Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Justice System
A Treatment
Improvement
Protocol
TIP
44
Substance Abuse
Treatment
Justice System
A Treatment
Improvement
Protocol
TIP
44
ii Acknowledgments
Contents
Foreword ...............................................................................................................xv
Overview..................................................................................................................1
Overview..................................................................................................................7
Definitions of Terms....................................................................................................7
Assessment Guidelines................................................................................................10
Overview ................................................................................................................43
Overview ................................................................................................................59
Overview ................................................................................................................71
iii
Program Components and Strategies .............................................................................84
Overview ................................................................................................................93
Treatment Issues Based on the Client’s Cognitive/Learning, Physical, and Sensory Disabilities ..105
Treatment Issues for People With Co-Occurring Substance Use and Mental Disorders .............108
Sex Offenders.........................................................................................................119
Overview...............................................................................................................125
Introduction ..........................................................................................................125
Resources..............................................................................................................151
Overview...............................................................................................................157
Definitions.............................................................................................................157
Trends..................................................................................................................158
Overview...............................................................................................................187
iv Contents
Key Issues Affecting Treatment in Prison Settings ...........................................................190
What Treatment Services Can Reasonably Be Provided in the Prison Setting? .......................194
Overview...............................................................................................................213
The Population.......................................................................................................214
Overview...............................................................................................................235
Program-Level Coordination......................................................................................242
Cost Issues.............................................................................................................251
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................252
Appendix H: Acknowledgments................................................................................320
Index ..................................................................................................................321
Figures
Contents v
Figure 2-4. Instruments for Evaluating Readiness for Treatment ..........................................23
Figure 2-5. Instruments for Screening and Assessing Mental Disorders ..................................25
Figure 2-6. Instruments Examining Psychopathy and Risk for Violence and Recidivism.............32
Figure 5-2. Strategies for Working With Offenders Based on Their Stage in Recovery ...............84
Figure 7-1. Substance Abuse Treatment Planning Chart for Treatment-Based Drug Courts .......134
Figure 8-2. Goals of the Treatment and Corrections System in the Jail Setting........................176
Figure 8-3. Targeted Treatment for Special Populations Versus Mainstream Treatment for
Figure 8-4. Varied Opinions Regarding Medication Use for Inmates in Jail Treatment Programs 180
Figure 9-2. Guidelines for Substance Abuse Treatment in Correctional Facilities ....................192
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Psychopathy............................................................................................................65
Chapter 5
Homelessness ...........................................................................................................73
Family Involvement...................................................................................................78
vi Contents
Establishing Counselor Credibility ................................................................................83
Chapter 6
Infectious Diseases...................................................................................................118
Chapter 7
General Considerations for Working With Clients in the Criminal Justice System ...................127
Chapter 8
Cross-Training........................................................................................................179
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Contents vii
What Is a TIP?
ix
Consensus Panel
Note: The information given indicates each participant's affiliation during the time the panel was
convened and may no longer reflect the individual's current affiliation.
xi
Deion Cash Carl G. Leukefeld, D.S.W.
Executive Director Director
Community Treatment & Correction Center on Drug and Alcohol Research
Center, Inc. University of Kentucky
Canton, Ohio Lexington, Kentucky
xiii
Diane Miller Nedra Klein Weinreich, M.S.
Chief President
Scientific Communications Branch Weinreich Communications
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse Canoga Park, California
and Alcoholism
Bethesda, Maryland Clarissa Wittenberg
Director
Harry B. Montoya, M.A. Office of Communications and
President/Chief Executive Officer Public Liaison
Hands Across Cultures National Institute of Mental Health
Espanola, New Mexico Kensington, Maryland
The talent, dedication, and hard work that TIPs panelists and reviewers
bring to this highly participatory process have helped bridge the gap
between the promise of research and the needs of practicing clinicians and
administrators to serve, in the most scientifically sound and effective ways,
people in need of behavioral health services. We are grateful to all who have
joined with us to contribute to advances in the behavioral health field.
Daryl W. Kade
Acting Director
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
xv
Executive Summary
For men and women whose struggle with substance abuse brings them into
contact with the legal system, the personal losses can be enormous: fami
lies can break apart, health deteriorates, freedom is restricted, and far too
often, lives are lost. But this is just the beginning of the potential devasta
tion. Personal costs to the victims of crime are immeasurable. The effects
of every theft, burglary, and violent crime reverberate throughout the
whole community. Economic losses include the costs of arresting, process
ing, and incarcerating offenders, as well as the costs of police protection,
increased insurance rates, and property losses.
Strong empirical evidence over the past few decades consistently has
shown that substance abuse treatment reduces crime. For many people in
need of alcohol and drug treatment, contact with the criminal justice sys
tem is their first opportunity for treatment. A substance use disorder may
be recognized and diagnosed for the first time, and legal incentives to
enter substance abuse treatment sometimes motivate the individual to
begin recovery. For other offenders, arrest and incarceration are part of a
recurring cycle of drug abuse and crime. Ingrained patterns of maladap
tive coping skills, criminal values and beliefs, and a lack of job skills may
require a more intensive treatment approach, particularly among offend
ers with a prolonged history of substance abuse and crime.
xvii
Screening and Triage and Placement
A vital first step in providing substance abuse Information obtained in screening and assess
treatment to people under criminal justice ment is used to place offenders in the treatment
supervision is to identify offenders in need of program that is best suited to their needs. More
treatment. In the criminal justice system, offenders can receive appropriate treatment if
screening often is equated with “eligibility,” a range of substance abuse treatment options is
and assessment often is equated with “suitabili provided in criminal justice settings, particu
ty.” To do this effectively, the consensus panel larly in institutions and community settings
recommends that protocols be developed to where offenders are supervised for long periods
determine which offenders need substance of time. In addition to key information regard
abuse treatment, assess the extent of their ing substance abuse problems, risk for criminal
treatment needs, and ensure that they receive recidivism, and mental health problems, triage
the treatment they need. Obtaining accurate and placement decisions also should consider
and reliable information during screening and the offender’s motivation and readiness for
assessment can be a challenge; offenders do not change, the length of sentence or incarceration,
always accurately report drug or alcohol prob history of previous treatment, violence poten
lems. Other collateral sources of information tial, and other related security or management
(e.g., drug test results, correctional records) issues. The consensus panel recommends that
can be combined with self-report information in general, offenders who have moderate-to
to make referral decisions. For example, in high levels of substance abuse problems and
many correctional facilities, urine tests are criminal risk should be prioritized for place
used to flag the need for treatment—even when ment in substance abuse treatment services,
an offender denies recent substance abuse. rather than in other types of institutional pro
grams.
Many offenders who abuse substances have co-
occurring mental disorders that can make
treatment more complex. They should there Treatment Planning
fore be screened for other psychological or
After placement, a treatment plan is developed
emotional problems. Offenders who are initial
that specifies which services the offender-client
ly assessed as having symptoms of co-occurring
needs, at what level of intensity, and which of
disorders should be evaluated over an extended
the available resources (e.g., personal, pro
period of time to determine whether these
gram-based, or criminal justice) will be most
symptoms resolve in the absence of substance
beneficial. The treatment plan takes into con
use.
sideration the severity of substance abuse-
A significant number of offenders who abuse related problems and the presence of co-occur
substances also have histories of trauma and ring mental disorders because these influence
physical or sexual abuse. Screening and assess the treatment approach. Also important are
ment of a history of physical and sexual abuse factors such as criminal attitudes and psy
should be conducted routinely, particularly in chopathy, which may suggest persistent crimi
settings that include female offenders. Staff nality unrelated to the need to maintain a drug
training is needed to develop effective inter habit. The degree to which an individual is
viewing approaches related to the history of motivated and ready for change is another crit
abuse, counseling approaches for addressing ical factor that will determine whether motiva
abuse and trauma issues, and in making refer tional enhancement interventions, sanctions, or
rals to mental health services. more self-directed treatments are appropriate.
