FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY NOTES

MPP MATH CAMP 2017

1. Functions

Recommended Reading: Section 1.1 of Applied Calculus by Hoffman and Bradley.

Definition. A function is a rule that assigns every object in a set X a new object in a set Y .

There are many ways to think of functions: a machine that eats a number and spits out another number,

a graph, or a mapping between X and Y . They are useful in social sciences because the value/quantity

of one object often depends on the value/quantity of another. A function can describe that relationship

mathematically.

Example. The map f (x) = x2 is a function from R to R. It takes in real numbers as its input, and outputs

their square. Notice that the output is a single value for every specific input.

A function does not have to be defined by a single rule as in the previous example. Piece-wise functions

are defined by different rules on different intervals.

Example. The piece-wise map 


1
 if x > 0,
f (x) =

−1
 if x < 10

is not a function, because it does not a assign a single value to x = 2 (or any other value of x between 0 and

10).

A function can even be defined only at specific points.

Example. Suppose you have a (completely fictional) data set that looks at a school’s budget and average

test scores.
Annual School Budget in USD Average ACT Score

656, 247 24

700, 255 25

923, 456 26
1
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This gives you a function from X = {budget amounts} to Y = {ACT scores}. By analyzing this function,

you may be able to determine if there is a relationship between budget and average test score.

Definition. If f is a function from X to Y , then X is called the range of f . The domain of f is the set of

elements y in Y such that f (x) = y for some x in X.

Our domains and ranges will usually be intervals on the real number line. These are denoted as follows:

(a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b} [a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}

[a, b) = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b} (a, b] = {x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b}

If we want, we can use +∞ or −∞ in place of a or b to denote an infinite interval.

Sometimes, the domain of a function is not made explicitly clear. In this case, the implicit domain is the

set of real numbers for which the function is defined.

√
Example. Find the implicit domain of the function f (x) = x − 1.

Since we can’t take the square root of a negative number, this is only defined when x−1 ≥ 0. Equivalently,

we need x ≥ 1. So the implicit domain of f is [1, +∞), and its range is [0, +∞)

Functions can be put together in several ways. We can add and multiply functions, for example:

f (x)
h(x) = f (x) + g(x), k(x) = f (x) · g(x), j(x) = .
g(x)

Notice that the range of h, k, and j will depend on the ranges and domains of f and g.
√
Example. Let f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = (x + 1)2 + 10. Find the (implicit) domain and range of h(x), k(x),

and j(x).
Domain Range

f (x) [1, +∞) [0, +∞)

g(x) R [10, +∞)

h(x) [1, +∞) [10, +∞)

k(x) [1, +∞) [0, +∞)

j(x) [1, +∞) [0, +∞)

We can also compose functions:

h(x) = f (g(x)) = f ◦ g(x).

√ √
We have already seen this in action. If f (x) = x and g(x) = x − 1, then f (g(x)) = x − 1. We can also do

this with more exciting functions. As before, the domain and range of a composition of functions depends

on the composite functions.

 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY NOTES 3

√
Example. Let f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = (x + 1)2 + 10. If h(x) = f (g(x)) and k(x) = g(f (x)), then find the

domain and range of h(x) and k(x).

Domain Range

f (x) [1, +∞) [0, +∞)

g(x) R [10, +∞)

h(x) R [3, +∞)

k(x) [1, +∞) [11, +∞)

Example. Common functions with their domains and ranges:

Name of Function Denoted Domain Range

Identity f (x) = x R R

Constant f (x) = c R R

Polynomials f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 R depends!

P (x)
Rational Functions f (x) = Q(x) where, P , Q are polynomials depends! depends!


x if x ≥ 0,

Absolute Value f (x) = |x| = R [0, +∞)

−x if x ≤ 0


Exponential f (x) = ax R (0, +∞)

Logarithm f (x) = loga (x) (0, +∞) R

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Review: Exponentials and Logs For any real number a and natural number n, we define

an = aa · · · a, the product of n copies of a, and we define a0 = 1. We define a−n so that

a−n · an = 1. In other words, a−n = a1n . We define a1/n so that (a1/n )n = 1. In other words,
√
a1/n = n a. Then for irrational x, we define ax so that f (x) = ax is continuous.

We define loga (b) to be the number x such that ax = b. In other words,

aloga (b) = a.

Notice that if a (x) = ax , then loga ◦ expa (x) = expa ◦ loga (x) = x, whenever these are

defined.

Rules of Exponents For a > 0 and any x, y ∈ R, we have

• ax · ay = ax+y

• ax /ay = ax−y

• (ax )y = axy .

