Analytical Methods for Engineers

Exponential and logarithmic functions

The revision hand-out (P3) at the start of this course mentioned exponential equations such as
𝑁 = 𝑏𝑥
This can be re-arranged into a logarithmic equation to make x the subject:
𝑥 = log 𝑏 (𝑁)
Logarithms to base 10 are known as ‘common’ logarithms and are usually written simply as
log; logarithms to base e are known as ‘natural’ logarithms and are normally written ln.
(e is the number 2.71828182846…)
A numerical example is that 1000 = 103
and so 3 = log10 1000
or simply 3 = log 1000

In order to convert from one base (base b) to another (base c) there is a simple process:
log 𝑏 (𝑁)
log 𝑐 (𝑁) =
log 𝑏 (𝑐)
Exercise:
Use the conversion process shown above to calculate ln(20), i.e. use your calculator to
find log (20) then divide by log (e). Confirm that you get the same result by entering
ln(20) directly into your calculator. ☐

There are two other laws of logarithms that you need to know about. They derive from the
laws of exponentials.
The first concerns multiplication:
Just as 𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 so:
log(𝑀 × 𝑁) = log 𝑀 + log 𝑁
…and the second deals with division:
𝑎𝑥
Just as 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 so:
𝑀
log = log 𝑀 − log 𝑁
𝑁
A further logarithm law can be derived from this one, if we take M to be 1.
1
log = log 1 − log 𝑁
𝑁
Since log 1 = 0 we can write
1
log = − log 𝑁
𝑁

1
In the subject of electronics, exponential equations often crop up when considering resistor-
capacitor or resistor-inductor circuits. For instance, the formula that tells you the voltage
across the plates of a capacitor, C, initially discharged, being charged via a resistor, R, from a
voltage source, V, after time t is
𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 − ⁄𝑇 )
where T is the ‘time-constant’ of the circuit, i.e. C×R

Exercise:
Given the component values from the circuit diagram, calculate the time constant, T, of the
circuit. Given the value of V is 12V, calculate the value of v after 2 seconds. Use the graph
to confirm your calculations. ☐
Calculate how long it takes to charge to 9V and confirm, using the graph. ☐

2
Turning exponential laws into linear ones.
A straight-line (‘linear’) graph is sometimes easier to use than a curve such as an exponential.
It is possible to turn an exponential function into a linear one by the use of logarithms.
Let’s see how this works for a capacitor that is discharging via a resistor. The exponential
law governing this process is
𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒 − ⁄𝑇

where v is the instantaneous voltage at time t, V is the initial voltage and T is the time
constant of the circuit (and 𝑇 = 𝐶 × 𝑅 as before).

The situation is shown below:

Here V is 10V. (This initial condition is set in Proteus using the label IC = 10.)
The time constant is 1μF × 1k = 1ms.

By dividing by V, taking logs and using the law concerning division, the exponential formula
can be changed thus:
𝑣 𝑡
= 𝑒 − ⁄𝑇
𝑉
𝑣 𝑡
ln ( ) = −
𝑉 𝑇
𝑡
ln 𝑣 − ln 𝑉 = −
𝑇
𝑡
ln 𝑣 = − + ln 𝑉
𝑇
If we plot ln 𝑣 against t we should get a straight line graph.

3
Using the original equation, the value of v at 1ms intervals is shown in the table below, and
from that the value of ln 𝑣

t 0 1ms 2ms 3ms 4ms 5ms

v 10V 3.679V 1.353V 0.498V 0.183V 0.067V
ln 𝑣 2.303 1.303 0.303 –0.697 –1.697 –2.697

This is clearly a straight-line graph as shown below.

Plot of ln 𝑣 against t
𝑡
The equation ln 𝑣 = − + ln 𝑉 can be compared with 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, the equation for a
𝑇
straight-line graph.

Recall that m represents the slope of the resulting line and c is the intercept.
1
Setting y analogous to ln 𝑣 and x analogous to t we can see that the slope of the graph is −
𝑇
and the intercept is ln 𝑉.
1
By constructing the triangle as shown you can see that numerical value of the slope is − 1ms
1
Now this is − and so, cancelling the – signs and taking reciprocals, T = 1ms
𝑇

It is clear from the graph data that the intercept is 2.303, so ln 𝑉 = 2.303.

This means V itself must be the natural antilog of 2.303, or 𝑒 2.303 = 10V

To summarise, we started with a set of data of how a voltage, v varies with time, t.

By plotting ln v against t a straight-line graph is created. The reciprocal of the slope gives the
time constant of the system. The natural antilog of the intercept gives the initial value of v.

There is an exercise along these lines in the next assignment.