Jorel Montalbo
CHAPTERS 5-8
CH5: STUDY OF THE LIVING HUMAN BRAIN
 Recent technological advancements have permitted researchers to study the
brain’s activities by recording/stimulating the activity of particular regions
- Even while patient is still living/doesn’t cause patient distress
1. Position Emission Tomography (PET scan)
- Creates a visual imagine of functioning in various parts of the brain
 Uses a device that reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer
2. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI scan)
- Provides clear pictures of structural anatomy and chemistry of brain
 Passes a strong magnetic field through the person’s head
 Interior of the body is accurately imaged
- Involves interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field
3. Computerized (axial) Tomography (CT or CAT scan)
- Presents picture of the human brain by passing x-ray beams through
the head or body at various angles
- Employs a computer to produce a 2D picture of a “slice” of the body
4. Electroencephalograph (EEG)
- Records electrical activity of brain by placing electrodes on the scalp
CH6-8: SENSORY AND MOTOR SYSTEMS
SENSORY SYSTEM
SENSORY RECEPTORS – GENERAL
Receptors
 Specialized cells in the sense (and internal) organs, muscles, skin and joints
- Detects physical or chemical changes (environment) and translate these
events into impulses (message) that travel along sensory neurons
 These neurons transduce environmental signals into neural signals
 The environmental signals that can be detected include mechanical
force, light, sound, chemicals, and temperature
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Types of Sensory Receptors/Transducers
 Mechanoreceptors – responds to mechanical pressure/distortion
- Pacinian corpuscles – responsible for sensitivity to vibration/pressure
- Joints and stretch receptors in muscles
- Hair cells in auditory & vestibular systems
 Photoreceptors – converts light into signals that can stimulate bio processes
- Rods and cones of the retina
 Chemoreceptors – detects changes in CO2, O2, and pH
- Olfactory receptors
- Taste receptors
- Osmoreceptors – detects changes in osmotic pressure
- Carotid body receptors – detects changes in arterial blood oxygen
 Extremes of temperature and pain
- Nociceptors/free nerve endings
Fiber Types and Conduction Velocity
 Largest diameter and fastest conduction velocity – myelinated
- Ia (e.g. muscle spindle afferents)
- Ib (e.g. Golgi tendon organs)
- A-alpha (e.g. large alpha – motor neurons)
 Small diameter and medium conduction velocity – myelinated
- A-delta (e.g. touch, pressure, temperature, and pain)
- III (e.g. touch, pressure, fast pain and temperature)
 Smallest diameter and slowest conduction velocity – unmyelinated
- C (e.g. slow pain)
- IV (e.g. pain and temperature)
Receptive Field
 Region that contains the sensory receptors/transducers
 Can be excitatory or inhibitory
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Sensory Transduction
 Process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into receptor potentials
- Receptor potentials: slow, graded electrical potential produced by a
receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus
 Simply, it’s the change in membrane potential caused by stimuli
 Steps
1. Stimulus arrives at the sensory receptor
 Stimulus may be a photon of light on the retina, molecule of NaCl
on the tongue, a depression on the skin, etc.