Rules of Logarithms For a, b, x, y > 0 and b 6= 1, we have

• loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y)

• loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y)

• loga (xn ) = n loga (x)

• loga (x) loglog

b (x)
(a).
b
 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY NOTES 5

2. Limits

Recommended Reading: Sections 1.5-1.6 of “Applied Calculus” by Hoffman and Bradley.

The difference between algebra and calculus comes down to limits - the analysis of the behavior of a

function as it approaches some point (which may or may not be in the domain of the function!). This comes

up in the real world all the time: any time a model uses “ideal” conditions, we are looking at a limit.

The key idea in limits is to get steadily closer approximations, and look at the pattern made by these

approximations. The first example of this principle in action comes from the Greeks, who approximated the

area of a circle using successively smaller triangles. However, the method wasn’t formalized until the 19th

century (actually after the invention/discovery of Calculus by Newton and Leibniz).

Definition. A function f has a limit L at a if for all  > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ

implies that |f (x) − L| < . We write this as

lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Example. The following simple functions have limits (everywhere). We can prove the following statements

from the definition.

• Let f (x) = 0. Then the limit of f at 0 is 0.

• Let g(x) = x. Then the limit of f at 1 is 1.

But we can also use some simple properties of limits to make some calculations easier.

Theorem 2.1. (Algebraic Properties of Limits) If limx→a f (x) = F and limx→a g(x) = G, then

(1) limx→a (f (x) + g(x)) = F + G,

(2) limx→a (f (x) − g(x)) = F − G,

(3) limx→a (f (x) · g(x)) = F · G,

f (x) F
(4) limx→a g(x) = G, if G 6= 0,

(5) limx→a kf (x) = kF for any k ∈ R, and

(6) limx→a (f (x))p = F p for any p ∈ R.

Example. We can prove the following using the algebraic properties of limits.

• limx→0 x2 + 3 = 3
x− 4
• limx→2 x2 −5x+6
√
x−1
• limx→1 x−1
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Sometimes, we only know (or care) about half of our function. In these cases, we may want to consider

one-sided limits.

Definition. A function f has a right- (left-)handed limit L at a if for all  > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such

that 0 < x − a < δ (0 < a − x < δ) implies |f (x) − L| ≤ . We denote the right- and left- handed limits by

lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L,

x→a+ x→a−

respectively.

Note that a function has a limit L at a if and only if both the right- and left-handed limits of f at a are

L.

Example. Suppose we have a piecewise function



x
 if x > 1
f (x) =

0
 if x ≤ 1.

Then limx→1+ = 1, limx→1− = 0, and limx→1 does not exist.

In addition to non-existence, some functions can have a limit of ±∞.

Example. If f (x) = x1 , then f is not defined at 0. But limx→0+ 1

x = +∞.

Example. A special case of one-sided limits is taking a limit “at infinity.”

• limx→+∞ 0 = 0
1
• limx→+∞ x =0


1
 if [x] is even,
• Let f (x) = Then limx→+∞ f (x) does not exist.

−1
 if [x] is odd
 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY NOTES 7

3. Continuity

Recommended Reading: Section 1.6 of “Applied Calculus” by Hoffman and Bradley.

Intuitively, a function is continuous if you can draw its graph without picking up your pencil. If you want

to be rigorous, this is a useless definition. However, it gives a good first approximation.

Definition. A function f is continuous at c if

lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

Note that for a function to be continuous at a point c, limx→c f (x) and f (c) must exist! A function which

is not continuous at a point c has a discontinuity at c. There are different types of discontinuity.

Example. The following functions are discontinuous at 0, in different ways.

1
(1) f (x) = 
x

2x + 1 if x 6= 0,

(2) f (x) =

2
 if x = 0


2x + 1 if x > 0,

(3) f (x) =

2
 if x ≤ 0

 1 if x 6= 0,


x
(4) f (x) =

x if x = 0


 1 if x > 0,


x
(5) f (x) =

x if x ≤ 0


Notice, however, that a function may have more than one discontinuity. In fact, a function can have

infinitely many discontinuities!

Definition. A function is continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at c for all c ∈ (a, b). A

function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if, additionally, the right- and left-handed limits exist at a

and b, respectively, and are equal to f (a) and f (b), respectively.

Example. Consider the function 

1


 if 0 < x < 1
x



f (x) = x if 1 ≤ x < 2





0
 if 2 ≤ x.
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This is continuous on (0, 2) and on [2, +∞). But it is discontinuous at 2.

The functions f (x) = ax and f (x) = loga (x) are continuous everywhere on their domains.

Example. The function f (x) = loga (x2 − 1) is continuous on (1, +∞). It is not continuous on [1, +∞)

because f (1) is not defined.