Christianity

Origins and Beliefs

• began as a sect of Judaism in the eastern Mediterranean region encompassing most of the
Roman province of Judaea and region of Galilee.
• religion attributed to the belief and worship of Jesus of Nazareth as:
1. Son of God
2. Messiah
• Jesus as Son of God
• denotes that Jesus is a divine being, son of the Biblical God who took human form
(flesh)
• Jesus as Messiah
• denotes that Jesus is the “anointed one by God” (Christos or Messiah)
• prophesied in the Bible physically descended from the line of King David
• prophesied to rule the people of the united tribes of Israel and herald an age of peace
and prosperity
• Divine Origins of Jesus
• Virgin Birth
• that Jesus was conceived by Mary from Nazareth while remaining a virgin
• Annunciation
• announcement by the Archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would give birth
through divine intervention
• ARCHANGEL GABRIEL: “Hail Mary, full of grace! The Lord is with
Thee! Blessed art Thou among women!”
• MARY: “Behold the handmaid of the Lord! Be it done to me according to
thy word!”
• Historical Origins
• Nativity
• Jesus was born in Judaea (province of the Roman Empire)
• Jesus was born in Bethlehem in 0 CE
• Bethlehem
• CHURCH OF THE NATIVITY: site where Jesus Christ was born
• Jesus was born in a manger
• Wise Men/Kings from the East witnessed the birth of Jesus
• raised in Nazareth from 0-33 CE
• Life in Nazareth: as the son of a carpenter
• Ministry
• start: baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist at the Jordan River
• center: in Galilee
• north of Judaea
• along the Sea of Galilee
• Apostles: Galileans whom Jesus invited to join him in his ministry
o Peter o James the Lesser
o Bartholomew o Thaddeus
o Andrew o John
o Matthew o Simon
o James the Greater o Philip
o Thomas o Judas
• Methods:
• preaching
• teaching
• healing
• Preaching:
• Message: “repentance” for the kingdom of God is at hand
• Teaching
• Message: general ethics (Beatitudes delivered at the Sermon on the Mount)
• Beatitudes:
• Blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
• Blessed are those who mourn for they will be comforted.
• Blessed are those who hunger and thirst after righteousness for they
will be filled.
• Blessed are those are persecuted for seeking righteousness for theirs
is the kingdom of heaven.
• Blessed are the meek for they will inherit the earth.
• Blessed are the merciful for they will obtain mercy
• Blessed are the pure of heart for they will see God.
• Blessed are the peacemakers for they will be called the children of
God.
• Commandments
• 1-5: 0ne should love God with one's heart, soul, mind, and strength
• 5-10: one should love one's neighbor as one would love oneself
• Manner of Preaching and Teaching
• Parable: story that illustrates a lesson
• Parable of the Prodigal Son
 Lesson: forgiveness
• Parable of the Good Samaritan
 Lesson: help those in need regardless of race,
religion, etc.
• Healing
• removal of sickness and disease
• Manner of Healing:
• making the blind see
• cleansing the leper
• making the lame walk
• raising the dead to life
• Beliefs
• Apostles’ Creed: statement of belief in Christianity
• Creed: often recited as part of a religious service
• Basic Beliefs:
• Trinity: that there are three persons in one God --- God the
Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Holy Spirit
• Death of Jesus Christ: He was conceived by the power of
the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. He suffered
under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. He
descended to the dead.”
• Church of the Holy Sepulchre: where Jesus Christ was buried
• Basic Beliefs:
• Resurrection of jesus christ: On the third day he rose again.
He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the
Father. He will come again to judge the living and the dead. “
• The holiness of the church: that there is but one, holy,
catholic and apostolic Church
 • Communion of saints: that there is a spiritual union of all
members of the Church living and the dead, those on earth,
in heaven, and those also
who are in that state of purification, all of them being part of
a single "mystical body” with Christ as the head.
• Second coming of jesus christ, day of judgment,
resurrection of the dead: that the final judgment by God of
all men will take place after the resurrection of the dead and
the Second Coming of Christ,
Christian Expansion
• spread from Jerusalem throughout the Roman Empire
• Apostles: heeded the message of Jesus to “Go therefore and teach all nations” --- traveling to
all parts of the known world to spread Christianity
• 33-325 CE: “Apostolic Age”
• PETER: Rome • PHILIP: Phrygia, Asia
• ANDREW: Byzantium Minor
• JAMES: Jerusalem, Spain • BARTHOLOMEW:
• JOHN: Ephesus Armenia
• JAMES THE LESS: • THOMAS: Chaldea
Jerusalem • Thaddeus: Armenia
• MATTHEW: Antioch
• St. Paul:
• originally called Saul (from Tarsus) who persecuted Christians but converted to
Christianity
• Conversion: while going to Damascus, Saul was struck from his horse by a great
light and a voice asked, "Why do you persecute me?"
• Saul asked who spoke. Christ identified himself with his Church: "I am Jesus whom
you are persecuting. “
• Writing epistles to:
• Romans • Thessalonians
• Corinthians • Colossians
• Galatians • Hebrews
• Philippians
• Epistle: Letter
• passionately spread the Christian faith. Result: spread the Christian faith in the
Roman Empire
• Early centers of christianity:
• Rome
• Corinth
• Galatia
• Philippi
• Thessalonika
• Colossia
• Response of the Roman Empire:
• Initial response: viewed Christianity as a Jewish sect rather than
a distinct religion (practiced only in Judaea)
• Later response: imposed persecution because of refusal of Christians:
• to worship Roman gods
• to pay homage to the emperor as divine
• Roman Mythology:
• belief in a body of gods pertaining to ancient Rome's legendary origins and religious system
derived from the Greeks
• Jupiter: greatest of the gods
• Juno: wife of Jupiter
• Neptune: god of the sea
• Minerva: goddess of victory
• Mars: god of war
• Apollo: god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; medicine, healing, and plague; music,
poetry, and the arts
• Venus: goddess of love, beauty and fertility
• Diana: goddess of the hunt and the moon
• Vulcan: god of fire
• Vesta: goddess of the hearth, home and family
• Mercury: messenger of the gods
• Ceres: goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships
• Imperial Cult:
• grant of divine authority to Roman emperors
• developed during the time of Octavian when the Senate granted
him the honorific of Augustus
• Persecution of Christians:
• Imprisonment: St. Paul
• Beheading: St. Paul, St. Cyprian, St. James (Apostle)
• Crucifixion: St. Peter, St. Philip (Apostle), St. Andrew (Apostle)
• Fed to lions: St. Ignatius of Antioch
• Stoning to death: St. Stephen
• Hanging: St. Luke (Evangelist)
• Response of Christians: hiding in the catacombs (tunnels) of Rome
• Strength and Resilience of Christianity:
• Rise of Christianity: despite the many persecutions suffered by the Christians
• Factors for the Rise of Christianity:
• Teachings: preached goodness and kindness to one’s fellowmen (appealed to the Gentiles or
non-Jews)
• Scripture: compilation of liturgical canon called New Testament based on Jesus Christ (different
from the Old Testament)
• New Testament:
• consisted of the Gospels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John
• consisted of the epistles (“letters”) of St. Paul
• Epistles of St. Paul
• Corinthians (Corinth)
• Romans (Rome)
• Ephesians (Ephesus)
• Galatians (Galatia)
• Thessalonians (Thessalonica)
• Colossians (Colossia)
• Philippians (Philippi)
 • Hierarchy: appointment of bishops, elders and deacons as spiritual authorities over
geographical areas
• Rituals:
• sacraments: external and physical signs/practices designed to give grace, blessing or
sanctity
• baptism
• confirmation
• eucharist
• penance
• matrimony
• extreme unction
• holy orders
• Prayer: Christian tradition of communicating with God to bring the faithful closer to God
• The Lord’s Prayer
• Seasonal Prayers (Advent)
• Seasonal Prayers (Lent)
• Hymns: rendering of prayer into song
• Gloria in Excelsis Deo
• Genuflection (kneeling): physical gestures to accompany certain rituals
• Sign of the cross: physical gestures to accompany certain rituals
• Weekly gathering: holy mass
• reenactment of Jesus Christ’s Last Supper
• Language: the Hebrew text of the New Testament was translated to Greek which was widely
spoken in the Mediterranean region
• Holy days:
• Sunday was made a festival in honor of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
• Sunday religious services were held
• regarded as a day of recreation
• Architecture: construction of churches
• Basilica Church:
• rectangular in shape
• had a high central section called nave
• with a large dome
• Dome: structural element in architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a
sphere
• Significance: followed two Roman architectural traditions:
• basilica
• dome
• St. Peter’s Basilica: Rome
• Early Christian Art
• Theme: intense passion for Christianity
• Subject matter:
• Religious: due to pious nature of society
• Characteristics: favored a symbolic approach
• Fresco: oil painting on walls
• Icon: painted image of sacred figures
• Relief: raised/embossed images