Finally, personal strengths are taken into
In the pretrial setting, the question of an indi The unique characteristics of prisons have
vidual’s guilt or innocence has not been legally important implications for developing and
determined. It is vitally important, therefore, implementing treatment programs. In-prison
to note that treatment should not compromise drug abuse treatment, particularly when fol
the due process rights of defendants. lowed by community-based continuing care
Treatment professionals need to bear in mind treatment, has been credited with reducing
the presumption of innocence that exists during short-term recidivism and relapse rates among
the pretrial period. Defendants’ due process offenders who are involved with drugs. More
rights affect what they are willing to agree to recently, the sustained effects on longer term
and the type of information that they are will outcomes have been documented by studies
ing to disclose. Defendants should not be indicating that 9–12 months of prison treat
coerced into waiving due process rights, ment followed by at least 3 months of communi
although a court may order substance abuse ty treatment are needed to produce significant
treatment as a condition of pretrial release. improvement and reductions in recidivism and
relapse. Because of the comparative stability of
the prison population, several treatment
Treatment Issues
options of differing intensities can be made
Specific to Jails
available. The full range of services can be
offered, including comprehensive assessment;
Those incarcerated in jails are undergoing sig treatment planning; placement; group, individ
nificant stress related to arrest, the uncertain ual, family, and specialty group counseling;
ties of their legal situation, and the potential self-help groups; educational and vocational
loss of their job or custody of their children. training; and planning for transition to the
Appropriate treatment services for these indi community. Therapeutic communities (TCs)
viduals are based on the expected duration of are among the most successful in-prison treat
incarceration and the information obtained ment programs. They are highly structured,
from screening for a variety of possible prob hierarchical, and intense interventions lasting a
lems. Brief treatment (less than 30 days) usual minimum of 6 months. TC participants live
ly focuses on supplying information and mak together, often separate from the general prison
ing referrals but can include motivational inter population, and take responsibility for their
viewing. Short-term programs (1–3 months) recovery process. Participants work at increas
have the time to work on communication, prob ingly more responsible positions as they learn
lemsolving, and relapse prevention skills; intro self-sufficiency and become competent.
duce anger management techniques; and
encourage participation in self-help groups.
xx Executive Summary
Treatment for Relapse prevention is extremely important for
those under community supervision. Relapse,
Offenders Under which is not unusual, can be met by increased
supervision and an intensification of the level
Community of treatment. Likewise, the intensity of supervi
Supervision sion and treatment should decrease as the indi
Parolees and probationers are both under com vidual meets treatment goals. For both parolees
munity supervision; nonetheless, they generally and probationers, reassessment should be peri
represent different ends of the criminal justice odically conducted throughout the phase of
continuum. Whereas parolees are serving a community supervision. Following their contact
term of conditional supervised release following with the criminal justice system, both parolees
a prison term, probationers are under commu and probationers benefit from continuing con
nity supervision instead of a jail or prison tact with the substance abuse treatment system
term. Both parolees and probationers generally as a means of reducing relapse and recidivism.
can be controlled and managed effectively by a
combination of treatment and surveillance
while under community supervision at a far
Key Issues Related to
The level of supervision varies according to Offender-clients will best be served by sub
individual circumstances, including the terms stance abuse treatment and criminal justice
under which probation or parole was granted. systems that are working together to help them
Offenders under community supervision in in recovery and in becoming law-abiding citi
urban areas who have substance use disorders zens. This requires leaders in both systems who
have available several levels treatment and promote their mutual goals, endorsement for
supervision, including residential, outpatient, mutual goals from leaders, clarification of the
halfway, and day reporting centers. Parolees goals, and recruitment of stakeholders in pur
may have difficulty meeting their basic needs suit of the goals. The challenge for substance
when they are released and benefit from case abuse treatment practitioners and criminal jus
management services to help with housing and tice professionals is to work together to provide
employment. Reunification with family mem a coordinated response to ensure that offend
bers and social support may also prove prob ers’ needs are addressed while protecting pub
lematic. lic safety.
When the prison gates slam behind an inmate, he does not lose his
human quality; his mind does not become closed to ideas; his intellect
does not cease to feed on a free and open interchange of opinions; his
yearning for self-respect does not end; nor is his quest for self-realiza
In This
tion concluded. If anything, the needs for identity and self-respect are
Chapter…
more compelling in the dehumanizing prison environment.
—Thurgood Marshall (Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396 [1974])
The Purpose of This TIP
Key Definitions
Overview
Audience for This TIP
Research consistently demonstrates a strong connection between crimi
Contents of This TIP
nal activity and substance abuse (Chaiken 1986; Inciardi 1979; Johnson
et al. 1985). Eighty-four percent of State prison inmates who expected
to be released in 1999 were involved with alcohol or illicit drugs at the
time of their offense; 45 percent reported that they were under the
influence when they committed their crime; and 21 percent indicated
that they committed their offense for money to buy drugs (Office of
National Drug Control Policy [ONDCP] 2003). Data from the Arrestee
Drug Abuse Monitoring program indicate that in 2000, 64 percent of
male arrestees tested positive for at least one of five illicit drugs
(cocaine, opioids, marijuana, methamphetamines, and PCP).
Additionally, 57 percent reported binge drinking in the 30 days prior to
arrest, and 36 percent reported heavy drinking (Taylor et al. 2001).
1
crime, including stricter drug laws, “three needs, including individuals with co-occurring
strikes and you’re out” legislation, increased mental disorders. At the same time, other ini
surveillance, mandatory sentencing laws, and tiatives have increased funding for people
severe penalties for drunk drivers, to name already in prisons and jails. Examples of such
just a few. These approaches have had mixed initiatives include
results, and opinions vary on their useful
ness. • Project REFORM and later Project
RECOVERY. These programs, funded in
One consistent research finding is that the late 1980s by the Bureau of Justice
involvement in substance abuse treatment Assistance (BJA) and in the early 1990s by
reduces recidivism (a tendency to return to CSAT, provided technical assistance to 20
criminal habits) for offenders who use drugs States in planning and developing substance
(Anglin and Hser 1990; Harwood et al. 1988; abuse programming for prisoners with sub
Hubbard et al. 1984, 1989; Knight et al. stance abuse problems (Wexler 1995).
1999a; Martin et al. 1999; McLellan et al. • Residential Substance Abuse Treatment for
1983; Wexler et al. 1988, 1999a; Wisdom State Prisoners Formula Grant Program.
1999). For example, when researchers con This program funds States seeking to devel
ducted followup studies of clients treated op comprehensive approaches to treatment
through comprehensive treatment demonstra for offenders who abuse substances, includ
tion programs funded by the Center for ing intensive programs for inmates and
Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT), they relapse prevention training. Further infor
found substantial reductions in criminal mation is available at http://www.cfda.gov.
activity, including a 64-percent decrease in
• The National Drug Control Strategy, pre
arrests (Wisdom 1999). In part because of the
pared annually by the Office of National
reduced criminal activity associated with sub
Drug Control Policy (1997, 1998, 1999,
stance abuse treatment for offenders, treat
2000, 2001). This program has encouraged
ment has also been found to be cost-effective.
the development of treatment and rehabili
According to the California Drug and Alcohol
tation services for offenders who use drugs
Treatment Assessment study (Gerstein et al.
