TEST VALIDITY
What is TEST VALIDITY? What is Intellectual Property?
It is an indicator of how much meaning
can be placed upon a set of test results. In
psychological and educational testing, where
the importance and accuracy of tests is
paramount, test validity is crucial.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF VALIDITY
1. CRITERION VALIDITY
 It establishes whether the test matches a
certain set of abilities.
 CONCURRENT VALIDITY - measures the test
against a benchmark test, and high correlation
indicates that the test has strong criterion
validity.
 PREDICTIVE VALIDITY - a measure of how well a
test predicts abilities, such as measuring
whether a good grade point average at high
school leads to good results at university.
Comparing the test with an established measure is
known as concurrent validity; testing it over a
period of time known as predictive validity.
2. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
 Construct validity is about ensuring that the
method of measurement matches the construct
you want to measure
 evaluates whether a measurement tool really
represents the thing we are interested in
measuring. It's central to establishing the
overall validity of a method.
3. CONTENT VALIDITY
 assesses whether a test is representative of all
aspects of the construct
4. FACE VALIDITY
 considers how suitable the content of a test
seems to be on the surface. It's similar to
content validity, but face validity is more
informal and subjective assessment
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
■ According to Oxford Dictionary, it is a work
or invention that is the result of creativity,
such as a manuscript or a design, to which
one has rights and for which one may apply
for a patent, copyright, trademark, etc.
■ Intellectual property is a category that
includes intangible creations of the human
intellect.
Two Categories of IP
■ Industrial Property includes patents for
inventions, trademarks, industrial designs
and geographical indications.
■ Copyright covers literary works (such as
novels, poems and plays), films, music,
artistic works (e.g., drawings, paintings,
photographs and sculptures) and
architectural design
What are IP rights?
■ Intellectual property rights are like any
other property right. They allow creators, or
owners, of patents, trademarks or
copyrighted works to benefit from their
own work or investment in a creation.
4 Main Types of IP Protection
1. Patent
 A patent grants property rights on an
invention, allowing the patent holder to
exclude others from making, selling, or
using the invention.
 It is a form of intellectual property that give
its owner the legal right to exclude others
from making, using, selling and importing
an invention for a limited period of years, in
exchange for publishing an enabling public
disclosure.
What kind of protection do patents offer?
■ Patent protection means an invention
cannot be commercially made, used,
distributed or sold without the patent
owner’s consent.
What rights do patent owners have?
■ A patent owner has the right to decide who
may – or may not – use the patented
invention for the period during which it is
protected.
2. Trademark
 A trademark is a type of intellectual
property consisting of a recognizable
sign, design, or expression which
identifies products or services of a
particular source from those of others.
 According to WIPO, trademark is a sign
capable of distinguishing the goods or
services of one enterprise from those of
other enterprises. Trademarks are
protected by intellectual property
rights.
3. Trade Secret
 A trade secret is a type of intellectual
property in the form of a formula, practice,
process, design, instrument, pattern,
commercial method, or compilation of
information that is not generally known or
reasonably ascertainable by others, and by
which a person or company can obtain an
economic advantage over competitors.
 In some jurisdiction, such secrets are
referred to as confidential information.
4. Copyright
 Copyright refers to the legal right of the
owner of intellectual property. In similar
terms, copyright is the right to copy.
 The original creators of products and
anyone they give authorization to are the
only ones with the exclusive right to
reproduce the work.
 Protects original works of authorship.
■ In the Philippines, copyright protection for
artistic, literary and derivative works lasts
during the lifetime of the author plus 50
years after the author's death. This term of
protection also applies to posthumous
works.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CODE
OF THE PHILIPPINES
Republic Act No. 8293
■ It shall protect and secure the exclusive
rights of scientists, inventors, artists and
other gifted citizens to their intellectual
property and creations, particularly when
beneficial to the people, for such periods as
provided in this Act.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s
work or ideas as your own, with or without
their consent, by incorporating it into your
work without full acknowledgement. All
published and unpublished material, whether
in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is
covered under this definition. Plagiarism may
be intentional or reckless, or unintentional.
Under the regulations for examinations,
intentional or reckless plagiarism is a
disciplinary offence.
Forms of Plagiarism
■ Verbatim (word for word) quotation
without clear acknowledgement.
