Fluid Mechanics II

By

Dr. Jawad Sarwar

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan
Conservation of mass
Mass, like energy, cannot be created nor destroyed during a process but mass
and energy can be converted to each other.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 Where c is the speed of light (2.9979 × 108 m/s)

➢ For closed system, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used by

requiring that the mass of the system remain constant during a process.

➢ For open system or control volume, mass can cross the boundaries,
therefore, the amount of mass entering or leaving the control volume must be
tracked.
Mass flow rates
The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per
unit time is called the mass flow rate.
The differential mass flow rate of fluid flowing across a
small area is expressed as:
𝛿 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐
𝑚ሶ = න 𝛿 𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐 1
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
1
But 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ‫ 𝑉 ׬‬d𝐴𝑐 So 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 𝑨𝒄
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑛
Volume flow rate
The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the
volume flow rate and is given by:
𝑽ሶ = න 𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑉𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐
The mass and volume flow rate are related by:
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑽ሶ

Note: The volume flow rate is also represented by Q.

Conservation of mass principle
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
− =
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∆𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∆𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∆𝑡
Or
𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝐶𝑉
In rate form:
d𝑚𝐶𝑉
𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
d𝑡
d𝑚𝐶𝑉 d
= න 𝜌d𝑽
d𝑡 d𝑡 2
𝐶𝑉
Since 𝑚𝐶𝑉 = ‫𝜌 𝑉𝐶׬‬d𝑽
Conservation of mass principle - continued

Net mass flow rate:

𝑚ሶ = න 𝛿 𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌𝑉𝑛 d𝐴𝑐
𝑚ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = න 𝛿 𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌𝑉𝑛 d𝐴
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆
Since 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉 cos 𝜃 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛

So
𝑚ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = න 𝜌(𝑉 ∙ 𝑛)d𝐴
𝐶𝑆

General conservation of mass:

d
න 𝜌d𝑽 + න 𝜌(𝑉 ∙ 𝑛)d𝐴 = 0
d𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

3
General conservation of mass from
Reynold’s Transport Theorem
Mass balance for Steady Flow Processes
It states that the total rate of mass entering a
control volume is equal to the total rate of mass
leaving it. The conservation of mass principle for
a general steady-flow system with multiple inlets
and outlets can be expressed in rate form as:

෍ 𝑚ሶ = ෍ 𝑚ሶ
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Many engineering devices such as nozzles, 𝑚ሶ 2

diffusers, turbines, compressors, and pumps
involve a single stream (only one inlet and one
outlet). For these, mass balance for single-stream
steady-flow system reduces to:

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2
The inlet state is represented by subscript 1 and
the outlet state is denoted by subscript 2.
𝑚ሶ 1
4
Volume Flow rate

𝑚ሶ 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑉𝐴
𝑽ሶ =
𝜌
𝑽ሶ = 𝑉𝐴

Special Case 1: Incompressible Flow

The conservation of mass relations can be exit
simplified even further when the fluid is
incompressible (usually the case for liquids).

෍ 𝑽ሶ = ෍ 𝑽ሶ (𝑚3 Τ𝑠)
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Inlet
For single-stream steady-flow systems it becomes

𝑽ሶ 1 = 𝑽ሶ 2 𝑉1 𝐴2 = 𝑉2 𝐴2

Remember: There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume”

principle. Therefore, the volume flow rates into and out of a steady-flow
device may be different. For example, 𝑽ሶ 2 ≪ 𝑽ሶ 1 for an air compressor 5
shown above. This is due to the higher density of air at the compressor
exit.
Special Case 1: Incompressible Flow - continued

Incompressible continuity equation: 𝑑𝜌

+ ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝑡
∇∙𝑉 =0

In Cartesian coordinates, this equation becomes

𝜕 𝑢 𝜕 𝑣 𝜕 𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Special Case 2: Steady compressible Flow

Steady continuity equation: ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0

