Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Noise

‘Noise’ is anything extra in a signal that shouldn’t be there, for example hum, hiss,
and interference. Noise can be classified according to whether it arises internally or
externally.

Internal noise

Johnson noise
This arises due to the thermal motion of the atoms making up the components of
electronic circuits.
The RMS value of the random voltage fluctuations between the ends of a resistor, R at
temperature T, measured over a bandwidth B is given by:
Vnoise(RMS) = 4kTRB
In this formula the constant, k, is a fundamental physical constant, called Boltzmann’s
constant. It has a value of 1.38  10–23 Joules per Kelvin, and is an indication of the
amount of energy individual molecules have.
The temperature has to be measured on the absolute, or Kelvin scale. On this scale
there is an absolute zero, below which it is theoretically impossible to go. As you
approach absolute zero the thermal motion of the molecules becomes less and less,
until they are completely still. On the Celsius scale this happens at -273. This
means that you simply add 273 to the Celsius temperature to find the absolute
temperature.
The formula shows that the cooler you can keep a circuit, the less noisy it will be.
The formula also shows that circuits that handle a wide range of frequencies (have
large bandwidth) will be noisier than the equivalent circuit handling a narrow range.
Example: the RMS noise voltage generated by a 10k resistor at 20C measured over a
bandwidth of 1MHz is:

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Shot noise
This arises from the fact that current is carried by individual electrons. The random
arrival of electrons at any particular point gives rise to fluctuations in the current.
The RMS value of the random fluctuations in current is given by:
Inoise(RMS) = 2qIB
In this formula the constant q is a fundamental physical constant representing the
amount of charge on an individual electron. It has a value of 1.6  10-19 coulombs.
B is the bandwidth of the circuit. The I on the right-hand side of the equation is the
average value of the signal current.
Example: the RMS value of the noise current for an average current of 1A,
measured over a 1MHz bandwidth is:

For an average current of 1pA (1MHz) the RMS noise current is:

Component construction noise

In addition to Johnson noise and shot noise, noise arises from the way components are
constructed. For instance, the way external leads are attached causes fluctuations in
resistance. The material used also gives rise to excess noise. Carbon composition
resistors, for instance, are much noisier than wire-wound.

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External noise
External noise is often much more of a problem than internal noise. Some examples
of external noise sources are: electric motors, light dimmers, transformers, cosmic and
nuclear radiation.
You can do two things about most of these sources of noise: one is to reduce the
amount of noise produced in the first place, and the second is to protect equipment
from such noise entering. The EMC regulations (Electromagnetic Compatibility) are
concerned with controlling the noise produced by electronic equipment as well as the
operation of equipment subject to noise. Equipment conforming to the regulations
has a label attached to it.

Magnetic interference
An example of this is noise generated by transformers. Toroidal transformers
generate less stray magnetic field than others (but are more expensive to make).
Magnetic interference is picked up by circulating currents generated in loops of
circuitry. Careful design avoiding such loops, or making them as small as possible,
may reduce the problem. Shielding is possible with special “mu-metal” which
‘conducts’ the magnetic field away from the circuit. Magnetic fields from
transformers usually vary at 50Hz, producing the familiar ‘hum’ in some audio
equipment.

Electrostatic interference
Capacitive interference of signals from one part of a circuit to another can occur if
wires run close to each other in wiring looms or on PCB’s. Re-routing the offending
wires so that they are further apart, or using screened cables can reduce the
interference.

Electromagnetic interference
Parts of circuits may act as aerials to any electromagnetic radiation from, for instance,
fluorescent lights or sparking contacts. Fitting capacitors across the contacts can
reduce the source of noise, and metal screening (any electrically conductive metal)
will reduce how much noise is picked up.

Directly coupled interference

This refers to noise that is coupled into the circuit through the wires attached to it. It
can arise from spikes on the mains supply or noise picked up on input leads. Special
filters can be fitted to reduce the noise on the mains, and the inductance of input leads
can be increased by the use of ferrite rings. (Increasing the inductance will reduce
current surges and hence reduce interference at high frequencies.)
Another way to reduce the effect of noise on input leads is to use circuits with
‘differential’ inputs. Such circuits have two input wires. The true signal is
represented by the difference in voltage on these two wires. The idea is that any noise
will affect both wires by the same amount, and so be ignored. The circuit will
respond to just the true, differential signal.

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