Early Christian Art

• up to about 525CE
• Significance: did not produce as much art
 • Reasons:
• vulnerable to persecution (lived in fear)
• lacked funds (came mostly from the lower classes)
• influenced by Old testament restrictions not to produce images made of wood or stone
• Features: used the same artistic media as the current pagan culture around
• Location:
• Caves - necessary to be hidden from Roman authorities
• Ecclesia - houses where early Christians met to celebrate mass
• Early Christian Iconography: refers to the identification, description, and interpretation of images: and symbols
• Latin cross: shape of the structure upon which Jesus Christ was crucified
• Fish: symbol used by early Christians to identify themselves as followers of Jesus Christ and to express
their affinity to Christianity
• Dove: represents the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost in Christianity which descended upon Jesus like a dove
when he was baptized in the Jordan River.
• Crown of thorns: which Jesus wore before his crucifixion bear the sins of the world:
• Trinity: represents the belief that God is one Being made up of three distinct Persons who exist in co-
equal, co-eternal communion as the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
• Candle/flame: represents light as when Jesus spoke to the people, saying, "I am the light of the world.
Whoever follows me will never walk in darkness, but will have the light of life."
• Bread and wine: represent the Lord's Supper or Communion
• Lamb: represents Jesus Christ, the perfect, sinless sacrifice offered by God to atone for the sins of man

Early Christian Architecture

• Significance: prospered after the issuance of the Edict of Milan in 313 CE
• Edict of Milan: issued by Constantine (Western Roman Emperor) and Licinius (Eastern Roman Emperor)
• Significance:
• gave Christianity a legal status
• made use of the “Roman basilica” as the principal model for the building designated for Christian
worship
• Impact: created a need to build larger and grander public buildings for worship
• Early Christian Basilica:
• had a center nave with one aisle at each side, and an apse at one end opposite to the main door at the other
• in front of the apse was a raised platform where the altar was placed and the clergy officiated
• allowed natural light to enter through windows high in the walls