2. Ion channels are opened in the sensory receptor, allowing the current
to flow
 Current usually inward, producing a depolarization of the receptor
 Exception is in photoreceptors, where light causes a
hyperpolarization
o If neurotransmitter is excitatory, response of the cell to
light is hyperpolarization
o If neurotransmitter is inhibitory, response of the cell to
light is depolarization
3. If potential is depolarizing, membrane potential  closer to threshold
 Receptor potentials are graded in size depending on the size of the
stimulus
o If large enough, membrane potential will exceed
threshold and sensory neuron will fire an action potential
Adaptation of Sensory Receptors
 Slowly adapting receptors – responds repetitively to a prolonged stimulus
 Rapid adapting receptors – shows a decline in action potential frequency
with time in response to a constant stimulus
Sensory Pathways from the Sensory Receptor to the Cerebral Cortex
 First-order neurons
- Primary afferent neurons that receive signal, transduce it, and send the
info to the CNS
- Cell bodies of the primary afferent neurons are in dorsal root or cranial
nerve ganglia
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 Second-order neurons
- Located in the spinal cord/brainstem
- Receives info from one or more primary afferent neurons and transmit
it to the thalamus
- Its axons usually cross the midline at a relay nucleus of the thalamus
 Thus sensory info originating on one side of the body ascends to
the contralateral thalamus
 Third-order neurons
- Located in the sensory nucleus of the thalamus
 From here, encoded sensory info ascends to the cerebral cortex
 Fourth-order neurons
- Located in the appropriate sensory area of the cortex
- Info received results in a conscious perception of the stimulus
SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM AND PAIN
 Includes the sensations of touch, movement, temp., and pain
Pathways in the Somatosensory System
 Dorsal Column System
- Processes sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, and movement
 Anterolateral System
- Processes sensations of temperature and pain
Mechanoreceptors for Touch, Pressure, and Stretch/Movement
 Pacinian Corpuscle – rapidly adapting
- Onion-like structures in the subcutaneous skin
- Sensation encoded is high frequency vibration and tapping
 Meissner’s Corpuscle – rapidly adapting
- Present in non-hairy skin
- Touch-sensitive
- Sensation encoded is velocity (and low frequency vibration)
 Ruffini’s Corpuscle – slowly adapting
- Encapsulated
- Sensation encoded is pressure (and low frequency vibration)
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 Merkel’s Disk – slowly adapting  Referred Pain

- Touch-sensitive - Pain of visceral organ is referred to sites on the skin and follows the
- Sensation encoded is location dermatome rule
 Golgi tendon organs  These sites are innervated by nerves arising from the same
- Receptor organs at the junction of the tendon and muscle that is segment of the spinal cord
sensitive to stretch or muscle tension o e.g. ischemic heart pain referred to chest and shoulder
 Muscle spindle
VISION
- Detects both static and dynamic changes in muscle length
Retina
Thalamus
 These are neural tissue and photoreceptive cells located on the inner surface
 Info from different parts of the body is arranged somatotopically
of the posterior portion of the eye
- Somatotopic: specific relation between body regions and corresponding
 Photoreceptors – one of retina’s receptor cells
motor areas of the brain
- Transduces light energy into electrical impulses
 Destruction of thalamic nuclei results in loss of sensation on the
contralateral side of the body Function Rods Cones
Sensitivity to Sensitive to low-intensity Sensitive to high-
Somatosensory Cortex – the sensory homunculus light light; night vision intensity light; day vision
Acuity Lower visual acuity Higher visual acuity
 The major somatosensory areas of the cortex are SI and SII
Dark
- SI has somatotopic representation similar to that in the thalamus Adapts later Adapts first
adaptation
- This “map” of the body is called the sensory homunculus
Color vision No Yes
- Largest areas represent the face, hands, and fingers, where precise
localization is important
Optic Pathways and Lesions
Pain
 Light  retina (photoreceptors  bipolar cells  ganglion cells)
 Associated with the detection and perception of noxious stimuli
 Axons of the ganglion cells from the optic nerve and optic tract end in the
 Its receptors are free nerve endings in the skin, muscle, and viscera
lateral geniculate body of the thalamus
 Substance P – one of the neurotransmitters for nociception - Dorsal Lateral Geniculate nucleus
- Inhibition of its release is the basis of pain relief by opioids  Group of cell bodies w/in the lateral geniculate body of thalamus
 Fibers for Fast pain  Receives inputs from the retina then projects it to the PVC
- Carried by group III fibers  Fibers from each nasal hemiretina cross at the optic chiasm
