it will shrink and may distort in service.
Drying is important for several other reasons:
most of the strength properties of timber improve
when it is dried, it is less susceptible to
discoloration and to attack by fungi, it machines
and accepts finishes better, and stronger
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
conventionally glued joints can be obtained.
Although sawn timber can be partially dried
by stacking it for several months under cover, it
is more normally dried in a kiln which, with
many commonly used species, reduces drying
time to a few days and enables the timber to be
dried more precisely to the moisture content
required. Even though dried to a given moisture
content, timber may still lose water to the
atmosphere or absorb it again in response to
changes in temperature and humidity,
contracting and expanding as it does so.
This movement cannot be prevented but it can
be minimised by drying the timber so that it will
be approximately in equilibrium with the
expected conditions of service. For structural
timber the moisture content in service is likely to
be between 12 and 20 %, depending on its service
environment (Table 4). Because the strength of
timber is influenced by its moisture content, it is
important to carry out design calculations using
data corresponding to the highest moisture
content the timber is likely to attain in service.
Table 4 Moisture contents of timber related to service classes
Average moisture content
likely to be attained
Service Examples of end-use in service conditions
class of timber in building (%)
3 External uses fully exposed 20 and above
2 Covered and generally unheated 18
Covered and generally heated 15
1 Internal in continuously heated building 12
5
BS 5268:Part 2 and Eurocode 5 define three
conditions which are termed service classes (see
Box below).
The mechanical properties tabulated in
BS 5268:Part 2 and BS EN 338 are for service
classes 1 and 2. If the timber is to be used in
service class 3, factors are applied which are
given in BS 5268:Part 2 and Eurocode 5.
It is essential that timber supplied for use in
service classes 1 and 2 is adequately protected
from the weather when on site.
Definition of service classes
● Service class 1 is characterised by a moisture
content in the materials corresponding to a
temperature of 20 °C and the relative humidity of the
surrounding air only exceeding 65% for a few weeks
per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will
attain an average moisture content not exceeding
12%.
● Service class 2 is characterised by a moisture
content in the materials corresponding to a
temperature of 20 °C and the relative humidity of the
surrounding air only exceeding 85% for a few weeks
per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will
attain an average moisture content not exceeding
20%.
● Service class 3 is for timber which will be subjected
to climatic conditions leading to higher moisture
content than in service class 2.
Moisture content which
should not be exceeded in
individual pieces at time of
erection (%)
—
24
20
20
 6
Preservative treatments
Fungal attack
Because of the possibility of fungal decay, it is
important to consider the risk of wetting in
service, particularly for those timber components
at or below the damp-proof course. In general, it
is important that buildings are designed to
prevent the timber in them from becoming damp
either through the penetration of liquid water
from outside or the condensation of water vapour
produced inside. For example, timber used for
joists and boards in flat roofs will be kept dry
only if the roof has been correctly designed and
constructed, if the waterproof layer remains
intact and, if appropriate, the roof is properly
ventilated.
Wood that remains dry (ie below about 20%
moisture content) will not rot and so natural
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
Attack by wood-boring insects
Treatment against the specific risk of attack by
wood-boring insects should also be considered.
Attack can occur in both dry and damp
conditions and the sapwood of all timbers is
vulnerable; roof timbers and floors are the
commonest sites of attack. The risk of attack
from the common furniture beetle, Anobium
punctatum, is generally small and recommended
treatments are optional. However, the risk of
attack by the house longhorn beetle, Hylotrupes
bajulus, is significant in certain areas of southern
England defined in the Building Regulations (see
Approved Document to support Regulation 7,
Paragraph 1.9). In these areas softwood timber
used for roof construction or fixed in the roof
space, including ceiling joists within the void
spaces of the roof, should be adequately treated
with a suitable preservative to prevent

durability or preservative treatment against infestation. BS 5268:Part 5 addresses this

fungal decay is not an issue. However, even when requirement and provides recommendations on
care is taken in design, it is important to consider suitable treatments.
the risk of wetting in service. If this is significant,
the use of naturally durable timber or the Many preservative formulations provide
application of an appropriate wood preservative protection against both fungal and insect attack.
should be considered. BS 5268:Part 5 gives guidance on this and also
The heartwood of some timbers will have makes reference to the ancillary effects of wood
sufficient natural durability to be used untreated preservatives on timber strength and
but the sapwood of all timber is susceptible to rot compatibility with other materials such as
unless treated, and as such is said to be perishable metals, glues and finishes.
or non-durable. The softwood timbers commonly
used in building (redwood, whitewood, S-P-F,
hem-fir, British spruce and British pine)
invariably contain large proportions of sapwood.
Whenever there is a risk of these timbers being
wetted for more than short periods of time, the
design must specify that protection is given by
preservative treatment. BS 5268:Part 5 provides
guidance on assessing the risks of fungal decay in
various building situations and makes
recommendations on suitable preservative
treatments for different timber components; it
provides information on the natural durability of
different timbers and refers to other British
Standards which give details of the preferred
preservative treatments.