■ Cutting and pasting from the Internet
without clear acknowledgement
■ Paraphrasing
■ Collusion
■ Inaccurate citation
■ Failure to acknowledge assistance
Common Types of Plagiarism (According to
Bowdoin College)
1. Direct Plagiarism
 Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word
transcription of a section of someone else’s
work, without attribution and without
quotation marks. The deliberate plagiarism
of someone else's work is unethical,
academically dishonest, and grounds for
disciplinary actions, including expulsion.
2. Self Plagiarism
 Self-plagiarism occurs when a student
submits his or her own previous work, or
mixes parts of previous works, without
permission from all professors involved. For
example, it would be unacceptable to
incorporate part of a term paper you wrote
in high school into a paper assigned in a
college course. Self-plagiarism also applies
to submitting the same piece of work for
assignments in different classes without
previous permission from both professors.
3. Mosaic Plagiarism
 Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student
borrows phrases from a source without
using quotation marks, or finds synonyms
for the author’s language while keeping to
the same general structure and meaning of
the original. Sometimes called “patch
writing,” this kind of paraphrasing, whether
intentional or not, is academically dishonest
and punishable – even if you footnote your
source!
4. Accidental Plagiarism
 Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person
neglects to cite their sources, or misquotes
their sources, or unintentionally
paraphrases a source by using similar
words, groups of words, and/or sentence
structure without attribution.
RELIABILTY OF A TEST
Test reliability is the definition of how consistent a
measure is of a particular element over a period of
time, and between different participants. For
example, a test measuring personality traits should
yield the same answers for a subject after several
times completing the test, and with a short period
of time between (so long as the individual has not
inherently changed personality traits).
Reliability is highly important for psychological
research. This is because it tests if the study fulfills
its predicted aims and hypothesis and also ensures
that the results are due to the study and not any
possible extraneous variables.
Reliability has sub-types that must be satisfied
before a test or assessment is deemed as so:
 Test-retest reliability
-relates to the measure of reliability that
has been obtained by conducting the same
test more than one time over period of time
with the participation of the same sample
group.
Example:
Employees of ABC Company may be asked
to complete the same questionnaire
about employee job satisfaction two times
with an interval of one week, so that test
results can be compared to assess stability
of scores.
 Parallel forms reliability
- relates to a measure that is obtained by
conducting assessment of the same
phenomena with the participation of the
same sample group via more than one
assessment method.
Example:
The levels of employee satisfaction of ABC
Company may be assessed with
questionnaires, in-depth interviews and
focus groups and results can be compared.
  Inter-rater reliability
-as the name indicates relates to the
measure of sets of results obtained by
different assessors using same methods.
Benefits and importance of assessing inter-
rater reliability can be explained by
referring to subjectivity of assessments.
 Internal consistency reliability
-is applied to assess the extent of
differences within the test items that
explore the same construct produce similar
results. It can be represented in two main
formats:
a) average inter-item correlation is a specific
form of internal consistency that is obtained
by applying the same construct on each
item of the test
b) split-half reliability as another type of
internal consistency reliability involves all items
of a test to be ‘splitted in half’.
Other Factors
There are always going to be minor
discrepancies in the overall reliability of a test, as it
is near impossible to find every defect; also,
individuals taking the test are able to answer freely
and may have different thoughts or feelings from
one day to the next. We can look at this in two
ways: factors that contribute to consistency, and
factors that contribute to inconsistency.
Consistency is attributed to stable traits or
characteristics within the individual taking the test,
for example height and weight. Inconsistency is
attributed to many different things, for example,
the health of the participant on test day, their
understanding of the test, or luck in choosing a
randomly correct answer.
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH
Ethical Standards are principles that when followed,
promote values such as trust, good behavior, fairness,
and/or kindness.
These are several reasons why it is important to
adhere to ethical norms in research.
 Promote the aims of research
 Promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work
 Researchers can be held accountable to the
public
 Build public support for research
 Promote a variety of other important moral
and social values
Norms promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
 For example, prohibitions against fabricating,
falsifying, or misrepresenting research data
promote the truth and minimize error.
Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation
and coordination among many different people in
different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards
promote the values that are essential to collaborative
work.
1. Trust
2. Mutual Respect
3. Accountability
4. Fairness
Ethical norms in research also help to build public
support for research.
 People are more likely to fund a research project
if they can trust the quality and integrity of
research.
Many of the norms of research promote a variety of
other important moral and social values.
1. Social Responsibility
2. Human Rights
3. Animal Welfare
4. Compliance with the Law
5. Public Health and Safety
Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human
and animal subjects, students, and the public.