- Has rapid onset and offset, and is localized - Fibers from each temporal hemiretina remain ipsilateral
 Fibers for Slow pain  Thus fibers from left nasal hemiretina and fibers from the right
- Carried by C fibers temporal hemiretina would form the right optic tract
- Characterized as aching, burning, or throbbing that is poorly localized o It then synapses at the right lateral geniculate body
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 Fibers from the lateral geniculate body form the geniculocalcarine tract and
pass to the occipital lobes of the cortex
- Calcarine fissure: horizontal fissure on inner surface of occipital lobe
 Location of the primary visual cortex or striate cortex
 Lesions
- Cutting optic nerve causes blindness in ipsilateral eye
- Cutting optic chiasm causes heteronymous bitemporal hemianopia
- Cutting optic tract causes homonymous contralateral hemianopia
- Cutting geniculocalcarine tract causes homonymous hemianopia with
macular spring
Optics – Refractive power of a lens
 Physics of light as it enters and travels through the eye
 Measured in diopters
- Equal to the reciprocal of the focal distance in meters
 e.g. 10 diopters = 1/10 = 10 cm
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Refractive Errors
 Emmetropia – normal; light focuses on the retina
 Hypertropia – far-sighted; light focuses behind the retina
- Corrected with a convex lens (thicker in the middle)
 Presbyopia – far-sighted;
- Result of loss of accommodation power of the lens via aging process
- Near point moves farther from eye and is corrected with a convex lens
 Accommodation: change in the thickness of the lens of the eyes
o Accomplished by the ciliary muscles, which focus images
near or distant to the retina
 Myopia – near-sighted
- Light focuses in front of the retina and is corrected with biconcave lens
 Astigmatism
- Curvature of the lens is not uniform
- Corrected with a cylindrical lens
 Achromatopsia – colorblind
- Inability to discriminate among different hues
- Caused by damage to visual association cortex
- Loss of color vision without disruption of visual acuity
 Visual agnosia
- Deficits in visual perception in the absence of blindness
 Person can see but cannot recognize/interpret visual info
 Laser-Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis (LASIK)
- Refractive surgery for correcting vision using an excimer laser
 Permanently changes the shape of the cornea (refracts light)
- Other refractive surgeries include Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK)
and Laser Sub-epithelial Keratomileusis
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OLFACTION  CN VII, IX, and X enter the medulla  ascends to the solitary tract 
terminates on second-order taste neurons in the solitary nucleus
Receptor Cells
- Then projects (mostly ipsilaterally) to the ventral posteromedial
 True neurons that conduct action potentials into the CNS nucleus of the thalamus  taste/gustatory cortex
 Located in the olfactory epithelium Steps in Taste Transduction
- Its basal cells are undifferentiated stem cells that continuously turn
over and replace the olfactory receptor cells  Taste chemicals (sweet, sour, salt, and bitter) bind to taste receptors on the
 Only example in the adult human where neurons replace microvilli  produces as depolarizing receptor potential in the cell
themselves
MOTOR SYSTEM
Cranial Nerve I (olfactory)
Motor Unit
 Carries information from olfactory receptor cells to the olfactory bulb
 Axons of the olfactory nerve are unmyelinated C fibers and are among the  Comprises a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates
smallest (and thus slowest) in the nervous system - Motor neuron
 Olfactory epithelium is also innervated by CN V  Neuron whose axons form synapses with extrafusal muscle fibers
- CN V – detects noxious or painful stimuli such as ammonia of a skeletal muscle
- Lesion to the olfactory nerve or olfactory bulb reduces (hyposmia) or  Activation contracts the muscle fibers
eliminates (anosmia) the sense of smell - Neuromuscular junction
 Synapse between the terminal buttons of an axon and muscle fiber
TASTE - Motor endplate
 Postsynaptic membrane of a neuromuscular junction
Taste Pathways
- Endplate potential
 Receptor cells for taste sensation are located in the taste buds  Postsynaptic potential that occurs in the motor endplate in
- These cells are covered with microvilli which increase the surface area response to release of Ach by the terminal button
for taste chemicals to bind to  Fine control – single motor neuron innervates only a few muscle fibers
- Taste receptors are not neurons (in contrast to olfactory receptor cells)  Larger movements – single motor neuron may innervate thousands of
- Taste buds are located on the specialized papillae muscle fibers
 Anterior two-thirds of the tongue has fungiform papillae  Motor neuron pool
- It detects salty and sweet sensations – innervated by CN VII  Group of motor neurons that innervate fibers w/in same nuclei