Finger joints in structural timber
Short pieces of timber can be joined by finger
joints to produce longer lengths for some
structural purposes. A number of similarly
tapered symmetrical fingers are machined in the
ends of the timber, spread with glue and
interlocked under axial pressure (Figure 2). If
finger-jointed timber is to be used, it is essential
that the structure is designed in accordance with
BS 5268:Part 2 or Eurocode 5. Finger joints
should have characteristic bending strengths
which are not less than the characteristic bending
strength of the strength class for the timber being
jointed, when tested in accordance with BS EN
385. Alternatively for BS 5268:Part 2, finger
joints should have bending efficiency ratings
(regardless of the type of loading) equal to or
greater than the values given in that code of
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
practice.
Finger joints must be correctly made. The
specification should state that any jointed
material is to be produced in accordance with BS
EN 385; this contains recommendations for the
manufacture of finger joints in structural
softwood and the method of determining its
strength.
Finger joints should not be used in principal
members, or other members acting alone, where
failure of a single joint could lead to collapse,
except where the joints have been manufactured
under a third-party quality-control scheme.
Figure 2 Finger-jointed structural timber
7
Example specifications for
structural timber
Although dry-graded timber is required for
service classes 1 and 2 in both BS 5268:Part 2
and Eurocode 5, BS 4978 is the only grading
Standard which currently satisfies that
requirement. Therefore specifications for other
grades or for strength classes need to stipulate the
moisture content.
If the timber is required for a special end-use,
eg trussed rafters or glulam, then the tighter
limits should be added to take account of
distortion, etc.
Example 1
Softwood graded to C16 of BS EN 338 according to
BS 5268:Part 2.
Target size 50 (T1) x 150 (T1) x 3500 mm to BS EN 336.
Average moisture content at time of grading and delivery
to be 18% with no piece greater than 24%.
Example 2
Softwood graded to C16 of BS EN 338 according to BS
5268:Part 2.
Target size 50 (T1) x 147 (T2) x 3500 mm to BS EN 336.
Average moisture content at time of grading and delivery
to be 18% with no piece greater than 24%.
(This example is equivalent to what was previously known
as ‘regularised’ timber)
Example 3
Dry European redwood graded to BS 4978 GS grade.
Target size 50 (T1) x 150 (T1) x 3500 mm to BS EN 336.
 8
Building Research Establishment
Further reading and information Other BRE Digests
British Standards Institution 194 The use of elm timber
BS 4978: 1996 Visual strength grading of softwood 296 Timbers: their natural durability and resistance to
BS 5268:– Structural use of timber preservative treatment
Part 2: 1996 Code of practice for permissible stress 299 Dry rot: its recognition and cure
design, materials and workmanship 307 Identifying damage by wood-boring insects
Part 3: 1985 Code of practice for trussed rafter roofs 327 Insecticidal treatments against wood-boring
Part 4:– Fire resistance of timber structures insects
Section 4.1 Recommendations for calculating fire 345 Wet rots: recognition and control
resistance of timber members 371 Remedial wood preservatives: use them safely
Section 4.2 Recommendations for calculating fire 378 Wood preservatives: application methods
resistance of timber stud walls and joisted floor 393 Specifying preservative treatments: the new
constructions European approach
Part 5: Code of practice for the preservative treatment 407 Timber for joinery
of structural timber
Part 6:– Code of practice for timber frame walls
Section 6.1 Dwellings not exceeding three storeys
Section 6.2 Buildings other than dwellings
Part 7: Recommendations for the calculation basis for
span tables
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 05/01/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.

BS 5756: 1996 Visual strength grading of hardwood

BS EN 336: Structural timber – Coniferous and poplar –

Sizes – Permissible deviations
BS EN 338: Structural timber – Strength classes
BS EN 385: Finger jointed structural timber –
Performance requirements and minimum production
requirements
BS EN 519: Structural timber – Grading – Requirements
for machine strength graded timber and grading machines

DD ENV1995-1-1:1994 Eurocode 5: Design of timber

structures
Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings

Timber Trade Federation

Clareville House
26/27 Oxendon Street
London SW1Y 4EL
Telephone 0171 839 1891
Fax 0171 930 0094

Technical enquiries to: Digests Construction Research Full details of all recent Published by Applications to copy all or
BRE Advisory Service Good Building Guides Communications Ltd, issues of BRE publications Construction Research any part of this publication
Garston, Watford, Information Papers 151 Rosebery Avenue are given in BRE News, Communications Ltd by should be made to
WD2 7JR are available on London, EC1R 4QX sent free to subscribers. permission of the Controller Construction Research
Telephone 01923 664664 subscription. For current Telephone 0171 505 6622 of HMSO and the Building Communications Ltd,
Facsimile 01923 664098 prices please contact: Facsimile 0171 505 6606 © Crown copyright 1996 Research Establishment PO Box 202, Watford,
ISBN 1 86081 100 0 Herts, WD2 7QG