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Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349

COD and BOD removal from domestic wastewater

generated in decentralised sectors
Rani Devi *, R.P. Dahiya
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, Delhi 110 016, India

Received 26 October 2006; received in revised form 13 December 2006; accepted 14 December 2006
Available online 15 February 2007

Abstract

The objective of this work is to study COD and BOD reduction of domestic wastewater using discarded material based mixed adsor-
bents (mixed adsorbent carbon, MAC and commercial activated carbon, CAC) in batch mode. Under optimum conditions, maximum
reduction and maximum COD and BOD reduction achieved using MAC and CAC was 95.87% and 97.45%; and 99.05% and 99.54%,
respectively. Results showed that MAC offered potential benefits for COD and BOD removal from wastewater.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Adsorbents; BOD; COD; Decentralized sectors; Wastewater treatment

1. Introduction The conventional wastewater treatment technologies as

In decentralized communities the management of domes-
tic wastewater has become a big problem particularly with
improvement in living standard of people. For this, suffi-
cient capacity is not available for handling this domestic
wastewater. Bulk of this wastewater is either discharged in
open channels or accumulates in low-lying areas or flows
through natural open drains. Some affluent people, how-
ever, use individual captive wastewater storage wells.
It is well known that the wastewater from domestic ori-
gin typically contains pathogens, suspended solids, nutri-
ents (nitrogen and phosphorus) and other organic
pollutants (Andrew et al., 1997). For curtailing the envi-
ronmental and health hazards, these pollutants need to
be brought down to permissible limits for safe disposal of
wastewater (Manju et al., 1998; Poots et al., 1978). There-
fore, removal of the organic contaminants and pathogens
from wastewater is of paramount importance for its reuse
in different activities (Ali and Deo, 1992; Chen, 1997; Raj
et al., 1997).
*
Corresponding author. Present address: H. No. 1357, Sector 15,
Faridabad 121 007, Haryana, India. Tel.: +91 1294006166/67.
E-mail address: rani_sahu@yahoo.com (Rani Devi).
adopted in industrialized nations are expensive to build,
operate and maintain (Mazumder and Roy, 2000; Piet
et al., 1994; Mazumder and Kumar, 1999), especially for
decentralized communities.
Research efforts are going on (Mohammed et al., 1998;
Wang et al., 2005) for the development of treatment tech-
nologies suited to these decentralized communities. Fly
ash can be used as a promising adsorbent for removal of
various types of pollutants from wastewater (Wang and
Wu, 2006). Low-cost adsorbents of different origin like
industrial waste material, bagasse fly ash and jute-process-
ing waste can also be used for removal of organic matter
from wastewater (Bhatnagar, 2007; Srivastava et al.,
2005; Banerje and Dastidar, 2005). Another factor regard-
ing adsorption is that carbon content of adsorbents plays a
significant role in the adsorption of organic impurities
(Mott and Weber, 1992). The adsorption capacity increases
with the increased carbon content of the adsorbent. Such a
trend has been observed by various other investigators
(Mancy et al., 1964; Rai and Surendra Kumar, 1999).
To comply with the stringent regulations and to restore
safe environment, it has become imperative to find less
costly and easily adaptable treatment technologies.
Adsorption-based innovative technology (Rani Devi