(e.g., Treatment Accountability for Safer
1994), for example, every dollar invested in
Communities, formerly Treatment
treatment saved approximately $7 in future
Alternatives to Street Crime; drug court
costs.
programs; prison treatment programs). For
In response to research demonstrating the further information, go to
success of treatment in reducing criminal http://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp.
activity as well as the cost benefits of such • The BJA, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.
treatment, policymakers over the past two Department of Justice. Formerly known as
decades have implemented a wide variety of the Drug Courts Program Office, estab
strategies at the Federal, State, and local lev lished to administer the drug court grant
els. These initiatives are aimed at improving program, the BJA provides financial and
the availability and quality of treatment for technical assistance, training, and program
offenders. Drug Courts—courts with special matic guidance for drug courts throughout
unified dockets for individuals charged with the country. BJA offers grants that enable
crimes who are drug or alcohol involved— communities to develop, implement, or
serve to divert offenders with substance use improve drug courts. Information is avail
disorders away from the criminal justice sys able at http://www.BJA.gov
tem into a supervised treatment plan or to • The Serious and Violent Offender Reentry
incorporate a coerced treatment plan as part Initiative. In conjunction with several
of a judicial sentence. Other programs have Federal partners, the U.S. Department of
been established for people with special Justice is spearheading this initiative to
2 Chapter 1
provide funding to promote successful rein
tegration of serious, high-risk offenders into
The Purpose of This TIP
the community. The Initiative seeks to This TIP updates and combines three TIPs
address all obstacles to successful reentry, originally published in 1994 and 1995: TIP 7,
including substance abuse. Information is Screening and Assessment for Alcohol and
available online at Other Drug Abuse Among Adults in the
http://www.CRIMESOLUTIONS.gov/0ROGRAM
Criminal Justice System (CSAT 1994d); TIP
$ETAILSASPX)$ 12, Combining Substance Abuse Treatment
With Intermediate Sanctions for Adults in the
In part because of initiatives such as these,
Criminal Justice System (CSAT 1994a); and
the availability of substance abuse treatment
TIP 17, Planning for Alcohol and Other Drug
for criminal offenders is on the rise. After 3
Abuse Treatment for
years of decline in the mid-1990s, the number
Adults in the
of inmates in drug treatment programs began
Criminal Justice
rising again in 1997 and 1998 (Corrections One consistent
System (CSAT
Yearbook 1998). A report based on a 1997
1995b).
nationwide survey of Federal and State cor research finding is
rectional facilities (Office of Applied Studies The new TIP pre
2000) indicates that 93.8 percent of Federal sents clinical guide-
prisons and 56.3 percent of State prisons pro
that involvement
lines to assist coun
vide some form of substance abuse treatment. selors in dealing with
in substance abuse
problems that rou
Although an increasing number of prisons
tinely arise because
offer some form of treatment, the actual num treatment reduces
of their clients’ sta
ber of programs and slots remains limited
tus in the criminal
(National Center on Addiction and Substance recidivism for
justice system. These
Abuse at Columbia University 1998; Peters
clients have multiple
and Matthews 2002). For example, although
needs; they often offenders who use
more than half of prison inmates have a life
have poor health,
time prevalence of drug use disorders (Peters
et al. 1998), fewer than 15 percent of inmates
have histories of drugs.
trauma, lack job and
receive substance abuse treatment services
communication
while in prison (Mumola 1999; Simpson et al.
skills, and have edu
1999b). Moreover, while the number of sub
cational deficits. A special feature throughout
stance abuse programs for offenders is on the
the TIP—“Advice to the Counselor”—pro
rise, so too is the number of offenders in need
vides the TIP’s most direct and accessible
of services. Substance abuse treatment ser
guidance for the counselor. Readers with
vices for offenders have not kept pace with
basic backgrounds, such as addiction coun
the growing need for these services (Belenko
selors or other practitioners, can study these
and Peugh 1998; Simpson et al. 1999b).
boxes first for the most immediate practical
This TIP highlights some of the best practices guidance. In particular, the Advice to the
and innovative programs created to treat Counselor boxes provide a distillation of what
offenders. It describes the unique needs of the counselor needs to know and what steps
offenders with substance abuse and depen to take, which can be followed by a more
dence disorders. Finally, it addresses the detailed reading of the relevant material in
challenges counselors and criminal justice the section or chapter.
personnel are likely to face at every stage of
The events of September 11, 2001, dramati
the criminal justice continuum.
cally altered the political climate of our
Nation and caused a shift in focus from the
“tough on drugs” policies previously in place
Introduction 3
to the war on terrorism. These changes have stance dependence as they are defined by the
impacted both the sanctions against people in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
the criminal justice system and the availabili Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision
ty of substance abuse treatment for those (DSM-IV-TR) (American Psychiatric
populations. While it is beyond the scope of Association 2000). This term was chosen part
this TIP to address the implications of these ly because substance abuse treatment profes
shifts or to predict their ultimate outcomes, sionals commonly use the term “substance
the core content of this document reflects the abuse” to describe any excessive use of addic
current best practices for providing substance tive substances. Readers should attend to the
abuse treatment for adults in the criminal context in which the term occurs to determine
justice system. the possible range of meanings it covers; in
most cases, however, the term will refer to all
This TIP aims to provide tools and resources varieties of substance use disorders described
to increase the availability and improve the by DSM-IV-TR.
quality of substance abuse treatment to crimi
nal justice clients. It should assist the crimi According to DSM-IV-TR, substance abuse is
nal justice system in meeting the challenges of a maladaptive pattern of substance use
working with offenders with substance use marked by recurrent and significant negative
disorders and encourage the implementation consequences related to the repeated use of
of evidence-based clinical approaches to substances. Substance dependence is defined
treatment. as a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and
physiological symptoms indicating that the
Other guiding principles of this publication individual is continuing use of the substance
are to despite significant substance-related prob
• Provide the relevant information that will lems. A person experiencing substance depen
inform and enable treatment providers to dence shows “a pattern of repeated self-
feel more confident in their approach to administration that usually results in toler
offender and ex-offender populations. ance, withdrawal, and compulsive drug-tak
ing behavior” (p. 192). A diagnosis of sub
• Help people in community treatment under stance dependence can be applied to every
stand the criminal justice system and how it class of substances except caffeine.
works in step with their treatment services.
• Encourage collaboration between the crimi Treatment is defined according to the
nal justice and treatment communities. Institute of Medicine (IOM 1990), as cited in
CSAT’s National Treatment Plan Initiative
• Help readers understand the multiple per
(CSAT 2000a, b):
spectives that often lead to confusion and
misunderstandings—public safety versus Treatment refers to the broad range of [pri
public health, treatment versus corrections, mary and supportive] services—including
differing client needs, issues of culture and identification, brief intervention, assessment,
society, and local characteristics of the diagnosis, counseling, medical services, psy
criminal justice system. chiatric services, psychological services,
• Provide practical solutions and approaches social services, and followup—provided for
to complex problems. people with alcohol [and/or drug] problems.
The overall goal of treatment is to reduce or
eliminate the use of alcohol [and/or drugs] as
Key Definitions a contributing factor to physical, psychologi
In this TIP, the term “substance abuse” is cal, and social dysfunction and to arrest,
used to denote both substance abuse and sub
4 Chapter 1
retard, or reverse the progress of any associ
ated problems (CSAT 2000a, p. 7).
Contents of This TIP
The criminal justice system, as discussed in The chapters that follow will focus on the fol
this TIP, includes four subsystems: pretrial lowing areas:
and diversion settings, jails and detention • Chapter 2 focuses on screening and assess
centers, prisons (State and Federal), and ment of criminal justice clients in the rele
community supervision settings. Definitions of vant domains. It includes a discussion of
other terms relevant to criminal justice and special concerns (e.g., gender and sexual
substance abuse treatment are given in orientation, literacy, a client’s primary lan
appendix B, Glossary. guage, and learning disabilities) and specific
For the purposes of this TIP, an offender is a populations. See also appendix C, which
person who has been arrested, charged with a contains more
crime, or convicted of a crime and under the information on
supervision of the criminal justice system. screening and
assessment instru- This TIP aims to
ments.
