Lovely G.

Edilo BSEM-V ELECTIVE 2 QUIZ 

1. The history of Explosives

10th Century Black powder or also known as Saltpeter or “Niter” was probably originated with the
Chinese (mostly for fireworks, rockets, etc.)
Mid-13th Century Roger Bacon, a European, found the perfect ratio of saltpeter, sulphur, and a new
ingredient, charcoal. He made and recorded the first black powder (the early form of gun
powder). He didn’t get credit for the making of black powder because he didn’t use his
invention.
1242 Roger Bacon published a formula for Black Powder.

1300 Berthold Schwartz invented the gun which resulted in further refinement of black
powder.
1659 First synthesized Ammonium Nitrate by J.R. Glauber by combining ammonium carbonate
and nitric acid.
Late 17th Century Blasting with powder replaced “fire setting” for loosening rock.
1800 Mercury Fulminate was discovered by Howard. Later used as detonator for Dynamite by
Alfred Nobel.
1846 In Switzerland. Nitroglycerin (NG) and Nitrocellulose (NC) was discovered by Ascanio
Sobrero.
1865 Nobel invented nitroglycerin dynamite in Sweden. He invented the blasting cap, providing
the first safe and dependable means for detonating nitroglycerin and thereby
considerably expanding its use for industrial purposes.
1866 Nobel invented gelatin dynamites.
1867-mid 1950’s Dynamite was the workshoe of the explosive industry.
1935 NITRAMON was introduced by Dupont. He called his products “Blasting Agents” due to
their safe handling, low cost and non-headaches.
1955 Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO) was discovered to greatly increase the energy output
of AN prills. A mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is by far the most widely
used commercial blasting product.

2. Discuss the following:

Fume Class – is the measure of the amount of toxic gases produced in the detonation process. The production of
these gases is most critical in underground and other confined workings. Carbon monoxide and oxides of
nitrogen are the primary gases that are considered in the fume class ratings. Institute of Makers (IME) has
developed a fume class classification scheme as seen in Table 2-4.

Density - the density of an explosive is important because explosives are purchased, stored, and used on a weight
basis. Density is normally expressed in terms of specific gravity, which is the ratio of explosive density to water
density. The density of an explosives determines the weight of explosive that can be loaded into a specific
borehole diameter. A useful expression of density is what is commonly called loading density or the weight of
explosive per foot of charge at specified diameter.
Water resistance - is the ability of an explosive to withstand exposure to water without it suffering detrimental
effects in performance. Explosive products have two types of water resistance, internal and external. Internal
water resistance is defined as water resistance provided by the explosive composition itself. External water
resistance is provided not by the explosive materials itself, but by the packaging or cart ridging into which the
material is placed. The effect which water has on explosives is that it can dissolve or leach some of the ingredients,
or cool the reaction to such a deme that the ideal products of detonation will not form even though the product is
oxygen-balanced.

Temperature effect- Extreme low temperatures affect the stability as well as the performance of explosives. The
sensitivity and detonation velocity are hampered for certain water-based explosives at low temperatures while
dynamites can become dangerously unstable below freezing temperatures. Explosives manufacturers recommend
the appropriate range of temperature for storage and use.

Detonation Velocity - The detonation velocity is the speed at which the detonation front moves through a column
of explosives. For high explosives such as dynamite, the strength of an explosive increases with detonation rate.
For dry blasting agents and water-based explosives, field loading conditions greatly affect detonation velocity.
Such conditions include (not exclusive list):
 borehole diameter
 density
 confinement within the borehole
 the presence of water
The speed of detonation is important when blasting in hard, competent rock where a brisance effect is desired for
good fragmentation. For most explosives, there is a minimum diameter D min below which detonation velocity
increases nonlinearly with increasing borehole diameter as can be seen below. Above D min the explosive has
reached its steady-state velocity. At this point, all thermodynamic properties are at a maximum as
the reaction front approaches a plane shock front. At diameters less than D min, complete reactions do not take
place, and less than ideal energy and pressure evolve from the slower detonation rates. This represents a loss in
terms of dollars spent on explosive energy.