0960-8524/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.12.017
 Rani Devi, R.P. Dahiya / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349
et al., 2002; Rani Devi and Dahiya, 2006) developed with
low-cost carbonaceous materials showed good potential,
more so for COD removal from the domestic wastewater.
Thus, the adsorption approach can offer a simple and eco-
nomic solution to the environmental challenges.
This paper is focused on the evaluation of adsorption
capacity of discarded material based mixed adsorbent car-
bon for removal of COD and BOD from domestic waste-
water generated in decentralized sectors.
2. Methods
2.1. Materials
Samples of waster water were collected from a domestic
wastewater discharge channel and stored at 2–3 C.
Adsorbent used in the present study was prepared by
mixing equal ratios of coconut coir, sugarcane bagasse,
sawdust and fly ash. Raw materials used in the preparation
of adsorbents for the present study were collected locally.
The mixed adsorbent carbon (MAC) prepared in this
way had the important characteristics like surface area
7901 · 106 m3/kg, particle density 180 kg/m3 and moisture
content 4.5%.
For standardization of the results, experiments were
conducted with commercial activated carbon also. The
important characteristics of commercial activated carbon
(Calgon Co-Filtrasorb 400) prescribed by the manufacturer
were: surface area 0.9 · 106 m3/kg, particle density 175 kg/
m3 and moisture content was 5.8%.
2.2. Methods
The pH and temperature of the wastewater samples
were measured on collection site. Electrical conductance,
turbidity, total solids, total suspended solids, total dis-
solved solids, BOD, most probable number (MPN) and
COD were analyzed in laboratory according to the meth-
ods prescribed in APHA (American Public Health Associ-
ation, 1989) handbook. In this paper, we have studied the
removal of COD and BOD only. The COD and BOD of
the wastewater samples were measured in laboratory
before and after treatment with the adsorbents.
2.2.1. Batch mode treatment of wastewater samples
All the experiments were carried out at ambient temper-
ature (25 C) in batch mode. The batch experiments were
run in different flasks of 250 ml capacity using an average
speed shaker. Adsorption experiments were conducted in
different batches for all the adsorbents separately, where
the adsorbent treatment time, adsorbent dose, pH of the
solution, initial COD and BOD concentrations, agitation
speed and adsorbent particle size were changed for the dif-
ferent sets of experiments.
The influence of various operating parameters was stud-
ied by varying one parameter and keeping the others con-
stant. Stirring speed of the shaker was kept constant for
345
each run throughout the experiment, ensuring equal mix-
ing, except for those, which were meant for investigating
the effect of agitation speed. The desired pH was main-
tained using dilute NaOH (0.1 N)/HCl (0.1 N) solutions.
Each flask was filled with a known volume of sample hav-
ing desired pH and stirring was started. The sample was
withdrawn from the shaker at predetermined time inter-
vals, filtered through Whatmann No. 44 filter paper and
analysed for COD and BOD.
Effect of contact time of the adsorbents with wastewater
sample was investigated by agitating 100 ml sample and
adding 4 g adsorbent for different time periods varying
between 30 and 300 min. Initial COD and BOD of the sam-
ple was 1080 and 505 mg/l, respectively, pH 7.2, agitation
speed 600 rpm and adsorbent particle size 6 2.8 mm. The
treated samples were withdrawn from shaker at predeter-
mined time intervals, filtered and the residual COD and
BOD concentrations were measured.
To determine the contribution of the adsorbent dose to
COD and BOD reduction, 100 ml of sample was treated
with different doses of adsorbent ranging between 20 and
70 g/l, the other conditions includes treatment time of
180 min for CAC and 150 min for MAC, pH 7.2, initial
COD and BOD of the sample was 1080 and 505 mg/l,
respectively, agitation speed 600 rpm and adsorbent parti-
cle size 6 2.8 mm. The samples were agitated for specific
time intervals, filtered and then analyzed for the residual
COD and BOD concentration.
The pH study was performed with constant initial con-
centration, adsorbent dose, and contact time but varying
the pH values from 1 to 12 using dilute NaOH or HCl solu-
tions. The samples were agitated for specific time, filtered
and then analyzed for residual COD and BOD
concentration.
The initial COD and BOD concentration study was per-
formed by keeping all the other conditions constant except
changing the initial COD and BOD concentration ranging
from 200 to 1200 mg/l and from 100 to 700 mg/l,
respectively.
The effect of agitation speed and adsorbent particle size
on the COD and BOD reduction was also studied. As
usual, one parameter was varied for one set of experiments.
Discrete values of the agitation speed kept between
100 rpm (revolution per min) and 800 rpm and adsorbent
particle with upper limit on their size as category A
(62.8 mm), B (60.710 mm), C (60.075 mm) and D
(60.053 mm).
3. Results and discussion
The domestic wastewater was polluted with organic load
plus dissolved and suspended matter as shown in Table 1.
Organic load was reflected in terms of COD, BOD and
most probable number (MPN). We were concerned only
with COD and BOD reduction by using discarded material
based mixed adsorbent carbon.
346 Rani Devi, R.P. Dahiya / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349

Table 1 100
Physico-chemical analysis of domestic wastewater and CPCB permissible
limits 95
Parameters Values Maximum permissible limits
(CPCB norms) 90