Audience for This TIP • Although it is rec- provide tools and
This TIP is written primarily for substance ognized that treat
abuse counselors and clinicians who treat ment can be effec resources to
clients involved in the criminal justice system tive, it is also clear
treatment
increase the
and for administrators whose programs serve
clients under criminal justice supervision. It approaches may
Introduction 5
• Chapter 6 describes treatment issues and Chapter 7 addresses treatment provided in
approaches for special populations for diversion and other pretrial settings.
whom modifications in treatment may be Chapter 8 provides a detailed discussion of
appropriate: people of ethnic and racial treatment for offenders in jails and deten
minorities, women, violent offenders, peo tion centers, while chapter 9 focuses on
ple with disabilities, older inmates, people offenders in prison. Chapter 10 outlines
with co-occurring substance use and mental treatment for people under community
disorders, and sex offenders, among others. supervision.
• Chapters 7 through 10 describe the specific • Finally, chapter 11 discusses the issues
treatment needs and strategies for individu related to program development.
als in particular criminal justice settings.
6 Chapter 1
2 Screening and
Assessment
Overview
In This
Screening and in-depth assessment are important first steps in the sub
Chapter…
stance abuse treatment process; currently no comprehensive national
guidelines for screening and assessment approaches exist in the criminal
Definitions of Terms justice system. In the absence of such guidelines, information in this chap
ter can help clinicians and counselors develop effective screening and
Screening Guidelines
referral protocols that will enable them to
Assessment Guidelines
• Screen out offenders who do not need substance abuse treatment.
Key Issues Related to
•Assess the extent of offenders’ treatment needs in order to make appro
Screening and Assessment
priate referrals.
Areas To Address in
•Ensure that offenders receive the treatment that they need, rather than
Screening and Assessment
being released into the community with a high probability of re-offend
ing.
Selection and
Implementation of
This chapter addresses the issues relevant to screening and assessment and
Instruments
makes recommendations for the appropriate use of screening and assess
ment tools in specific settings. For information on how to use screening
Screening and Assessment
and assessment to match the offender to services and to identify an appro
Considerations for
priate treatment plan, see chapters 3 and 4. For more information on spe
Specific Populations
cific screening and assessment instruments see appendix C.
Integrated Screening and
Assessment—Sample
Approaches
Definitions of Terms
Information gathered during screening and assessment plays an impor
Conclusions and
tant role in identifying offender needs and making appropriate referrals
Recommendations
for services. Throughout this TIP, the following definitions are used for
screening, assessment, and related terms in the criminal justice setting:
7
IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of determined in pretrial and jail settings by
Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text screening for offenders who may need sub
Revision [American Psychiatric Association stance abuse treatment. “Suitability” for
{APA} 2000]) diagnoses of alcohol or drug placement in one of several different levels of
abuse or dependence and may only identify treatment services is determined by an assess
DSM-related problem areas. During the ment to help identify key psychosocial prob
screening process staff members use instru lems related to referral to treatment and/or
ments that are limited in focus, simple in supervision. Accordingly, the following con
format, quick to administer, and usually siderations are suggested:
able to be administered by nonprofessional
staff. There are seldom any legal or profes •Eligibility—Does the offender meet the sys
sional restraints on who can be trained to tem’s criteria for receiving treatment ser
conduct a screening. vices? A quick screen, typically applicable
in prisons and community corrections set
• Assessment—A process for defining the tings, can determine whether a person war
nature of a problem and developing specific rants assessment to determine if that person
treatment recommendations for addressing has a drug or alcohol problem.
the problem. A basic assessment consists of
gathering key information and engaging in a •Suitability—Is the offender suitable for the
process with the client that enables the type of program services that are available?
counselor to understand the client’s readi An assessment can determine whether the
ness for change, problem areas, any diagno offender is capable of benefiting from treat
sis(es), disabilities, and strengths. The ment or responding to a particular inter
assessment process typically requires vention. The question of suitability arises
trained professionals to administer and once it has been determined that offenders
interpret results, based on their experience meet the eligibility criteria for receiving ser
and training. A clinical diagnosis has vices.
important legal ramifications since judges In essence, screening and assessment vary
tend to rely on assessments to identify an based on the goals of the evaluation and the
offender’s needs and risks, and to deter setting where they are used. For drug court
mine the offender’s disposition. and jail settings, a source for operational
In correctional settings, “screening” and treatment and criminal justice definitions is
“assessment” are equated with “eligibility” the article “Guideline for Drug Courts on
and “suitability,” respectively. “Eligibility” is
8 Chapter 2
• Myth: Untrained professionals can conduct screening and assessments.
• Fact: Although some screenings can be administered and scored without significant training, place
ment decisions are greatly improved when they are made by professionally trained staff. This includes
staff with relevant certification in substance abuse treatment, those with advanced professional
degrees, and those with specialized training in the use of particular screening and assessment instru
ments. For those screening and assessment approaches that require an interview with the offender,
specialized training is also needed in basic counseling techniques such as rapport building and reflec
tive listening. Use of trained professional staff in the triage and placement process helps to minimize
the number of inappropriate referrals for treatment.
• Myth: Screening and assessment are always compromised because you cannot trust self-report infor
mation from offenders.
• Fact: Research generally validates the reliability, and to some degree, the validity of information
obtained through self-reports. Collateral sources such as the offender’s family and friends can
improve the reliability of the information gathered (or “the full picture”). Offenders do supply a cer
tain amount of misinformation in some settings to avoid unwanted consequences, however.
• Myth: All screening and assessment instruments are equally effective.
• Fact: Research shows significant variability in the reliability and validity of different instruments with
different populations.
• Myth: Because an instrument is widely used, it must be effective.
• Fact: Many highly marketed and widely used instruments do not have a research base supporting the
validity of their use. In fact, some of the widely marketed and used instruments have been shown to be
less effective than those available in the public domain.
• Myth: Screening and assessment should not examine the history of physical and sexual abuse and
related trauma because this may aggravate the offender’s level of stress and psychological instability,
and staff may not be able to deal effectively with the consequences.
• Fact: Screening and assessment of all forms of abuse is essential for both male and female offenders,
because it is now recognized that the effects of trauma contribute to many mental disorders. Clinical
outcomes are likely to be compromised if these abuse and trauma issues are not explored, and if
strategies addressing these issues are not developed and integrated into treatment plans for mental and
substance use disorders. However, it is important to emphasize that in screening for a history of trau
ma it can be damaging to ask the client to describe traumatic events in detail. To screen, it is impor
tant to limit questioning to very brief and general questions, such as “Have you ever experienced
childhood physical abuse? Sexual abuse? A serious accident? Violence or the threat of it? Have there
been experiences in your life that were so traumatic they left you unable to cope with day-to-day life?”
Screening and Assessment” (Peters and More specific guidelines based on the criminal
Peyton 1998). justice setting and the characteristics of the
population are discussed in later sections.