Islam – Founding

 Founder: Muhammad
 Muhammad:
o born into a minor branch of a powerful family in Mecca (Quraysh)
o Mecca: located in the Hejaz region in Arabia (located in Western Arabia)
o Early Life:
 orphaned at the age of 6
 raised by his grandfather and uncle
 received little schooling (probably never learned to read or write)
o saw a vision while meditating in a cave outside of Mecca --- the appearance of the angel Gabriel
o was commanded by the angel Gabriel to begin preaching about Allah (God)
 Hegira: denotes the event (in 622 CE) marking the escape of Muhammad from Mecca to Yathrib (north of
Mecca)
 Yathrib:
 o where Muhammad attracted many devoted followers
o where Muhammad won great political influence:
 the people accepted Muhammad as their leader and king
 Muhammad established all laws and settled all disputes
o where Islam began to flourish:
 Muhammad taught the people that they owed their loyalty first to Islam, second to their families,
and only thirdly to their own tribes
 Muhammad taught the people to be united the people under his rule and authority
o renamed “Madinah” which means “City of the Prophet”
 Mecca: Conquest
o occurred in 630 CE with the return of Muhammad
o marked by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the leader of the Quraysh in Mecca, conceding defeat to Muhammad
and his followers and accepting Islam
o marked by the destruction of idols in the Kaaba
 Sacred scripture: Qur’an - means “recitation” of divine revelation to Muhammad
o Importance: constitutes the direct, literal word of God who revealed to Muhammad who in turn uttered
them at God’s bidding
o arranged in “suras” (verses)
 Teachings: consists of five duties. also known as the “Five Pillars of Islam”
o SHAHADA: profession of faith
 “There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah”
 to believe in the Prophet and in whatever he said
 to obey him in whatever he commanded
 to stay away from or avoid whatever he commanded Muslims not to do
 to follow or emulate him in worship, manners, and way of life
 to love him more than loving one’s self, family and anything else in the world
 to understand, practice, and promote his habits in the best way possible, without creating any
chaos, enmity or harm
o SALAT: daily prayer
 constitutes a ritual prayer:
 prescribed conditions
o in a ritually clean environment
o wearing clean clothes with the body covered in reasonably loose-fitting garments
o performance of ablution before conducting prayers
 prescribed procedure
o recitation of prayer in properly pronounced Arabic
o standing upright
o raising the hands up to the level of the shoulders, or earlobes with the fingers
slightly apart
 prescribed times
o dawn to sunrise
o noon
o afternoon
o after sunset
o until dusk
o dusk until dawn
 Aim: to communicate with Allah (God)
 Prostration
 Attire:
  Men:
o ankle-length tunic with slacks
o head covering
 Women:
o long flowing gown
o called hijab
o SAWM: fasting during Ramadan
 refraining from eating, drinking and having sexual relations from dawn until sunset during the
month of Ramadan
 AIMS:
 to teach Muslims about patience and humility
 to seek nearness to Allah
 to increase one’s spirituality and piety
 END: ending the fast through ritual eating
 Eid ul Fitr: holiday marking the end of fasting
o ZAKAT: almsgiving
 giving surplus wealth, usually 2.5% of one's possessions to charity (to the poor and needy)
 payable in any of the following:
 agricultural produce
 gold or silver
 gold or silver ornaments
 cash
 trading goods
 cows and buffaloes
 goats and sheep
 camels
o HAJ: pilgrimage to Mecca
 must be carried out at least once in the lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to
do so
 Aim: to demonstrate the solidarity of the Muslim people and their submission to Allah

ISLAM-EXPANSION
The Road to Expansion
- 622-633
o ARABIA:
 Western part of Arabia (Hejaz, Yemen)
 Eastern tip of Arabia (Oman)
- 632-661
o Added by the first four caliphs
 West (Egypt, Libya)
 North (Judaea, Syria, Cyprus, Armenia, Iraq)
 East (Eastern Arabia, Iran)
- 661-750
o Added by Umayyad Caliphate
 West (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain)
 East (Afghanistan, Northwestern India)
Expansion of Islam
- Impact:
o Conquest of great ancient empires
 Spain (Visigoths)
 Libya (Carthaginians)
 Egypt (Pharaohs and Ptolemy)
 Judaea (Jews and Christians)
 Iraq (Babylonians)
 Iran (Persians)
 Northwestern India (Indo-Aryans)
- Significance:
o Accomplished with blinding speed (622-750)
o Able to defeat ancient empires (in Africa, Europe, and Asia)
Factors for Expansion of Islam
- Passion for the Islamic Faith
o Significance: empire built on faith
- Teaching by the Qu’ran that wars fought for Allah were just
o Significance: warriors killed in a holy war (jihad) were promised immediate entry to paradise
- Eagerness to move into more bountiful lands (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia)
o Significance: promise of abundant harvest in fertile lands
- Weak resistance coming from enemies (like the Byzantine and Persian Empires)
o Significance: built by faith-driven Islamic rights
Caliphate Rule
- Caliph: refers to the leader who followed Muhammad
- Orthodox Caliphate (632-661)
o Refers to the first four caliphs
o Knew Muhammad personally (were either friends or relatives)
o SIGNIFICANCE: launched Islam’s wars of conquest
o First four Caliphs:
 Abu Bakr: ordered the writing of the Qur’an
 Omar: regarded as Islam’s greatest conqueror (acquired Syria, Egypt, and Persia)
 Uthman
 Ali
- Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)
o continued the wars of conquest
 North Africa
 Spain
 Central Asia
 Indus River Valley
o SIGNIFICANCE: extended the Islamic Empire to over 5,000 miles
- Abbasid Caliphate (750-1055)
o ORIGINS:
 descended from the Abbas (uncle of Muhammad)
 called themselves Abbasid (to show link with Muhammad)
o found greatest support from the Persians
o SIGNIFICANCE: period when the Islamic Empire reached the height of its power and prosperity (during
the reign of Harun al-Rashid from 786-809)
Expansion of Islam: TURKEY
- Turkey
o SIGNIFICANCE: home of Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman Empire:
o SIGNIFICANCE: heir of the Islamic Empire
- Ottomans:
o ORIGINS:
 began in a principality in northwestern Anatolia (Turkey)
 founded in 1299
- Ottoman Principality:
o Location: along productive agricultural lands
o Founder: Osman I
o SIGNIFICANCE:
 able to attract soldiers/fighters
 organized army
- Ottoman Turks
o SIGNIFICANCE: laid siege to the city of Constantinople in 1453
- Constantinople
o SIGNIFICANCE: capital city of Byzantine Empire
- Ottoman Empire
o Territory:
 Anatolia (Turkey)
 Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Israel)
 Balkan Peninsula
 Mesopotamia
 Arabia
 Egypt
 Tunisia
 Algeria
 Morocco
o SIGNIFICANCE:
 embraced three continents
 Asia
 Europe
 Africa
 Ruled over a large territory made up of peoples of different ethnicity, religion and political
orientation
 Construction of great architectural monuments along the Ottoman Style
 Suleymaniye Mosque (built from 1550 to 1558)
o Location: Istanbul
o Design: 4 minarets
 Selimiye Mosque (built from 1569 to 1575)
o Location: Edrine
o Design: 4 minarets; grand dome
 Sultanahmet Mosque (built from 1609 to 1616 during the rule of Ahmed I)
o Location: Istanbul
o Significance: also known as the Blue Mosque
o Design: 5 principal domes; 8 secondary domes; 6 minarets
o Military Success:
 due to a strong army
 due to adoption of weapons using gunpowder
o Political Success:
 Due to stable, powerful, centralized state
 