For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a
clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a
researcher who fails to abide by regulations and
guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may
jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety
of staff and students.
INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS
WHY INTERPRET RESEARCH RESULTS?
 Interpreting your findings is about seeing
whether what you found confirms or does
not confirm the findings of previous studies
in your literature review.
 And simply because numbers do not speak
for themselves.
FOR EXAMPLE:What does it means that 55 youth
reported change in behavior, or 25% of participants
rated the program a 5 and 75% rated it a 4? What
does these numbers mean?
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the data that has been collected,
analyzed, and presented after an analytical and or
experimental study.
 Reflects the researcher’s own understanding
of the research results which are guided by
logic and reason, established theories and
previous findings.
 This is the process of attaching meaning to
the data.
TYPES OF DATA TO INTERPRET
QUALITATIVE DATA
 Includes narratives, logs , experience from
Focus groups, interviews, open-ended
survey items, diaries and journals, notes
from observations and etc.
 This is also defined as the data that
approximates and characterizes.
 This requires understanding, digesting,
synthesizing, conceptualizing descriptions of
feelings, behaviors, experiences and ideas.
 Qualitative data interpretation tends to be
more subjective in nature and many times
can be influenced by the researcher’s biases
(Leed and Ormrod, 2001).
QUANTITATIVE DATA
 Is any quantifiable information that can be
used for mathematical calculation or
statistical analysis.
 This form of data helps in making real-life
decisions based on mathematical
derivations.
 this is a data that is numerical, counted, or
compared on a scale like Demographic data,
answers to closed-ended survey items,
attendance data, and scores on
standardized instruments etc.
 This is used to answer questions like how
many? How often? How much? This data
and how they can be defined.
TECHNIQUES IN INTERPRETING RESEARCH
RESULTS
 Give reasonable explanations of the
relations found.
 Find out the thread of uniformity that lies
under the surface layer of diversified
research findings.
EXPECTED VS. UNEXPECTED RESULTS
A contradictory result does not mean that the
study is bad or incorrect, but it suggest the idea of
further investigation.
An unexpected result maybe attributed to the
research methodology- the research design,
sampling procedure, the research instrument, data
gathering procedures and statistical treatment.
STATISTICAL TOOLS
Two main statistical methods used in data
analysis:
Descriptive statistics summarize data from a
sample using indexes such as the mean or standard
deviation. It deals with the presentation and
collection of data. This is usually the first part of a
statistical analysis. It is usually not as simple as it
sounds, and the statistician needs to be aware of
designing experiments, choosing the right focus
group and avoid biases that are so easy to creep
into the experiment.
Inferential statistics involves drawing the right
conclusions from the statistical analysis that has
been performed using descriptive statistics. In the
end, it is the inferences that make studies
important and this aspect is dealt with in
inferential statistics.
It draws conclusions from data that are subject to
random variation (e.g., observational errors,
sampling variation). Inferences on mathematical
statistics are made under the framework of
probability theory, which deals with the analysis of
random phenomena.
In statistics, the Pearson correlation coefficient
also referred to as Pearson's r, the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient (PPMCC)
or the bivariate correlation WHICH is a measure of
the linear correlation between two variables X and
Y.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient is the test
statistics that measures the statistical relationship,
or association, between two continuous variables is
known as the best method of measuring the
association between variables of interest because
it is based on the method of covariance. It gives
information about the magnitude of the
association, or correlation, as well as the direction
of the relationship.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of
statistical models and their associated estimation
procedures (such as the "variation" among and
between groups) used to analyze the differences
among group means in a sample.
Two Main Types Of TEST: one-way | two-way
One-Way ANOVA between groups: is used to
compare two means from two independent
(unrelated) groups using the F-distribution. The null
hypothesis for the test is that the two means are
equal. Therefore, a significant result means that
the two means are unequal.
Two-Way ANOVA without replication: used when
you have one group and you’re double-testing that
same group. Two way ANOVA with replication:
Two groups, and the members of those groups are
doing more than one thing.

Chi-squared test also written as χ² test, is any

statistical hypothesis test where the sampling
distribution of the test statistic is a
chi-squared distribution when the null hypothesis
is true. Without other qualification, 'chi-squared
test' often is used as short for Pearson's
chi-squared test.
The chi-squared test is used to determine whether
there is a significant difference between the
expected frequencies and the observed
frequencies in one or more categories. A chi-
squared test can be used to attempt rejection of
the null hypothesis that the data are independent.