% reduction
pH 7.2 6.8–8.5
Electrical conductance 3.1 · 104 1 · 103 85
% COD by CAC
(mho/cm)
Temperature (C) 20.5 16–32 % BOD by CAC
80
Turbidity (nephalometer 320 5–10 % COD by MAC
turbidity unit) 75 % BOD by MAC
Total solids (mg/l) 1031 500
Total suspended solids 341 10–50
70
(mg/l) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Total dissolved solids 690 450
Treatment time (min)
(mg/l)
Chemical oxygen demand 1080 100 Fig. 1. Effect of treatment time on percentage COD and percentage BOD
(mg/l) reduction by mixed adsorbent carbon (MAC) and commercial activated
Biochemical oxygen 505 20–30 carbon (CAC). Initial COD concentration: 1080 mg/l, initial BOD
demand (mg/l) concentration: 505 mg/l, adsorbent dose: 40 g/l, pH 7.2, agitation speed:
MPN (coliform cells/ 2 · 109 1.5 · 107 600 rpm, adsorbent particle size 6 2.8 mm.
100 ml)

The COD and BOD concentrations were very high com- 100

pared to their permissible limits, for irrigation and horticul- 99

tural uses as prescribed by the Central Pollution Control 98
Board (CPCB), India for wastewater parameters as shown 97
in Table 1. The wastewater was treated under batch mode
% reduction