- Topkapi Palace
o SIGNIFICANCE: residence of the Ottoman Emperor
o Location: located in Constantinople (Istanbul)
Expansion of Islam: SPAIN
- Spread to a large part of the Iberian Peninsula
- Al-Andalus
o Significance: refers to the part of the Iberian Peninsula conquered by the Muslims
 Islamic Cities:
 Cordoba
o Location: Southern Spain
o Great Mosque of Cordoba: originally basilica
 784: converted nto a mosque
 Seville
 Granada
o Location: Southern Spain
- Alhambra Palace
o Originally a Roman fortress
o 1333: rebuilt into an Islamic palace
Expansion of Islam: LEVANT
- Levant
o Location: located on the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea
o Countries:
 Syria
 Cities: both cities have an estimated 50,000-100,000 population
o Damascus
o Aleppo
 Palestine
 Cities: Jerusalem
 Lebanon
 Jordan
Expansion of Islam: EGYPT
- Egypt:
o Location: located at the Eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea
o Cities: Cairo (estimated 250,000 population)
Expansion of Islam: NORTHERN AFRICA
- Northern Africa: also known as Maghreb
o Countries:
 Libya
 Algeria
 Tunisia
 Morocco
o Cities:
 Tunis (50,000-100,000 population)
 Algiers: defense against Spanish expansion into North Africa
 Marrakesh (Morocco)
 Fez (Morocco)
Expansion of Islam: INDIA
- Mughal/Mogul
o Significance: refers to the Muslim empire established in India
- Mughal Empire (1526)
o Mughal Emperors:
 Babur (1483-1531)
 Humayun (1508-1556)
 Akbar (1542-1605)
 Jahangir (1569-1627)
 Shah Jahan (1592-1666)
 Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
o Jama Masjid: Delhi
o Makkah Masjid: Hyderabad

Islam - Architecture
Mosque
 Religious purpose: place of worship
 also called “masjid” which means a place of prostration
 Parts:
o dome
 large circular/spherical roof
o minaret
 tall, slender towers where call to prayer is announced
o prayer hall
 large open space in the interior where devotees congregated
o mihrab
 semicircular niche in the interior wall that indicates the direction of the Kaa'ba in Mecca
 Jeddah (Saudi Arabia)
 Medina (Saudi Arabia)
 Riyadh (Saudi Arabia)
 Masjid al Haram
o Location: Mecca (Saudi Arabia)
 Masjid al Nabawi
o Location: Medina (Saudi Arabia)
 Dome of the Rock
o Location: Jerusalem

Fort
o Military purpose: place of refuge against attack by enemies
o also known as citadel or fortress (Delhi, India)
o built for the city’s defenses (Agra, India)
o called alcazar in Spain (Toledo, Spain)

Houses
 Residential: place of habitation
 Residential Quarters (average family)
o located in an alley off the main street
 o entrance to the house is through a door
o made of iron or wood
o decorated with a surround of sculpted stone above
o the door leads to a central courtyard
o normally, there is a fountain at the central courtyard
o central courtyard opens to a number of rooms
o ceilings of main rooms are brick vaults (to prevent humidity)
o devices in ceilings allowed ventilation and circulation of air
o walls, doors and ceilings were plastered and decorated
o windows had wooden shutters
o mattresses and pillows scattered on the floor or placed on wooden or stone bases served as beds

Bazaar
 Economic purpose: place of trade and commerce
 a permanent marketplace (usually covered)

Souq/Suq
 an informal market, usually found in city streets

Architectural Style
 arose from localized adaptations due to the expansion of Islam in different areas of Asia, Africa and Europe

Ottoman Architecture
 Feature:
o adapted the basilica churches of the Byzantine Empire
o continued the Byzantine-style of building vast inner spaces under seemingly weightless yet massive
domes

Moorish Architecture
 refers to the Arab-Islamic architecture in Spain
 Feature:
o characterized by open and breezy interior spaces
o walls are decorated with arabesque (repeating geometric figures) design work

Persian Architecture
 introduced innovations in dome construction
 Feature:
o used colorful tiles to cover the interior of domes
o used colorful tiles to cover the exterior of domes

Mughal Architecture
 mixture of Islamic, Persian and Indian architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries
(Babur, Humayun, Akbar)
 developed in present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh
 Feature:
o described to be symmetrical and decorative in style
  Example:
o mosque
 Jama Masjid (Delhi, India)
o palace
 Fatehpur Sikri Palace (Agra, India)
o fortress
 Red Fort (Delhi, India)
o tomb
 Taj Mahal (Agra, India)
o garden
 Shalimar Garden (Lahore, Pakistan)

Islam - Art
Mosque
 Religious purpose: place of worship
 also called “masjid” which means a place of prostration
 Parts:
o dome
 large circular/spherical roof
o minaret
 tall, slender towers where call to prayer is announced
o prayer hall
 large open space in the interior where devotees congregated
o mihrab
 semicircular niche in the interior wall that indicates the direction of the Kaa'ba in Mecca
 Jeddah (Saudi Arabia)
 Medina (Saudi Arabia)
 Riyadh (Saudi Arabia)
 Masjid al Haram
o Location: Mecca (Saudi Arabia)
 Masjid al Nabawi
o Location: Medina (Saudi Arabia)
 Dome of the Rock
o Location: Jerusalem