10 Chapter 2
Figure 2-1
Screening Guidelines by Domain
Domain Information
Substance Use • Substance use history
• Motivation and desire for treatment
• Severity and frequency of use
• Detoxification needs, acute intoxication
• Treatment history (e.g., number and type of episodes, outcomes)
Criminal • Criminal thinking
Involvement • Current offense(s)
• Prior charges
• Prior convictions
• Age at first offense
• Type of offense(s)
• Number of incarcerations
• Prior successful completion of probation or parole drug use offenses
• Prior involvement in diversionary programs
• History of diagnosis of any personality disorder
Health • Intoxication, infectious disease (tuberculosis, hepatitis, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV
status)
• Pregnancy
• General health
• Acute conditions
Mental Health • Suicidality
• History of treatment and prior diagnosis
• Past diagnoses
• Treatment outcome
• Current and past medications
• Acute symptoms
• Psychopathy
Special • Educational level
Considerations • Reading level/literacy
• Language/cultural barriers
• Physical disability
• Developmental disability
• Learning disability
• Health and biomedical record
• Housing
• Dependents/family issues
• History of abuse (victim and/or perpetrator), including trauma experienced as a result of
physical and sexual abuse
in services that can affect relapse and crimi •Availability of qualified staff, caseload vol
nal recidivism. ume, and interagency cooperation
While assessments are more comprehensive •Availability of financial resources (e.g.,
than screenings, their depth and scope varies staffing, type of assessment chosen)
across settings according to the following fac •Availability of treatment options in the
tors: community
• Amount of time available to conduct the •Number of sources of information
assessment
The instruments and sources of information
• Physical setting of assessment (e.g., holding used during an assessment are determined by
pen, booking room, medical unit, reception the purpose of the assessment. Jurisdictions
center, lockup, community/corrections office) may elect the quickest and most efficient
• Factors influencing the confidentiality or pri approach to assess who goes into treatment.
vacy of the assessment process and the uses In other cases, the court may want the great
of assessment findings est amount of information available about an
12 Chapter 2
offender. In this case, in addition to police,
corrections, and medical records, an assess
Key Issues Related to
ment should include family and other collat Screening and
eral sources for historical information.
Assessment
The following guidelines pertain to assessment The distinctions between screening and assess
protocols: ment are defined above. This section highlights
• Purpose—In pretrial or diversion settings, key issues relevant to both.
assess for linkage to the community and
placement to different types of services.
Accuracy of Information
• Content—In all settings, deepen the infor
mation obtained from previous screenings Accuracy of screening and assessment infor
(psychopathy, antisocial). mation is clearly dependent on the honesty of
the offender. It is critical to administer
• Source—In pretrial or diversion settings, screening and assessment instruments in a
seek more expansive collateral information way that encourages honest answers. The
from family and social service staff. In jails, consequences of honest and dishonest
prisons, or community supervision settings, responses should be clarified, and the setting
correctional officers and/or collateral for the screening can be important in this
offenders may be additional sources of regard (Knight et al. 2002). Some factors that
information. contribute to greater accuracy of responses
Once a screening has identified the need for include using collateral information, using
treatment, assessments should be conducted concurrent drug testing, and reviewing with
before offenders are given permanent place the offender the purposes of information
ments. Assessments feed into treatment plan obtained during screening and assessment.
ning, decisions about treatment intensity and In some contexts (e.g., pretrial and presen
services needed (e.g., treatment planning and tence settings), offenders are often concerned
matching), and re-entry and continuing care that screening and assessment results will be
plans. used against them; for example to coerce
them into a long-term treatment program.
The individual may also want to avoid being
labeled as having an addiction problem.
Conversely, an offender may purposely try to
skew the results to influence the
outcome of trial, sentencing, or
Advice to the Counselor:
placement in custody and/or
Screening and Assessment treatment settings. It is impor-
tant for those administering
• It is critical to administer screening and assessment screening and assessment to rec-
instruments in a way that encourages honesty. Offenders ognize the factors that may influ
often think the results of these screenings will be used ence the accurate disclosure of
against them and may try to skew the results to influ- information, and to craft their
ence the outcome of a trial. findings accordingly.
• The consequences of honest or dishonest responses
Unless potential concerns related
should be clarified with the offender.
to the screening and assessment
• Counselors should use available collateral information, process are addressed directly, it
such as drug testing results, to verify the accuracy of the is unlikely that screening and
information. assessment results will provide an
14 Chapter 2
screening and assessment information. These ed resistance to systemwide sharing of screen
groups have legitimate concerns that need to ing and assessment information at any stage
be expressed, and they need to be brought in the criminal justice process. See the text
into the decisionmaking process as full stake box below for examples of programs that have
holders. Jurisdictions that establish intera developed multilevel agreements for sharing
gency agreements can preserve limited staff information systemwide.
time and resources and help avoid unexpect
16 Chapter 2
Timing of Screening and abuse services. Likewise, a substance abuse
diagnosis can preclude access to mental
Assessment health services, resulting in no services being
In some criminal justice settings only a single rendered. A substance abuse diagnosis can
screening is needed, due to limited treatment also limit an offender’s access to certain work
options available or to the fact that assess assignments or vocational training.
ment will be provided at a later stage. This
screening is typically focused on issues related To avoid these problems, formal diagnoses
to eligibility criteria and suitability for treat should be made based on sound clinical prac
ment. In cases in which several treatment tice. A formal diagnosis may be required
options and sufficient time are available, when
screening is often followed by a more compre • Reimbursement for services requires it (e.g.,
hensive assessment. Medicaid or Medicare reimbursement is not
possible without a DSM-IV-TR code).
Although screening is usually conducted as
early as possible after the offender’s entrance • Pharmacological intervention is suggested
into the criminal justice system, assessment (e.g., methadone, Antabuse).
may be delayed due to the offender’s sentence • Potential psychiatric concerns emerge (e.g.,
length, anticipated date of enrollment in sub when the counselor is trying to rule out sub
stance abuse treatment services, and other stance abuse or when symptoms may be
factors. For example, most prison treatment drug-induced, organic, or psychiatric).
programs provide services for inmates who • The counselor needs to clarify co-occurring
are serving the last 24 months of their sen disorders that affect treatment decisions.
tence, and routinely wait to provide a com
• The information is for research or evaluation
prehensive assessment until the inmate is
purposes.
nearing the enrollment date for treatment ser
vices.
Drug Testing
Drug testing is frequently used as a screening
When Is a Formal Diagnosis device in community-based and institutional
Necessary? settings. For example, in pretrial settings
When identified with a diagnosis that will fol drug testing is used to identify and monitor
low them throughout the system or even their drug use and to reduce the number of re
lifetime (if entered into the criminal justice arrests among defendants (Bureau of Justice
system’s computer), people sometimes feel Assistance 1999). A major objective of pre
labeled and stigmatized. This is particularly trial drug testing is to offer courts alterna
true of diagnoses related to mental disorders. tives to either detention or unsupervised
Because symptoms of mental disorders are release during the pretrial period. In commu
often mimicked by recent drug or alcohol use, nity settings drug testing provides a powerful
or withdrawal from these substances, it is tool for treatment staff, the courts, and com
particularly important to defer diagnosis until munity supervision staff to monitor and
an adequate assessment period is provided address relapse episodes and treatment
under conditions of abstinence. A “people progress. In institutional settings, drug testing
first” description such as “offender who uses is helpful in monitoring abstinence and can
drugs” is preferable to the label “drug user.” serve as an “early warning” device in detect
Moreover, diagnostic classification can some ing problems among therapeutic residential
times preclude offenders from receiving need programs. In all settings, drug testing serves
ed services. For example, a mental disorder both as a deterrent to use and as a strong
diagnosis can preclude access to substance incentive for offenders to remain abstinent.
18 Chapter 2
Figure 2-3
Recommended Substance Abuse Screening Instruments
Instrument Purpose Description
Alcohol Dependence A 25-item instrument The ADS (Skinner and Horn 1984) can be coupled with the
Scale (ADS) developed to screen for ASI-Drug Use section to provide an effective screen for
alcohol dependence alcohol and drug use problems among offenders. For more
symptoms; performs ade information on the ADS, contact the Center for Addiction
quately in community and Mental Health (formerly the Addiction Research
and institutional settings Foundation) at (800) 661-1111. The ASI is reprinted in
TIP 7, Screening and Assessment for Alcohol and Other
Drug Abuse Among Adults in the Criminal Justice System
(CSAT 1994e).