In Cartesian coordinates, this equation becomes

𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
6
Example 1
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a
10-gal (1 gal = 3.7854 L) bucket. The inner diameter of
the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle
exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water (ρ =
1000 kgm-3), determine
(a) The volume and mass flow rates of water through
the hose
(b) The average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.
Assume, water is incompressible, flow through the
hose is steady and no waste of water by splashing.
Solution
𝑽 𝐴𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑒2 The cross-sectional area of the
𝑽ሶ = nozzle at the exit
(a) ∆𝑡 (b)
The average velocity at the nozzle
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑽ሶ 𝑽ሶ = 𝑉𝑒 𝐴𝑒
is calculated as:

Note: Always use SI units and make conversions before solving a

problem
7
1 L = 10-3 m3 1 cm = 10-2 m
Example 2
A 4-ft high (1 ft = 0.3048 m), 3-ft-diameter water tank
whose top is open to the atmosphere is initially filled
with water. Now the discharge plug near the bottom of
the tank is pulled out, and a water jet whose diameter
is 0.5 in (1 in = 0.0254 m) streams out (as shown in 𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡
figure). Determine how long it will take for the water
level in the tank to drop to 2 ft from the bottom.
Assume, water is incompressible, the distance
between the bottom of the tank and the center of the 𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
hole is negligible compared to the total water height
and the gravitational acceleration is 32.2 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2)
and the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Solution
The conservation of mass relation for a CV undergoing any process is given in
the rate form as:
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
= 𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Since 𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 0 Therefore, = −𝑚
ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 (i)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Velocity, V? So find ‘V’ K.E=P.E 8

1
𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌 2𝑔ℎ𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
Example 2 - continued

𝑚𝐶𝑉 = 𝜌𝑽 = 𝜌𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ℎ

Eq. (i) becomes as:

2 Τ4 𝑑ℎ
𝑑 𝜌𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ℎ 𝜌 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 2
= −𝜌 2𝑔ℎ𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡 = −𝜌 2𝑔ℎ 𝜋𝐷𝑗𝑒𝑡 /4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Cancelling the common terms and separating the variables give

2
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = − 2
𝐷𝑗𝑒𝑡 2𝑔ℎ

𝑡 2 ℎ
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑑ℎ Using the same methodology, Determine
න 𝑑𝑡 = − න
0
2
𝐷𝑗𝑒𝑡 2𝑔 ℎ𝑜 ℎ how long it will take for the discharge of the
entire amount of water in the tank?

2
ℎ𝑜 − ℎ2 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑡=
𝑔/2 𝐷𝑗𝑒𝑡
9
 𝑑
න 𝜌𝑑𝑽 + න 𝜌 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
Conservation of mass 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Moving or Deforming Control Volumes Absolute velocity

𝑑 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶𝑆 Deforming CV
න 𝜌𝑑𝑽 + න 𝜌 𝑉𝑟 . 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0 where
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶𝑉 Nondeforming CV
Relative velocity
As a simple example of a moving control volume,
consider a toy car moving at a constant absolute
velocity Vcar =10 km/h to the right. A high-speed jet
of water (absolute velocity Vjet = 25 km/h to the
right) strikes the back of the car and propels it. If
we draw a control volume around the car, the
relative velocity is Vr = 25 - 10 = 15 km/h to the
right.
This represents the velocity at which an observer
moving with the control volume would observe the
fluid crossing the control surface.
In other words, relative velocity is the fluid velocity 10
expressed relative to a coordinate system moving
with the control volume.
Conservation of mass – the continuity equation

𝑑
න 𝜌𝑑𝑽 + න 𝜌 𝑉. 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Divergence Theorem Transforms a volume integral of

the divergence of a vector into an
Ԧ
න ∇ ∙ 𝐺𝑑𝑽 = න 𝐺Ԧ ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝐴 area integral over the surface
𝑉 𝐴 that defines the volume
Del operator

𝑑𝜌
න 𝑑𝑽 + න ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑽 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉

𝑑𝜌
න + ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑽 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉
This equation must hold for any CV regardless of its size and shape
which is only possible if integrand is identically zero. 11
Compressible 𝑑𝜌 Continuity Equation
+ ∇ ∙ 𝜌𝑉 = 0
form 𝑑𝑡
Derivation using an infinitesimal control volume 𝑑𝜌
න 𝑑𝑽 = ෍ 𝑚ሶ − ෍ 𝑚ሶ
𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

Taylor series expansion

2
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 1 𝜕 2 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑐𝑟𝑓 = 𝜌𝑢 + + + …..
𝜕𝑥 2 2! 𝜕𝑥 2 2
Applying truncated Taylor series expansion
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑐𝑟𝑓 = 𝜌𝑢 +
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝜌𝑢 𝑐𝑙𝑓 = 𝜌𝑢 −
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑤 𝑐𝑓𝑓 = 𝜌𝑤 +
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜌𝑤 𝑐𝑟𝑓 = 𝜌𝑤 −
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑣 𝑐𝑡𝑓 = 𝜌𝑣 +
𝜕𝑦 2 12
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝜌𝑣 𝑐𝑏𝑓 = 𝜌𝑣 −
𝜕𝑦 2
Net mass flow rate into CV:
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
෍ 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑢 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑖𝑛

Left face Bottom face Rear face

Net mass flow rate out of CV:
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧
෍ 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌𝑤 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑜𝑢𝑡

Right face Top face Front face

Rate of change of mass within CV:

𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝑽 ≅ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐶𝑉

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑z − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates:
13
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Example 3
An air-fuel mixture is compressed by a piston in a
cylinder of an internal combustion engine (refer to
figure). The origin of coordinate ‘𝑦’ is at the top of the
cylinder, and ‘𝑦’ points straight down as shown. The
piston is assumed to move up at constant speed ‘𝑉𝑝 ’.
The distance ‘𝐿’ between the top of the cylinder and the
piston decreases with time according to the linear
approximation ‘𝐿 = 𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑡’, where 𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 is the
location of the piston when it is at the bottom of its cycle
at time 𝑡 = 0, as sketched in figure. At 𝑡 = 0, the density of the air-fuel mixture in
the cylinder is everywhere equal to 𝜌 0 . Estimate the density of the air-fuel
mixture as a function of time and the given parameters during the piston’s up
stroke.

Assume, Density varies with time, but not space; in other words 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑡 .
Velocity component ‘𝑣’ varies with ‘𝑦’ and ‘𝑡’ but not with 𝑥 or 𝑧, in other words
𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑦, 𝑡 only. 𝑢 = 𝑤 = 0 and no mass escapes from the cylinder during the
compression.
Analysis Compressible continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates:
14
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢=0 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤=0

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦
Since, density is not a function of 𝑦, therefore,

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝑣 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝑣
𝜕𝑡
+𝜌
𝜕𝑦
=0 →
𝜕𝑡
= −𝜌
𝜕𝑦 𝑣?
Since,𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑦, 𝑡 ,
Therefore, we need to find an expression of 𝑣 in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑡
𝑦
𝑣 = −𝑉𝑝
𝐿
𝑦
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 −𝑉 𝑝𝐿 𝜕𝜌 𝑉𝑝
= −𝜌 → =𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡 𝐿
𝑉𝑝 15
𝜕𝜌 = 𝜌 𝜕𝑡
𝐿
 𝜌 𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝑉𝑝
න = න 𝜕𝑡
𝜌 𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑡
𝜌 0 𝑡=0
Refer to Integral table
𝜌 𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
ln = ln
𝜌 0 𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑡
Simplify
𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝜌=𝜌 0
𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑡
In non-dimensional form
𝜌 1 1
= → 𝜌∗ =
𝜌 0 1 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑡Τ𝐿𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 1 − 𝑡∗

At 𝑡 ∗ = 1, the piston hits the top of the cylinder and 𝜌 goes to infinity.
In the actual internal combustion engine, the piston stops before
reaching the top of the cylinder, forming what is known as the
‘clearance volume’.
16