Detonation Pressure - The detonation pressure is the maximum theoretical pressure achieved within the reaction
zone and measured at the C-J plane in a column of explosives. The actual pressure achieved is somewhat less than
this maximum due to non-ideal loading conditions always present in practice and due to certain explosive
formulation. Most commercial explosives achieve pressures in the range of 0.29 to 3.48 x 10 6 psi (2 to 24 GPa).
Although detonation pressure is related to the temperature of the reaction, a number of simplifying formulas are
available for estimating detonation pressure for granular explosives based on detonation velocity and density, for
example (in English units)
 Sensitivity - The definition of explosive sensitivity is two-fold. It includes sensitivity against accidental detonations
in addition to the ease by which explosives can be intentionally detonated. The term properly used to define the
propagating ability of an explosive is sensitiveness. Standardized tests for high explosives have been adapted for
commercial explosives that include the friction (pendulum), impact (fall hammer), and projectile tests, among
others. The No.8 cap is an industry standard cap of specific dimensions and charge characteristics. The air-gap test
measures the distance between the ends of adjacent cartridge explosives for which reliable initiation can be
propagated from one cartridge to another. The critical diameter of an explosive is the
smallest diameter at which an explosive will maintain a steady-state detonation. Below this critical diameter,
explosives may deflagrate or "dead press." Dead pressing occurs when an explosive is densified to a point that
no free oxygen is available to ensure the start or progression of detonation.

Strength - The strength of an explosive is a measure of its ability to break rock. The terms "weight strength" and
"bulk strength" were useful many years ago when explosives were primarily comprised of nitroglycerin cartridges,
packaged in 50 lb (23-kg) boxes.

The performance potential of an explosive is a function of the detonation velocity and density, as well as the
volume of liberated gases and the heat of the reaction. A number of methods are used to establish this energy
including the use of theoretical computer models and tests such as crater, ballistic mortar, and underwater tests.
Of these methods, underwater tests give the best correlation to rockbreakage performance. Underwater tests
were developed to measure both the shock energy and the gas (bubble) energy released during the detonation of
standard test samples. These energy values have been useful in predicting the rock-breaking capabilities of
explosives for comparative purposes.

3. Explain the Detonation Theory

An explosion is a self-propagating, exothermic reaction. The stable end products are gases that are compressed,
under elevated temperature and very high pressures. It is the sudden rise in temperature and pressure from
ambient conditions that results in a shock wave, or a detonation traveling through the un-reacted explosive.
Deflagration is the chemical burning of explosive ingredients at a rate well below the sonic velocity. It is associated
with heat only and carries no shock due to its much slower reaction rate. Deflagration occurs when less than ideal
hole-loading
conditions or explosive formulation are involved.

The maximum energy release upon detonation occurs when the explosive mix is formulated for oxygen balance.
An oxygen-balanced mixture is one in which there is no-excess or deficiency in oxygen, such that the gaseous
products formed are chiefly H2O (water vapor), CO2 (carbon dioxide), and N2 (nitrogen).

The self-sustained shock-wave produced by a chemical reaction in a gaseous medium was described by D.L.
Chapman and E. Jouquet as a space. This space of negligible thickness is bounded by two infinite planes - on one
side of the wave is the un-reacted explosive and on the other, the exploded gases.

Figure 2-30 as being the idealized detonation wave traveling through a cylindrical explosive shape, producing an
increase in pressure. The steady-state chemical reaction takes place behind the shock front within the reaction
 zone. At the end of this zone, a nonsteady-state region exists. It is created by a flow of expanding gases in a
direction
opposite to that of the traveling wave front. Once again, the C-J plane is seen as the boundary between the steady
and non-steady state, where the reactions are considered complete. This is also the plane where all the
thermodynamic properties are calculated.
These are:

p – pressure
V – velocity
T – temperature
E – internal energy or
Q – heat of formation and
ῥ – density

The maximum pressure and duration of a wave pulse is directly proportional to the shock energy and gas pressure
of the explosive, respectively. High explosives such as military explosives or highly sensitive commercial explosives
are characterized by an intense shattering effect upon detonation (known as brisance). They liberate gaseous
products very quickly. The distance between the shock front and the C-J plane is very short and results
in a pressure pulse of high amplitude and short duration. The pressure pulse for less sensitive commercial
explosives shows a decreased pressure amplitude and a longer pulse length. In this case, the reaction is slower and
the gas volume is greater, as seen in Figure 2-31.