Simple Screening A 16-item screening An expert panel developed the SSI-SA as a tool for out-
Instrument for instrument that examines reach workers. The SSI-SA, which can be administered
Substance Abuse symptoms of both alco without training, includes items related to alcohol and drug
(SSI-SA) hol and drug dependence use, preoccupation and loss of control, adverse conse
quences of use, problem recognition, and tolerance and
withdrawal effects. The SSI-SA is fully described in TIP
11, Simple Screening Instruments for Outreach for Alcohol
and Other Drug Abuse and Infectious Diseases (CSAT
1994f) and is reproduced along with instructions in TIP
42, Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-
Occurring Disorders (CSAT 2005c).
TCU Drug Screen A 15-item substance The TCU Drug Screen is completed by the offender and
(TCUDS) abuse diagnostic screen serves to quickly identify individuals who report heavy
drug use or dependency (based on the DSM-IV-TR and the
National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview
Schedule) and who therefore might be eligible for treat
ment. For more information regarding the TCUDS and
other related instruments go to http://www.ibr.tcu.edu.
Source: Peters et al. 2000.
20 Chapter 2
and anxiolytics, can produce dangerous with- Readiness for Treatment
drawal syndromes once physiological depen-
dence has developed. Offenders who have In addition to examining the severity of sub
severe and life-threatening symptoms of stance abuse problems, it is helpful to know
intoxication or withdrawal should be placed whether a client is receptive to treatment and
immediately under medical supervision. The is committed to recovery goals. Readiness for
Federal Bureau of Prisons (2000) recom treatment provides an important indicator
mends that “inmates presenting with alcohol regarding where the substance abuse treat-
intoxication should be presumed to have ment should begin.
alcohol dependence until proven otherwise” Readiness for treatment is not always clearly
(p. 8). defined or apparent at the onset of treatment.
Not all substances of abuse produce clinically Most clients do not volunteer for treatment
significant withdrawal syndromes, but absti and experience significant ambivalence about
nence generally results in some psychological the process and level of commitment
changes. Offenders should thus be reassessed required. For years, treatment professionals
often. Substance abuse may mask co-occur and paraprofessionals believed that a person
ring mental disorders, such as depression, or needed to “hit bottom” to be ready for
symptoms of mental illness may disappear change. Today, it is recognized that people
when the offender is not using. In some cases, can be ready for treatment without “hitting
withdrawal may cause symptoms of mental bottom” and that many people can receive
disorders that can be identified and treated. benefits from treatment even if they are not
completely ready. For example, motivational
For more information on the signs and symp- interviewing (MI) techniques (discussed in
toms of intoxication and withdrawal and the detail in TIP 35, Enhancing Motivation for
treatment of individuals undergoing detoxifi- Change in Substance Abuse Treatment [CSAT
cation, see the forthcoming TIP 1999b]) can be used to help clients resolve
Detoxification and Substance Abuse their ambivalence toward treatment and
Treatment (CSAT in development a ). The toward making changes in their lives. MI pro-
Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Practice vides an empathic, supportive, and directive
Guidelines: Detoxification of Chemically counseling style that attempts to persuade
Dependent Inmates, December,
2000 can be accessed online at
http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/ Advice to the Counselor:
Screening for Detoxification
• Screening forms should note evidence of intoxication,
Physical Health dependence, overdose, and withdrawal. This is particu
Conditions larly important in community corrections and jail set
tings, in which there may be significant periods of sub
Besides the potential need for stance abuse that precede contact with the criminal jus
detoxification services, screen tice system.
ing should also address signifi
cant medical conditions that • Besides the potential need for detoxification services,
may affect the offender’s screening should address conditions that may affect the
involvement in treatment, such offender’s involvement in treatment, such as physical dis
as physical disabilities, tubercu abilities.
losis, hepatitis, HIV/AIDS, and • It is helpful to note whether a client is receptive to treat
other debilitating diseases. ment and may be committed to recovery (readiness to
change).
22 Chapter 2
Figure 2-4
Instruments for Evaluating Readiness for Treatment
Instrument Description
The University of URICA was developed to assess stage of change. The instrument is known to be valid
Rhode Island with different populations in a variety of settings. El-Bassel and colleagues have deter-
Change Assessment mined that URICA is useful, reliable, and valid among incarcerated women who use
Scale (URICA) drugs (el-Bassel et al. 1998). The URICA and other similar instruments are reprinted
in TIP 35, Enhancing Motivation for Change in Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT
1999b).
The TCU Treatment The TCU Treatment Motivation Scales can be used to track the stages of change in
Motivation Scales treatment motivation. For further information, go to http://www.ibr.tcu.edu.
The Circumstances, The CMRS scales were designed to predict retention based on dynamic client factors
Motivation, related to seeking and remaining in treatment (DeLeon et al. 1994). The
Readiness, and Circumstances scale is defined as the external pressure to engage and remain in treat
Suitability Scales ment. The Motivation scale is defined as the internal pressure to change; the
(CMRS) Readiness scale is defined as the perceived need for treatment; and the Suitability
scale is defined as the individual’s perception of the treatment modality or setting as
appropriate for himself. A prison version has been developed. A revised version of
the CMRS, the CMR, is also available. The CMR is copyrighted and can be obtained
by contacting the National Development and Research Institute, Inc., 71 W. 23rd
Street, 8th Floor, New York, New York 10010, or mail@ndri.org.
Stages of Change, SOCRATES includes items specifically focused on alcohol abuse and can be used as a
Readiness, and starting point for discussion. A Spanish translation is available. The SOCRATES and
Treatment Eagerness other similar instruments are reprinted in TIP 35, Enhancing Motivation for Change
Scale (SOCRATES) in Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT 1999b).
symptoms.
Screening and assessment for co-occurring No single instrument can adequately screen
disorders should occur soon after entry into for all mental and substance use disorders,
involvement in the criminal justice system. particularly given the constraints of length,
Many individuals who are screened or cost, and required training—but a combina
assessed in court, community corrections, or tion of instruments can be used (Peters and
jail settings may be under the influence of Hills 1999). The choice of substance abuse
alcohol or drugs and may need to be detoxi screening instruments should be based on the
fied before determining whether they have co- purpose of the screening, ethnic or racial
occurring disorders. Acute symptoms of alco characteristics, language spoken, and gender
hol or drug use and residual effects of detoxi (Broner et al. 2002). Figure 2-5 provides a list
fication can mimic a wide variety of mental and description of instruments used to screen
disorders, including anxiety, bipolar disor and assess for mental disorders.
der, depression, and schizophrenia. Most
prison inmates screened for co-occurring dis Broner and colleagues recommend the Mini-
orders will have been detoxified by the time International Neuropsychiatric Interview for
of admission to treatment, although chronic mental disorder screening in court-based
residual side effects of drug use may cloud the diversion programs (without the Antisocial
initial symptom picture. It is therefore impor Personality Disorder and Substance and
tant to identify patterns of recent substance Alcohol Abuse modules and with a substance
abuse and to observe mental health symptoms use rule-out question added to reduce false-
over time to see if they resolve as the individ positives). Several sources recommend the
ual detoxifies. It is often useful to defer diag TCUDS, SSI, or ADS/ASI combination for
nosis (or to provide a provisional diagnosis, if substance abuse screening among offenders
needed) until the interactive effects of co- with mental health problems (Broner et al.
occurring disorders can be determined. 2001a; Peters and Bartoi 1997). For assess
ment of psychiatric disorders, Broner and
24 Chapter 2
Figure 2-5
Instruments for Screening and Assessing Mental Disorders
Instrument Description
Beck Depression • A 21-item self-report of symptoms that screens for symptoms of depression.
Inventory II (BDI-II) • Requires no significant training to administer.