Fort
o Military purpose: place of refuge against attack by enemies
o also known as citadel or fortress (Delhi, India)
o built for the city’s defenses (Agra, India)
o called alcazar in Spain (Toledo, Spain)

Houses
 Residential: place of habitation
 Residential Quarters (average family)
o located in an alley off the main street
o entrance to the house is through a door
 o made of iron or wood
o decorated with a surround of sculpted stone above
o the door leads to a central courtyard
o normally, there is a fountain at the central courtyard
o central courtyard opens to a number of rooms
o ceilings of main rooms are brick vaults (to prevent humidity)
o devices in ceilings allowed ventilation and circulation of air
o walls, doors and ceilings were plastered and decorated
o windows had wooden shutters
o mattresses and pillows scattered on the floor or placed on wooden or stone bases served as beds

Bazaar
 Economic purpose: place of trade and commerce
 a permanent marketplace (usually covered)

Souq/Suq
 an informal market, usually found in city streets

Architectural Style
 arose from localized adaptations due to the expansion of Islam in different areas of Asia, Africa and Europe

Ottoman Architecture
 Feature:
o adapted the basilica churches of the Byzantine Empire
o continued the Byzantine-style of building vast inner spaces under seemingly weightless yet massive
domes

Moorish Architecture
 refers to the Arab-Islamic architecture in Spain
 Feature:
o characterized by open and breezy interior spaces
o walls are decorated with arabesque (repeating geometric figures) design work

Persian Architecture
 introduced innovations in dome construction
 Feature:
o used colorful tiles to cover the interior of domes
o used colorful tiles to cover the exterior of domes

Mughal Architecture
 mixture of Islamic, Persian and Indian architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries
(Babur, Humayun, Akbar)
 developed in present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh
 Feature:
o described to be symmetrical and decorative in style
 Example:
 o mosque
 Jama Masjid (Delhi, India)
o palace
 Fatehpur Sikri Palace (Agra, India)
o fortress
 Red Fort (Delhi, India)
o tomb
 Taj Mahal (Agra, India)
o garden
 Shalimar Garden (Lahore, Pakistan)

Islam – Science and Medicine

Islam
 Significance:
o made possible the development of science
 Factor:
 requirements of Islamic duties (prayers)
o Salat: Daily Prayer
 Prescribed times:
1. dawn to sunrise
2. noon
3. afternoon
4. after sunset until dusk
5. dusk until dawn
 Significance: requires knowledge of exact time of day and night
 Muslims: heirs of the knowledge of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)

Muslim Scientists/Scholars
 Significance: studied the works of Aristotle, Archimedes, Galen, Ptolemy, Euclid, and others
 Origins:
o come from diverse ethnicity : o come from diverse religions:
1. Persians 1. Muslims
2. Arabs 2. Christians (Judaea)
3. Berbers (Morocco) 3. Jews (Judaea)
4. Moors (Spain) 4. Zoroastrians (Persia)
5. Turks

Greek and Roman Works

 Significance:
o became the wellspring of science in the Islamic Empire
 “Physics” by Aristotle
 “On the Equilibrium of Planes” by Archimedes
 “Of the Faculties or Powers
of Ailments” by Galen
 “Almagest” by Ptolemy
 “Elements” by Euclid
o were translated into Arabic (lingua franca of the Islamic Empire)

Astronomy
  Origins:
o developed from the Qur’an
o "And it is He who ordained the stars for you that you may be guided thereby in the darkness of the land
and the sea"
 Significance:
o advised Muslims to develop observational and navigational instruments
o astronomy played a major role among Muslims in the observance of their religious practices
 manuscript depicting astronomers
 Importance:
o the need to develop an Islamic calendar different from the Jewish and Christian calendars
o the need to determine the direction of Mecca from a given location
o the need to determine from celestial bodies the proper times for prayers (sunrise, midday, afternoon,
sunset, and evening)

Astronomy and Islam

 QUR’AN:
o "The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He created
the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred”
 Importance:
o the need to determine the beginning of Islamic months (when the thin crescent moon is first sighted in the
western evening sky
 SALAT: daily prayer
o Muslims are expected to pray towards the Kaaba in Mecca and orient their mosques in that direction
o conducted at sunrise, midday, afternoon, sunset, and evening

Growth of Islamic Astronomy

 Factor:
1. proximity of the Muslim world to the world of ancient learning --- Greece, Persia, India
2. translation of ancient Greek, Sanskrit and Persian texts into Arabic during the 9th century
3. Islamic tolerance towards scholars of other religions

Islamic Astronomy
 Feature:
o primarily dependent upon observation (rather than philosophy)
o developed into a science

Astrolabe
 invented by Islamic scientists
 Use:
1. to tell time during the day or night
2. to find the time of sunrise and sunset and, thus, the length of the day
3. to locate celestial objects in the sky
4. to determine aspects of horoscopes

Mathematics
 Islamic Mathematics
o Significance: improved the Hindu system of counting and popularized the Arabic system
  Arabic System
o Significance: facilitated commerce, arithmetic, and algebra
 Al-Khwarizmi
o founder of modern Algebra
 Algebra
o Origins: derived from the title of Al-Kwarizmi’s most famous book, Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabilah
("The Book of Integration and Equation")

Chemistry
 Definition: investigation of composition of nature in general
 Rationale: the need to analyze substances/elements on the basis of four basic qualities:
1. hotness
2. coldness
3. dryness
4. moistness
 Islamic Chemistry
o ALCHEMY: rearranging the qualities of one element to create a different substance
 Islamic Alchemists
o Significance: concocted various potions from spices and herbs
o Contribution: succeeded in formulating various acids:
1. hydrochloric acid 4. acetic acid
2. sulfuric acid 5. tartaric acid
3. nitric acid 6. citric acid
 Islamic Alchemy
o boiling vessel
o distillation vessel
o brick furnace