 Posterior one-third of the tongue has circumvallate and foliate papillae  Force of muscle contraction is graded by recruitment of more motor units
- Detects sour and bitter sensations – innervated by CN IX
 Back of the throat and epiglottis is innervated by CN X Small motor neurons Large motor neurons
Innervates a few muscle fibers Innervates many muscle fibers
Has lowest threshold and thus Has highest thresholds and thus fires
fires first last
Generates the smallest force Generates the largest force
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Muscle Sensors
 Muscle spindles detect both static and dynamic changes in muscle length
 Golgi tendon organs detect stretch or muscle tension
 Pacinian corpuscles detect vibration
 Free nerve endings detect noxious stimuli
Brainstem Control of Pleasure
 Motor Centers and Pathways
- Pyramidal Tracts – cerebral cortex  spinal cord/brainstem
 Pathway concerned with voluntary/skilled movements
- Extrapyramidal Tracts – brainstem nuclei  spinal cord
 Pathway concerned with involuntary movements
 Effects of Transections of the Spinal Cord
- Paraplegia
 Loss of voluntary movements below level of the lesion
 Results from interruption of descending pathways from motor
centers in the brainstem and higher centers
- Loss of conscious sensations below level of lesion
- Initial loss of reflexes – spinal shock
 Limbs become flaccid and reflexes are absent
 With time, partial recovery and return of reflexes or even
hyperreflexia would occur
 If lesion is at C7,
o Loss of sympathetic tone to the heart and thus slow
down heart rate and decrease arterial pressure
 If lesion is at C3,
o Respiratory muscles disconnected from control centers in
the brainstem, causing breathing to stop
 If lesion is at C1 (hanging) – certain death
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Cerebellum – central control of movement
 Functions of the Cerebellum
- Control of balance and eye movements (Vestibulocerebellum)
- Planning and initiation of movement (Pontocerebellum)
- Synergy (Spinocerebellum)
 Control of rate, force, range, and direction of movement
 Clinical Disorders of the Cerebellum – ataxia
- Results in lack of coordination, including delay in initiation of
movement, poor execution of a sequence of movements,
dysdiadochokinesia
- Intention tremor occurs during attempts of voluntary movements
- Rebound phenomenon (ability to stop a movement)
Basal Ganglia – control of movement
 Consists of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus
 Modulates thalamic outflow to the motor cortex to plan and execute
smooth movements
 Lesions of the lenticular nucleus  inability to maintain postural support
 Lesions of the subthalamic nucleus  wild, flinging movements
 Lesions of the striatum  quick, continuous, uncontrollable movements
 Lesions of the substantia nigra (in midbrain)
- Caused by destruction of dopaminergic neurons
 Since dopamine is excitatory, there is overactivity of inhibitory
pathways from the striatum to the globus pallidus
  lead-pipe rigidity, tremor and reduced voluntary movements
o As seen in patients with Parkinson’s disease
Motor Cortex
 Premotor Cortex (Area 6)
- Region of the motor association cortex of the lateral frontal lobe,
rostral to the primary motor cortex
- Most active during preparation for a movement and less active during
the movement itself
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 Supplementary Motor Cortex/Area (Area 6) Terms

- Region of the motor association cortex of the medial frontal lobe,
rostral to the primary motor cortex
- Programs complex motor sequences and is active during mental
rehearsal for a movement
- Most active during preparation for a rapid series of movement
 Both are responsible for generating a plan for movement
- Plan is then transferred to the primary motor cortex for execution
 Primary Motor Cortex (area 4)
- Responsible for the execution of movement
- Programmed patterns of motor neurons activated in motor cortex
 Excitation of upper motor neurons in motor cortex is transferred
to the brain and spinal cord
o It is where lower motor neurons are activated resulting
finally in voluntary movement
- Somatotopically organized
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 Nerve
- Set of axons in the periphery, either from a sensory organ or an internal
body structure to the CNS/ CNS  muscle, internal organ, or gland
 Nucleus
- Group of neuron cell bodies of similar shape and function w/in CNS
 Ganglion
- Group of neuron cell bodies usually outside the CNS
 Tract/Pathway
- Set of axons within the CNS that is also known as projections
 Aphasia – caused by brain damage
- Difficulty in producing or comprehending speech not produced by
deafness or a simple motor deficit
 Anomia – one of the symptoms of aphasia
- Difficulty in finding the appropriate word to describe an object, action,
or attribute
 Apraxia
- Difficulty in carrying out purposeful movements, in the absence of
paralysis or muscular weakness