(Beck et al. 1996) • Found to be the most effective instrument in detecting depression among individu
als who abuse alcohol (Weiss and Mirin 1989).
• Should not be used as a sole indicator of depression but in conjunction with other
instruments (Weiss and Mirin 1989; Willenbring 1986).
Mental Health • Eighteen simple questions designed to screen for present or past symptoms of most
Screening Form-III of the main mental disorders.
(MHSF-III) • A “rough” screening device and asks only one question for each disorder for
(Carroll and which it attempts to screen.
McGinley 2001) • Reproduced in TIP 42, Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co-
Occurring Disorders (CSAT 2005c).
colleagues recommend the Structured Clinical Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With
Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) (Broner et al. Co-Occurring Disorders (CSAT 2005c).
2001a). Refer to appendix C for these and
other examples of instruments that are rec
ommended for use with specific populations. History of Trauma
For more information on screening for co- Rates of trauma in men and women entering
occurring disorders see chapter 4 of TIP 42, the criminal justice system are higher than
are rates found in community samples. For
26 Chapter 2
Despite high rates of physical
Advice to the Counselor: and sexual abuse among offend
Screening for Co-Occurring Disorders ers, screening and assessment in
• Screening and assessment for co-occurring disorders the criminal justice system has
should occur on entry into the criminal justice system, not historically addressed these
given the high prevalence of co-occurring disorders in issues, nor have treatment ser
this population. vices been provided in jail,
prison, or community settings.
• Individuals in community corrections or jail settings may There are many compelling rea
need to be detoxified before screening for co-occurring sons to address abuse and trau
disorders. The acute symptoms of alcohol or drug use ma issues during screening and
and the residual effects of detoxification can mimic a assessment in the criminal justice
wide variety of mental disorders, including anxiety, bipo system. For many offenders, the
lar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. guilt, shame, and low self-esteem
related to their trauma history
may lead to social isolation and
example, Teplin et al. (1996) found that 34 may reduce participation in treatment activi
percent of female jail inmates had PTSD. ties. For example, given the close relationship
According to the DSM-IV-TR, trauma is between past physical or sexual abuse and
defined by two characteristics: substance abuse, treatment that does not
1. A person experiences, witnesses, or is address one of the “root” contributors to sub
threatened by physical harm. stance abuse may be perceived as unimpor
tant or irrelevant and may not provide suffi
2. The person’s response to the event includes
cient incentives for the offender to change his
“intense fear, helplessness or horror” (APA
or her attitudes and behavior. The offender’s
2000a, p. 463).
resulting lack of engagement in program ser
This definition highlights that trauma is not vices may be misinterpreted as resistance to
simply an event of a particular type but treatment or lack of motivation rather than to
includes a subjective dimension in that the per psychological issues related to abuse and
son’s response to the event is powerfully nega trauma. Forced abstinence during jail or
tive. For example, one person may survive a prison may also deprive offenders of their
car accident and not react with “fear, helpless primary means of coping with negative emo
ness, or horror,” while another person does tions related to past abuse and trauma (i.e.,
experience such feelings. use of drugs and alcohol). When this coping
mechanism is no longer available, many
Among female State prisoners, 40–80 percent offenders are left vulnerable and may begin
report a history of emotional, physical, or to exhibit symptoms of depression and other
sexual abuse (Bloom et al. 1994; Snell 1994). mental disorders that can interfere with treat
Female prison inmates are three times more ment. If unaddressed, past trauma can also
likely to report a history of any abuse and six trigger substance abuse relapse (during or
times more likely to report a history of sexual after treatment), through emotional, physical,
abuse in comparison to male inmates. A histo or situational cues associated with prior
ry of physical or sexual abuse has been linked abuse experiences.
to many types of mental disorders, including
PTSD, depression and suicidal behavior, and Only trained counselors should inquire about
borderline personality disorder and other abuse and trauma issues. The counselor
personality disorders (Spielvogel and Floyd should be prepared for how to respond to
1997). self-disclosed experiences related to physical
and sexual abuse and how to provide referral
for services. In most substance abuse settings,
Tampa, FL 33612-3899
Self-report instruments
• The Traumatic Antecedent Questionnaire (TAQ) (van der Kolk 1992). A widely used measure of lifetime
experiences of trauma in 10 domains, i.e., physical, sexual, witnessing trauma, etc.
• The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) (Bernstein and Putnam 1986). A self-report measure examining
several domains of dissociative phenomena, often sequelae of trauma, i.e., amnesia, identity alterations,
spontaneous trance states, etc.
• The Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) (Blake et al. 1998). A clinician-administered scale that
provides an accurate diagnosis of PTSD.
• The Trauma Symptom Inventory (TSI) (Briere 1995). A 100-item self-report instrument that evaluates
symptoms in adults that may have arisen from childhood or adult traumatic experiences. Includes 10 clin
ical scales and 3 validity scales. An alternate version (TSI-A) includes no references to sexual issues. The
companion Trauma Symptom Checklist 40 (Briere 1995; Briere and Runtz 1989) is a 40-item instrument
that contains 6 sub-scales. Items are rated on a 4-point scale covering frequency over the past 2 months.
• Posttraumatic Disorder Scale (PTDS) (Foa et al. 1993). Measures trauma history and specific symptoms
associated with posttraumatic stress disorder.
28 Chapter 2
group treatment sessions that specifically Violence (CSAT 1997b), TIP 36, Substance
address this topic area. Treatment for trauma Abuse Treatment for Persons With Child
issues progresses in stages, with early treat Abuse and Neglect Issues (CSAT 2000d), and
ment goals focused on issues of ensuring safe the forthcoming TIP Substance Abuse and
ty in relationships, the place of residence, Trauma (CSAT in development f).
and in the workplace. Later work explores
issues of recovery and reconciliation, if
appropriate. This later work is frequently Psychopathy and Risk for
conducted by therapists with advanced Violence and Recidivism
degrees and in most cases is not appropriately A number of criminogenic “risk factors” are
addressed by paraprofessional staff. often assessed in justice settings to determine
Most commonly, assessment of trauma has eligibility for admission to substance abuse
been conducted through a clinical interview. treatment programs and community release
In these settings, it is preferable to use stan (e.g., parole), and for placement in institu
dardized questions that avoid the use of terms tional housing or in different levels of super
such as “abuse,” “trauma,” or “perpetrator” vision (Borum 1996; Douglas and Webster
and that instead focus on description of spe 1999; Otto 2000). This information is particu
cific events or experiences. larly helpful to identify offenders likely to be
disruptive in treatment programs, to be re
Sample interview questions could include: arrested, or to commit violent crimes after
• Were you ever hit or punished in ways that release from institutions. Risk factors can be
left bruises, burns, or cuts? Were you ever categorized as static or dynamic. Static risk
threatened with knives or guns? Were you factors are those that cannot change, such as
ever made to go without eating? Did you ever gender and race, or are relatively enduring
witness anyone else getting hurt? Did you traits such as the diagnosis of a mental disor
ever have to be taken from your parents’ der, criminal history, family history, and the
care? characteristics of the offender’s victims.
Dynamic risk factors are those likely to
• As a child, did you have any sexual experi change over time and that change according
ences? With whom and for how long did this to the client’s environment, social situation,
go on? Were you ever threatened about it? or experiences, such as drug use or homeless
Were any photos taken? Did any of these ness. Following is a discussion of the risk fac-
experiences lead to medical or other prob
lems? Do you have any recur
rent memories of these events
now? Advice to the Counselor:
• Are you safe in your current Screening for Trauma
relationship? Has your safety
ever been threatened in any of • Trained counselors are best equipped to inquire about
your adult relationships? Have abuse and trauma issues. Offenders who have experi
you been punched, shoved, or enced abuse or trauma and who are undergoing forced
hit? Did you ever seek any abstinence while in jail or prison may be deprived of
medical help as a result? Have their primary means of coping with the negative emo
you talked to people about tions related to past trauma. These offenders may begin
these experiences? (Spielvogel to exhibit signs of depression or other mental disorders
and Floyd 1997). that can interfere with treatment.