4. List common Explosive Ingredients along with their chemical formula.

5. List examples of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Explosives (include their chemical formula).

The primary explosives are able to transit from surface burning to detonation within very small distances.
 Primary Explosives:
- Cupric azide Cu(N3)2
- Hydrazoic acid HN3
- Mercury fulminate H9C2N2O2
- Lead styphnate PbC6H3N3O9
- Silver azide AgN3
- Tetrazene C2H8N10O
- Diazodinitrophenol C6H2N2O(NO2)2
The secondary explosives, too, can burn to detonation, but only in relatively large quantities.
 Secondary Explosives: Liquid
- Methylnitrate CH3NO3
- Nitroglycerin C3H5(NO3)3
- Ethyleneglycoldinitrate C3H4(NO3)2
- Tetranitromethane C(NO2)4
- Nitroform CH(NO2)3
- Dinitromethane CH2(NO2)2
- Nitromethane CH3NO2
- Ethylenedinitramine C2H6N2(NO2)2
- Isopropyle nitrate C3H7NO3

 Secondary Explosives: Solid

- Mannitolhexanitrate (Nitromannit) C6H8(NO3)6
- Trinitroazidobenzene C6H2N3(NO2)3
- Nitrocellulose C24H40-XO20-X(NO3)X
- Pentaerythritoltetranitrate C5H8(NO3)4
- Ditrinitroethylurea C5H6N2O(NO2)6
- Hexanitrostilbene C14H6(NO2)6
- Hexanitrobenzene (hexyl) C6N6O6
- Triazidotrinitrobenzene C6N9(NO2)3
- Picric acid (trinitrophenol) C6H3O(NO2)3
- Picrylaminodinitropyridine C17H7N3(NO2)6
- Ammonium picrate C6H6NO(NO2)6
- Nitrotriazolone C2H2ON3(NO2)
- Trinitroazetidine C3H4N4O6
- Nitroguanidine CH3N3NO2
- Trinitrobenzene C6H3(NO2)3
- Ethylenedinitramine C2H6N2(NO2)2
- Trinitrotoluene (trotyl) C7H5(NO2)3
- Triaminotrinitrobenzene C6H6N3(NO2)3
- Dinitrotoluene C7H6(NO2)2
- Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (Tetryl) C7H5N(NO2)4
- Nitrostarch C12H13O(NO3)
- Hydrazine Nitrate N2H4•HNO3
- Hexanitrohexaazaisowurzitan C6H2N6(NO2)6
- Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (octogen) C4H8N4(NO2)4
- Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (hexogen) C3H6N3(NO2)3
- Diaminotrinitrobenzene C6H5N2(NO2)3
- Monomethylamine nitrate ethylenediaminedinitrate C2H10N6O6

Tertiary explosives are extremely difficult to explode and are in fact officially classed as non-explosives provided
that certain conditions are observed (such as that an oxidizer not be mixed with fuels or sensitizers, and that the
grain size exceeds a certain minimum size.)
 Tertiary Explosives:
- Mononitroluene C2H7NO2
- Ammonium nirate NH4NO3
- Ammonium perchlorate NH4ClO4
6. Define:
 Primers and Boosters
- A primer charge is an explosive ignited by an initiator, which, in turn, initiates a noncap-sensitive
explosive or blasting agent.
- Boosters are highly sensitized explosives or blasting agents, used either in bulk form or in packages of
weights greater than those used for primers. Boosters are placed within the explosive column where
additional breaking energy is required.

 Initiators and Initiation System

- Initiators are devices containing high explosives that, upon receiving an appropriate mechanical, or
electrical impulse, produce a detonation or burning action.
- Initiators are used as components within a system of explosives and other devices to start the
detonation of all other components. Initiation systems are either electric or nonelectric, and include
blasting caps, safety fuse, detonating cord, or non-electric shock tubes.

 Electric Caps
- Electric blasting caps are commonly used method of initiation. Electrical energy (ac or dc) is sent
through copper or iron legwires to heat an internal connecting bridgewire.
 Non – Electric Caps
- Non-electric initiation systems include a cap similar to that of an electric cap, but they are connected
to plastic tubing or a transmission line that carries an initiation (shock and heat) to initiate the cap.
The energy source in the tubing is either a gas mixture or an internal coating of special explosive.

 Electric Detonators
- Electronic detonators have an electronic counter on a microchip in place of the pyrotechnic delay
charge, and a capacitor to supply the discharge energy for ignition.

 Detonating Cords
- Detonating cord is a flexible but strong continuous detonator that can be several hundred meters
long. Detonating cord (sometimes known as Cordtex) consists of a core of PETN enclosed in a tape
 wrapping that is further bound by counter-laced textile yarns. The cord is either reinforced or
completely enclosed by strong waterproof plastic.

Reference:

 Dr. Sean Dessureault, Course Notes-Spring 2013, University of Arizona Mining and Geological Engineering, 415 – Rock Excavation.
 Rock Blasting and Overbreak Control