Medicine
 Islamic Medicine
o GREAT ARAB PHYSICIANS:
1. Razi (Al-Rhazi or Rhazes)
2. Avycen (Ibn Sina or Avicenna)
3. Averrois (Ibn Rushd or Averroes)
o Arab Physicians
 Significance: acquired renown as great healers
o Al-Rhazi (Rhazes)
 Period: 865-925CE
 travelled to many lands serving princes and rulers as teacher
 Achievement:
 described the first known case of smallpox
 wrote the book “The Diseases of Children,” the first book which dealt with pediatrics as
an independent field of medicine
 Most famous work: “On Medicine”
o Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
 Period: 980-1037CE
 Achievement:
  wrote over 450 books on a wide range of subjects
 synthesized knowledge from both the East and the West
 Most famous work: “The Canon of Medicine”
 Significance:
o regarded as the syllabi of European medical schools until the 19th century
o Abu al-Qasim (Albucasis)
 Period: 936-1013CE
 Achievement: maker of surgical and medical instruments
 Most famous work: “Kitab al-Tasrif” (a 30-volume encyclopedia of medical practices)

Muslim Scholars
 studied and translated Greek medical heritage

Arabic Medical Manuscript

 Subject matter: antidotes, mentions 9 Greek physicians

Islamic Medical Heritage

 Achievement: 10th century European hospitals were patterned after Islamic hospitals
 anatomy class in a medical school in Montpellier, France learned from Islamic medical encyclopedia
 a teacher reads from Avicenna’s book

Anatomy
 notations of the human muscle system in “The Anatomy of the Human Body” by Mansur ibn Ilyas (Persian)

Surgery
 surgical instruments used by Abu al-Qasim who practiced in 10th century Cordoba (Spain)
o described in his book “The Method”
 illustrates where on the scalp incisions should be made
o found in “The Surgeon's Tract” by Sharaf al-Din (1465)

Ophthalmology
 Arabic manuscript entitled “Anatomy of the Eye”

Dentistry
 extraction of tooth with some form of dental forceps
 use of a crude bowstring drill

Materia Medica
 Islamic scholars were greatly knowledgeable about various plants

Islamic Scholars
 studied plants for their medicinal powers
 wrote books (manuscripts) detailing their findings
Islamic Pharmacists
 Significance:
o skilled, specially-trained
o worked closely with physicians

Apothecary (Pharmacy)
 15th century European apothecary patterned after a 9th century apothecary in Baghdad

Hygiene
 great importance placed on cleanliness and sanitation
 Importance: requirements of Islamic duties (prayers)

Salat: Daily Prayer

 Prescribed conditions: in a ritually clean environment

ROME – Empire: Founding

Roman Empire
 Start: 27 BCE
 End: 476 CE
 Borders:
1. Northwest: Rhine River 4. West: Atlantic Ocean
2. Northeast: Danube River 5. South: Sahara Desert
3. East: Euphrates River
 Good emperors:
1. Nerva
 96-98 CE
 known for his wisdom and moderation
 ended trials based on treason
 released those who had been imprisoned under charges of treason
 granted amnesty to many who had been exiled
 returned properties that had been earlier confiscated
 granted land allotments to the poor
 exempted parents and their children from a inheritance tax
 extended loans to landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality
to support the children of needy families
 remitted numerous taxes
 granted privileges to Roman provinces
2. Trajan
 98-117 CE
 received from the Senate the honorific of optimus meaning "the best"
 gave the Roman Empire its greatest extent:
 created the province of Arabia Petraea
 conquered Dacia
 sacked Ctesiphon, capital of Parthian Empire
 annexed Armenia and Mesopotamia
  freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned
 returned a great deal of private property confiscated by government
 conducted extensive public building program in Rome (Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Column)
3. Hadrian
 117-138 CE
 rebuilt the Pantheon in Rome
 built Hadrian's Wall
 Significance: marked the northern limit of Roman territory in Britain
 mitigated but did not abolish slavery
 humanized the legal code
 forbade torture
 built libraries, aqueducts, baths and theaters
 considered wise and just
 Temple of Hadrian
 located in Ephesus (Turkey)
4. Antoninus Pius
 138-161 CE
 introduced the important principle that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial
 asserted trials to be held and punishment inflicted in the place where the crime had been
committed
 passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves
 mitigated the use of torture in examining slaves by certain limitations
 prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years
5. Marcus Aurelius
 161-180 CE
 defeated a revitalized Parthian Empire (Persian)
 wrote Meditations (revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty)

Augustus Caesar (Octavian)

 Reign period:
o Start: 27 BCE
o End: 14 CE
 Gate of Augustus
o located in Ephesus (Turkey)
 Significance:
o initiated “Pax Romana”
 Significance:
 period of “Roman Peace”
o Date: 27 BCE-180 CE
 period of enlargement of the Roman Empire
 period marked by a rise in population (100 million people of different races, religions and
customs)
 period of extensive commerce throughout the empire
1. grain: from Egypt, North Africa and Sicily
2. timber: from central Europe
3. farm products: from Gaul
4. lead: from Spain
5. tin: from Britain
 6. copper: from Cyprus
7. iron, gold: from Balkan Peninsula
8. silk, spices, perfume: from India, China
 commercial prosperity contributed to political stability
 efficient administration ensured justice and order
 public works projects were undertaken for efficient transportation and communication
 Peace and order:
 bandits and pirates were hunted down
 roads and sea lanes were cleared for commerce
 Administration:
 division of the empire into two types of provinces
 Achievements:
1. reformed the system of taxation
2. developed road networks
3. established a standing army
4. established the Praetorian Guard
5. rebuilt much of Rome

Imperial Provinces
 Characteristics:
1. recent conquests
2. located near the borders
 Administration: under the direct control of the emperor
1. Hispania (Spain)
2. Lusitania (Portugal)
3. Gallia (France)
4. Britannia (Britain)
5. Dalmatia (Yugoslavia)
6. Helvetia (Switzerland)
7. Mauritania (Algeria)