96
operation with mixed adsorbent carbon and COD and 95
BOD concentrations were measured before and after treat- 94
ment with the adsorbent. The important operating param- 93 % COD by CAC
eters taken into consideration for the present study were: % BOD by CAC
92
adsorbent treatment time, adsorbent dose, pH of the med- % COD by MAC
91
ium, initial COD/BOD concentration of the wastewater, % BOD by MAC
90
agitation speed and adsorbent particle size. 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Adsorbent dose (g/l)
3.1. Adsorbent treatment time
Fig. 2. Effect of adsorbent dose on percentage COD and percentage BOD
reduction by commercial activated carbon and mixed adsorbent carbon.
Effect of percentage COD and BOD reduction was stud- Initial COD concentration: 1080 mg/l, initial BOD concentration: 505 mg/
ied as a function of treatment time with mixed adsorbent l, treatment time: for CAC 180 min and for MAC 150 min, pH 7.2,
carbon (MAC) as shown in Fig. 1. Commercial activated agitation speed: 600 rpm, adsorbent particle size 6 2.8 mm.
carbon (CAC) has been taken for comparing with the
results. The percentage reduction of COD and BOD with
MAC. Equilibrium was reached corresponding to 40 g/l
mixed adsorbent carbon was 93.84% and 95.78% after a
and 35 g/l of adsorbent dose with commercial activated
treatment time of 150 min, whereas the maximum reduc-
carbon and mixed adsorbent carbon, respectively. Percent-
tion of COD and BOD with commercial activated carbon
age reduction of BOD was greater than that of COD at all
was 94.0% and 98.07%, respectively after a treatment time
the adsorbent doses and was also comparable for mixed
of 180 min. As the treatment time progressed, the adsor-
adsorbent carbon to commercial activated carbon.
bent sites had the tendency towards saturation. Difference
The adsorption studies conducted at fixed initial COD
between the adsorption capacities could be attributed to
concentration and varying adsorbent dose were fitted to
the difference of number of carbonaceous adsorption sites
Freundlich isotherm (Faust and Aly, 1986) of the form:
in the different adsorbents.
x
¼ kC e1=n
3.2. Adsorbent dose m
where, x/m (mg/g) was the amount of COD removed (x)
A study was done on the effect of adsorbent dose on per- per unit mass of adsorbent (m), Ce (mg/l) was residual
centage reduction of COD and BOD with mixed adsorbent COD concentration of aqueous solution, k and 1/n being
carbon as shown in Fig. 2. Here, the treatment time was Freundlich constants and measure of adsorption capacity
kept constant at 180 min for CAC, and 150 min for and adsorption intensity, respectively.
 Rani Devi, R.P. Dahiya / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349
The slope 1/n was dependent on the order of the change
in the COD reduction with the change in adsorbent con-
centration, while k was dependent on the extent of removal
of COD by the adsorbents. The values of Freundlich iso-
therm constants 1/n and k corresponding to the MAC
and CAC were 0.175 and 0.999 and 0.036 and 1.098,
respectively as calculated from Fig. 3. Commercial acti-
vated carbon and mixed adsorbent carbon had the compa-
rable values of 1/n and k. So MAC showed comparable
adsorption capacity and adsorption intensity with CAC.
3.3. pH
The effect of pH on the COD and BOD reduction from
wastewater is shown in Fig. 4. The optimum pH for max-
imum adsorption of organic impurities from wastewater by
commercial activated carbon was 2 and by mixed adsor-
bent carbon was 7. It was clear that CAC shows better
adsorption at lower pH and MAC at higher pH values.
Thus, CAC showed maximum adsorption in the domain
of acidic pH while MAC in the neutral pH domain.
The reason for better adsorption capacity observed at
lower pH levels might be attributed to the presence of lar-
ger number of H+ ions. This in turn, neutralized the nega-
tively charged adsorbent surface (oxides of aluminum,
calcium, silicon, iron, etc. were abundant in adsorbents),
thereby reducing hindrance to the diffusion of organic mol-
ecules. The reduction in adsorption at higher pH, on the
other hand, might be possible due to the abundance of
OH ions, causing increased hindrance to the diffusion of
organic (contributing to COD) ions (Das and Patnaik,
2001). The hydroxylate surfaces of these oxides in aqueous
medium were also reported (Das and Patnaik, 2001; Sarkar
et al., 2006) to undergo dissociation and also contribute to
the adsorption process. Our observations on COD and
BOD reduction with pH were similar to those reported
by Manka et al. (1974); Liskowitz et al. (1980); Mall
et al. (1994). Lowering of pH of the wastewater, however,
2
1.6
log x/m
1.2
MAC
CAC
0.8
1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.9
log Ce
Fig. 3. Freundlich plot for COD reduction by mixed adsorbent carbon
and CAC. Initial COD concentration: 1080 mg/l, initial BOD concentra-
tion: 505 mg/l, treatment time: for CAC 180 min and for MAC 150 min,
pH 7.2, agitation speed: 600 rpm, adsorbent particle size 6 2.8 mm.
347
% reduction
90
% COD by CAC
% BOD by CAC
% COD by MAC
% BOD by MAC
70
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
pH
Fig. 4. Effect of pH on percentage COD and percentage BOD reduction
by commercial activated carbon and mixed adsorbent carbon. Initial COD
concentration: 1080 mg/l, initial BOD concentration: 505 mg/l, treatment
time: for CAC 180 min, for MAC 150 min; adsorbent dose: for CAC 40 g/
l, and MAC 35 g/l, agitation speed: 600 rpm, adsorbent particle size
6 2.8 mm.
was achieved by adding 0.1 N H2SO4 which otherwise
could have amounted to additional cost of the process. It
was, therefore, not attractive to lower the pH below its
usual value.
3.4. Initial COD and BOD concentration
The effect of initial COD and BOD concentration of the
wastewater solution on the percentage COD and BOD
reduction by CAC and MAC is shown in Fig. 5. The per-
centage COD and BOD reduction with MAC and CAC
was found to increase with increase in the initial COD
and BOD concentration, and after reaching to saturation
levels, it was decreasing. The rate of adsorption increased
because of the increasing driving force. But at 1100 mg/l
of initial COD concentration and 500 mg/l of initial BOD
concentration, the curves reached saturation point. It was
expected due to the saturation of adsorbent sites and hence
the ratios of the initial number of adsorbate molecules to
the available adsorption sites of the adsorbent diminish
accordingly.
3.5. Agitation speed
To investigate the effect of agitation speed on percentage
COD and BOD reduction with MAC and CAC, the agita-
tion speed was kept between 100 rpm and 800 rpm. Fig. 6
showed that there was a very slow trend for the percentage
COD and BOD reduction with the agitation speed for
4.3 CAC and MAC. Maximum COD and BOD reduction
was observed around 600 rpm for both the adsorbents.
But at higher agitation speeds, the loosely attached mole-
cules might re-enter into the adsorbate, lowering the per-
centage COD and percentage BOD reduction. Therefore
we kept the agitation speed at 600 rpm to see the effect of
348 Rani Devi, R.P. Dahiya / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349