Senatorial Provinces
 Characteristics:
1. under longer Roman sovereignty and control
2. largely peaceful and stable
3. far from the borders
 Administration: under the control of the Senate
1. Italia (Italy)
2. Sicilia (Sicily)
3. Macedonia
4. Asia (Turkey)
5. Africa (Libya)

Roads
 initially built for the use of the military (army)
  became useful for trade and communication of the people

Rome – Importance
Rome
 introduction of the “republic” form of government
 introduction of the “senate” as a higher body/office of government
 founding of one of the largest empires in the history of the world
 produced one of the greatest armies in the world (Roman Legion)
 produced some of the best and some of the worst “emperors” (rulers) of the world
 built some of the most monumental buildings in the history of the world
o Rome’s Famous Buildings
 AMPHITHEATER: Colosseum
 TEMPLE: Pantheon
 MAUSOLEUM: Mausoleum of Hadrian (Castel Sant Angelo)
 pioneered in numerous engineering projects
o ARCH: Arch of Constantine
o COLUMN: Trajan’s Column
 pioneered in road construction
o ROAD CONSTRUCTION: Via Appia
 pioneered in water distribution
o WATER DISTRIBUTION: aqueduct
 Anio Novus Aqueduct
 bath
 introduced unusual modes of public entertainment
o chariot racing
o gladiatorial combat
 believed in mythical gods and goddesses
o ROMAN GOD:
 Jupiter
 introduced a system of counting numbers (Roman numerals)
o ROMAN NUMERALS: (uses)
 counting
 reckoning of year
 made available an expanded cuisine brought by an extensive empire

ROME ARCHITECTURE

Rome
 continued the guidelines of the classical Greek columns
 favoured the Corinthian column
 Significance: made changes/adaptations with regards the design of columns

Column
 Adaptation
o made the Corinthian column more decorative by making the cornice more detailed and intricate
  Arch of Septimius Severius
 made the cornice more ornate (horizontal decorative moulding that crowns a structure)
o created the composite capital by mixing the volute of the Ionic order with the acanthus leaves of the
Corinthian
o made the Doric column with a smaller capital, more slender shaft without flutes, and a moulded base
(came to be called the Tuscan column)
o detached from the building yet remaining attached to the façade at the base and entablature
 Hadrian’s Library - Athens (Greece)
o continued to be used even when they were no longer structurally necessary (to give buildings a traditional
and familiar look)

Temple
 built to honor the gods
 Adaptation:
o built on a raised platform (3.5 meters high)
o with a stepped entrance and columned porch (constitutes the focal point of the temple)
 Examples
1. Temple of Hercules - Rome (Italy)
2. Temple of Augustus - Pula (Croatia)
3. Temple of Diana - Evora (Portugal)
4. Pantheon - Rome (Italy)

Amphitheater
 large, open-air spaces surrounded by ascending seating
 Roman Amphitheater
o inspired by the Greek amphitheater
o added a highly decorative stage building which incorporated different levels of columns, projections,
pediments, and statues
o Orange (France)
o more commonly used for spectator sports
 Greek Amphitheater
o more typically used for theatrical or concert performances
 Examples
1. Pula (Croatia)
2. Arles (France)
3. Merida (Spain)
4. Tarragona (Spain)
5. El Djem (Tunisia)
6. Syracuse (Italy)
 Colosseum
o Rome (Italy)

Basilica
 a large building usually rectangular in shape
 enclosed on all sides by colonnades
 usually located in the forum (marketplace) of a Roman town
  usually used as courts of law
 the long hall and roof were supported by columns and piers on all sides
 the columns created a central nave flanked on all sides by an aisle
 there was an apse at one or both ends

Domus
 served as housing for the upper classes and some wealthy freedmen
 made of marble with inlaid marble panelling, door jambs and columns
 decorated with expensive paintings and frescoes
o Parts
1. VESTIBULUM: hallway after the front door
2. FAUCES: passageway from the vestibulum to the atrium
3. ATRIUM: large open space in the interior; open to the sky, allowing fresh air to circulate among
the corridors and rooms
4. IMPLUVIUM: small pool in the atrium to catch rainwater
5. ALAE: open rooms on either side of the atrium
6. TABLINUM: large reception room of the house
7. TRICLINIUM: room for dining
8. CUBICULUM: room for sleeping
9. CULINA: where slaves prepared food for the masters of the house
10. ANDRON: passageway from the atrium to the peristylium
11. PERISTYLIUM: large garden at the back of the house
12. COMPLUVIUM: skylight above the peristylium
13. TABERNA: room in the house but which had its own entrance from the outside; usually served
as a shop

Insula
 refers to an apartment-type building
 served as housing for less well-off city dwellers
 built of timber, mud brick, and later primitive concrete
o Ostia Antica (Italy)
 generally, poorly made and constructed at minimal expense (prone to fire and collapse)
o Aracoeli (Rome)
 had running water and sanitation
 some had balconies
 often, there were shops on the ground floor on the street front

ROME – Sculpture
Portraiture
 mostly head and bust

Sculpture
 Materials: most favored
1. metal (bronze)
2. stone (marble)
 Purpose:
 o to honor the gods
1. statue of Mars
a. Place: Forum of Nerva
b. Date: early 2nd century AD
2. Dionysus
a. Place: Asia Minor
b. Date: 170-180 AD
o to honor emperors
1. Emperor Augustus
a. Date: 1st century CE
b. Material: marble
2. Emperor Trebonianus gallus
a. Date: 3rd century
b. Material: bronze
3. Emperor Claudius
a. Date: 50 CE
4. Marcus Aurelius
a. Date: 161-180 AD
o to indicate political status
1. (Marcus Junius) Brutus
a. Date: late 4th to early 3rd century BC
2. depicting a Roman senator holding portrait effigies of deceased ancestors
a. Date: late 1st century BC
b. Material: marble
o to indicate social status and wealth
1. the patrician Torlonia
a. Date: 1st century BC
2. young woman with Flavian-era hairstyle
a. Date: 80s–90s AD
 Impact: showed human emotions as realistically as possible (facial features and expressions best
show the character of a person)

ROME – Painting
Painting
 Significance: consisted mostly of fresco (a large picture painted on a wall)

Fresco
 Theme:
1. landscapes
2. people
3. everyday life
Examples
1. maiden gathering flowers
a. Place: Stabiae
2. woman with tray
a. Place: Herculanaeum
3. husband and wife
a. Place: Pompeii
b. Date: 20–30 AD
4. man wearing a laurel wreath and holding a papyrus rotulus
a. Place: Pompeii
b. Date: 1st century AD
5. young man wearing a laurel wreath
a. Place: Pompeii
b. Date: 1st century AD
6. a maenad (female follower of Dionysus)
a. Place: Pompeii, Italy
b. Date: 1st century AD

ROME PUBLIC WORKS

Aqueduct
 Definition: system of pipes, ditches, canals, and tunnels designed to convey water
 derived from the Latin word “aqua” (water) and “ducere” (to lead)
 Roman Aqueducts
o built in Rome and in all parts of the Roman Empire
i. Aqua Appia
1. first aqueduct built in Rome (312 BCE)
2. extent: 16. 56 kilometers
ii. Aqua Marcia
1. built from 144-140 CE
2. extent: 91.42 kilometers
iii. Aqua Tepula
1. built 124 CE
2. extent: 17.74 kilometers
iv. Aqua Vetus
1. built from 272-269 CE
2. extent: 63.64 kilometers
v. Nimes (France)
vi. Istanbul (Turkey)
vii. Almuñecar (Spain)
viii. Segovia (Spain)
 Roman Aqueduct System
o a source of water (usually a river) was identified
o pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures were constructed from the water supply to the intended
receiver (city)
o a bridge was constructed to convey the water over expanses of land and water
o conveyance of water relied largely on gravity
 o Significance: set a standard of engineering unsurpassed for more than a thousand years

Thermae
 Bathing
o Importance:
 one of the most common daily activities in Roman culture
 practiced across a wide variety of social classes
 way to good health
o constituted a communal activity in ancient Rome, the focal center for social and recreational activity
 Bathing in Roman Society
o Significance: a communal activity required places for communal bathing
 served as facilities for bathing
 exteriors were usually plain
 interiors were sumptuously decorated with the lavish use of columns, marble, statues and mosaics
 supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by an aqueduct
 Hypocaust Heating System
o the floor of the thermae was raised above the ground by pillars with a layer of tiles, then a layer of
concrete then another of tiles on top
o spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these
enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof
 Lay-out of a Thermae
o there were separate entrances for men, women and slaves
o a PALESTRA (courtyard) was built as part of the complex either in front or in the interior
o originally, the men’s bathing area was separate from the women; but later mixed bathing became common
 Bathing Ritual in a Thermae
1. bather enters the APODYTERIUM where he stored his clothes
2. bather goes to the FRIGIDARIUM where he submerged himself in cold water
3. bather goes to the TEPIDARIUM for the warm water bath
4. bather goes to the CALDARIUM for the hot water bath
5. bather goes to the LACONIUM (a dry, resting room) where he completed the process by resting and
sweating
 Bath of Diocletian
o Rome (Italy)
 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE:
o place to invite friends to dinner parties
o politicians went to the baths to convince fellow Romans to join their causes
o Equipped with rooms for activities other than bathing:
1. libraries
2. rooms for poetry readings
3. places to buy food
4. places to eat food

Via
 Roman Empire
o with an extensive network of VIAE (roads)
 Roman Empire Road Network
o Extent: spanned more than 400,000 kms, including over 80,500 km of paved roads
 o Significance: 372 great road links traversed113 provinces traversed (21,000 kms of road in Gaul,
4,000 kms in Britain)
 Roman Roads
o called “via” (singular)
o “viae” (plural)
o FUNCTION (Common People):
 to enable the transport of people from one place to another
 to enable people to carry material from one place to another
o FUNCTION (Roman Army):
 to move armies
 to bring much needed supplies to the soldiers
 to communicate news
o Significance:
 enabled the Roman Empire to expand
 maintained the stability of the empire
 Examples
1. Via Appia
a. Rome to Apulia
2. Via Flaminia
a. Rome to Ariminum
3. Via Domitia
a. linked France, Spain and Italy

Stadium
 Most famous: Circus Maximus
 Use: for chariot racing

Victory Column
 Function: to immortalize a famous person or victorious battle
 stands on a base and crowned with a victory symbol, such as a statue

Triumphal Arch
 Function: to commemorate in sculpture and inscription significant events such as military victories
 Definition: a curved structure that spans a space
 Examples
1. Arch of Titus: single entrance
2. Arch of Constantine: triple entrance
ROME FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Barbarian Invasions
 SIGNIFICANCE: constituted a century of destruction beginning in 376 CE and ending in
476 CE
 LED BY DIFFERENT GROUPS:
1. Ostrogoths
2. Visigoths
3. Franks
4. Angles
5. Saxons
6. Burgundians
7. Lombards
8. Vandals
 Barbarians
o CHARACTERISTICS:
1. led semi-nomadic lives
2. spoke Germanic languages
o PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION:
1. long hair
2. blue eyes
3. reddish hair
4. great bodies
 CAUSE: instigated by the movement of the Huns along the Danube River region
 Huns
o nomadic peoples
o ORIGINS: originally from Central Asia (east of the Volga)
o migrated to Europe
o IMPACT: forced the Germanic tribes to move to the borders of the Roman Empire
o Attila the Hun
 SIGNIFICANCE: led the attack against the Roman Empire in 452 CE
 led 100,000 soldiers in the attack against Constantinople but failed (due to the
high and massive walls of the city)
 attempted to advance against Rome but was deterred by Pope Leo I who went
to Attila’s camp along the Po River

Roman Empire
 455-476 CE:
o powerless due to continued barbarian invasions
o Germanic tribes fought one another for possession of the western provinces

Romulus Augustulus
 last Roman emperor of the Western Roman Empire
 gave up the throne in 476 CE