105 Table 2
Optimum operating conditions for maximum COD and BOD reduction
with MAC and CAC
100
Treatment conditions MAC CAC
95 Treatment time (min) 150 180
Adsorbent dose (g/l) 35 40
% reduction

pH 7 2
90
Initial COD/BOD conc. (mg/l) 1080/505 1080/505
Agitation speed (rpm) 600 600
85 % COD by CAC Adsorbent particle size (mm) 60.053 60.053
% BOD by CAC

80 % COD by MAC
% BOD by MAC
CAC were 95.87% and 97.45%; and 99.05% and 99.54%,
75 respectively. Obviously, the percentage COD and percent-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 age BOD reduction for both the adsorbents were maximum
Initial COD and BOD concentration (mg/l) at particle size of category D and the minimum reductions
Fig. 5. Effect of initial COD and BOD concentration on percentage COD
in COD and BOD was obtained corresponding to category
and percentage BOD reduction by commercial activated carbon and A for both the adsorbents. From this study, it was quite
mixed adsorbent carbon. Treatment time: for CAC 180 min and for MAC clear that smaller particles in a given quantity of powder
150 min; adsorbent dose for CAC 40 g/l and MAC 35 g/l, pH for CAC is 2 would have larger surface area and surface had been
and for MAC is 7, agitation speed: 600 rpm, adsorbent particle size directly proportional with the adsorption capacity.
6 2.8 mm.

3.7. Maximum COD and BOD reduction

100
We had tried to obtain conditions for the maximum
COD and BOD reduction for both the adsorbents. The
optimum operating conditions for getting maximum
COD/BOD reduction from wastewater with MAC were
% reduction

treatment time: 150 min, adsorbent dose: 35 g/l, pH 7, ini-

90 tial COD/BOD concentration: 1080/505 mg/l, agitation
speed: 600 rpm and adsorbent particle size 6 0.053 mm
% COD by CAC
% BOD by CAC
and with CAC these were treatment time: 180 min, adsor-
% COD by MAC bent dose: 40 g/l, pH 2, initial COD/BOD concentration:
% BOD by MAC 1080/505 mg/l, agitation speed: 600 rpm and adsorbent par-
80
ticle size 6 0.053 mm, as shown in Table 2. It could be
0 200 400 600 800 1000 inferred from the experimental results presented in this
Agitation speed (rpm) paper that concentrations of COD and BOD remaining
Fig. 6. Effect of agitation speed on percentage COD and percentage BOD
after treatment with mixed adsorbent carbon were compa-
reduction by commercial activated carbon and mixed adsorbent carbon. rable with commercial activated carbon and were within
Initial COD concentration: 1080 mg/l, initial BOD concentration: 505 mg/ the permissible limits of CPCB standards as shown in Table
l, treatment time: for CAC 180 min and for MAC 150 min, adsorbent dose 1. These results could be utilized for working out the design
for CAC 40 g/l and MAC 35 g/l, pH for CAC is 2 and for MAC is 7, parameters of an adsorption-based decentralized wastewa-
adsorbent particle size 6 2.8 mm.
ter treatment system. Moreover, if mixed adsorbent carbon
was added in secondary treatment tank for the effluent
percentage COD and BOD reduction by both the treatment, there could be a good saving of energy, which
adsorbents. otherwise had been consumed in aeration process.

3.6. Adsorbent particle size 4. Conclusions

For observing the effect of adsorbent particle size on
percentage COD and percentage BOD reduction from
wastewater, they had been segregated in four categories
with upper limit on their size as category A (62.8 mm), B
(60.71 mm), C (60.075 mm) and D (60.053 mm). From
the study, it was found that adsorbent particle size had sig-
nificant influence on percentage reduction of COD and
BOD with MAC and CAC. The values for percentage
COD and percentage BOD reduction with MAC and
From this study it is concluded that mixed adsorbent
carbon shows a good potential for domestic wastewater
treatment in the decentralized communities of the world
in general, and developing countries in particular. Using
this innovative technique, the COD and BOD can effec-
tively be curtailed from the wastewater. For building a
standalone treatment unit in the decentralized sectors, the
parameters of optimum operating conditions as studied,
can be used for maximum removal of COD and BOD from
 Rani Devi, R.P. Dahiya / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 344–349
domestic wastewater. It is also inferred that the adsorbents
may be incorporated in the conventional treatment system
along with the aeration process as it may provide better
treatment results with low energy consumption. Moreover,
it might be a good practice for the decentralized communi-
ties where supply of energy is a problem and not available
in sufficient quantity.
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