• Counselors should be familiar with and have ready access
For more information on this
to resources to refer persons who wish to discuss their
topic see also TIP 25, Substance
histories of trauma in more detail.
Abuse Treatment and Domestic
30 Chapter 2
Inventory (Lilienfeld and Andrews 1996), the some rapidly return to substance abuse in the
Psychopathy Q-Sort (Reise and Oliver 1994; absence of opportunities to learn and
Reise and Wink 1995), and the Levenson Self- rehearse those skills.
Report Psychopathy Scale (Brinkley et al.
2001; Levenson et al. 1995). A number of Many offenders have long histories of psy
other screening and assessment instruments chosocial problems that have contributed to
examine personality features related, but not their substance abuse and criminal involve
identical, to psychopathy (Zimmerman 2000), ment. These include interpersonal difficulties
as described in Figure 2-6 on the next page. with family members, difficulties in sustaining
long-term relationships, emotional and psy
chological difficulties, difficulties in managing
Violence and recidivism anger and stress, educational and vocational
Although psychopathy may be the single most skills deficits, and employment problems
important risk factor for criminal recidivism, (Belenko and Peugh 1998; Peters 1993).
other risk factors are important to assess Offenders do not typically plan or seek out
among offenders with substance abuse prob addictive lifestyles or relapse. Rather, it is
lems. Even offenders determined to have low their lack of planning, personal objectives,
levels of psychopathy may still be at high risk and self-monitoring that leads to substance
for violence or recidivism due to other risk abuse or dependence or relapse. The lack of
factors. Other major risk factors for violence basic coping skills to manage life and social
and criminal recidivism include pressures further contributes to the risk for
relapse and recidivism.
• Antisocial attitudes
• Criminal peers Reunification with family members is often
accompanied by stress related to the family’s
• Prior history of crime and violence, and early
distrust and anger over offenders’ past drug
age at time of first offense/violent act
use, unresolved conflicts with the partner or
• Active symptoms of severe mental illness spouse, shifting parental roles, and added
• Impulsivity financial obligations, as well as drug use in
• Environmental stress the family or neighborhood. Elements of com
munity supervision can also increase an
• Treatment nonadherence offender’s stress during re-entry to the com
• Personality disorders (generally) munity. These include drug testing, use of
house arrest, and other surveillance or
A number of environmental stressors can lead
reporting activities, as well as the offender’s
to renewed substance use and risk for recidi
recognition of the significant level of effort
vism when offenders are released from cus
and adherence required by community super
tody or when their daily structure and level
vision programs. The community’s ongoing
of supervision is reduced (Peters 1993;
leverage to maintain the offender’s involve
Wanberg and Milkman 1998). During these
ment in treatment following release from cus
transitions, many offenders face employment
tody or other secure settings can be a further
and financial problems, and few have family
stressor (U.S. Department of Justice 1991).
or social supports. Meanwhile, there are
Figure 2-6 (next page) provides descriptions
immediate demands to organize daily activi
of three general assessment instruments relat
ties, develop and maintain constructive rela
ed to the risk for violence and recidivism.
tionships, manage personal or household
finances and problems, and participate in
community supervision. Many offenders
involved with drugs have never learned the
requisite skills to accomplish these tasks, and
Minnesota • A self-report objective assessment measure with 567 items, 10 main clini-
Multiphasic cal scales, and 10 supplementary scales (Hathaway and McKinley 1989).
Personality • The Psychopathic Deviate Scale on the MMPI identifies individuals with
Inventory psychopathic and antisocial features.
(MMPI-2)
• Frequently used in criminal justice settings (particularly in prisons) for
classification and assignment to housing or offender programs and to
predict an offender’s response to placement in prison setting.
• MMPI subtypes described by Megargee et al. (1979) are often used to
identify offenders who require more intensive supervision and struc
tured program activities.
32 Chapter 2
Figure 2-6 (continued)
Instruments Examining Psychopathy and Risk for
Violence and Recidivism
Instruments Description
Other instru- Personality • Self-report instrument for assessing traits associated with psychopathy.
ments related Assessment • Includes 344 items and requires 50–60 minutes to administer.
to psychopathy Instrument (PAI)
• Contains scales for Negative Impression Management, Malingering, and
Defensiveness (Morey and Lanier 1998).
• The Antisocial Features (ANT) scale is the most highly correlated with
psychopathy and focuses on antisocial behaviors, egocentricity, and
stimulation-seeking.
Level of Service •A 54-point scale used to predict the chances of criminal recidivism or
Inventory (LSI) supervision failure among offenders.
Revised •Useful for identifying those in need of more intensive levels of treatment,
placement in halfway houses, and level of supervision and security clas
sification (Andrews and Bonta 1995).
•Used by jurisdictions to support an increase or decrease in the level of
community supervision.
•Includes assessment of drug use and is sometimes used in tandem with
substance abuse treatment decisions.
General
assessment Historical, •Provides a comprehensive risk assessment based on historical, clinical,
instruments Clinical, Risk and risk management assessments.
related to the Management •Composed of static and dynamic factors with information derived from
risk for vio (HCR-20) clinical interview, standardized assessment (e.g., the PCL-R or PCL
lence and SV), and collateral sources.
recidivism
• Includes three sections—10 historical items, 5 clinical items, and 5 risk
management items—with a final risk rating of low, medium, or high
(Webster et al. 1997, 2000).
The Violence Risk •An assessment tool for predicting violent recidivism.
Appraisal Guide •Is an actuarial measure based on 12 objective variables that are linked to
(VRAG) (Harris et recidivism.
al. 1993)
•Requires interview and archival review, and incorporates results of diag
nostic testing, IQ testing, the PCL-R, criminal history, and indicators of
adult adjustment.
34 Chapter 2
cies can afford (Knight et al. 2002). Rather, face interview can ensure that the respondent
correctional systems usually have a short understands the items and answers them, but
period of time to determine which of a large it is more time consuming and costly. The
number of offenders need treatment. For interview, which may be broken into several
example, the Program and Services Division sessions, might be more appropriate for those
of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice with physical or cognitive disabilities. If cost
coordinates a drug abuse screening and treat is a concern, self-administered instruments
ment referral process for several hundred could be used. Use of small-group interviews
inmates monthly. The division lacks the staff, is another less costly alternative to individual
time, or financial resources to administer interviews (Broome
lengthy individual interviews for each new et al. 1996b).
admission. Therefore, simple logic dictates
that an instrument should not be used if it Research suggests Correctional staff
takes longer to administer than the staff time that the reliability of
available. the administration members who
method varies by
setting and the con-
Cost tent evaluated
have been trained
The cost of instruments varies according to (Broner et al. 2002;
Broome et al. 1996b; to administer an
whether they are publicly or commercially
available, whether the instrument is computer Knight et al. 1998).
The method chosen instrument can, in
ized, and the unit costs per administration that
are assigned by the publisher. There are sever (e.g., interview or
al screening and assessment instruments avail self-administered) turn, train others
able at no cost in the public domain. Other also affects the
commercially available instruments are avail amount of training to use it.
able that can often be administered for $1 to $5 required to adminis
per unit. (See appendix C.) ter the screening.
36 Chapter 2
the overall scoring of the instrument. The fol It may be necessary for a counselor to modify
lowing section presents issues to consider screening and assessment instruments to be
when screening and assessing specific popula sensitive to cultural differences. Individuals
tions and suggests strategies for modifications interested in modifying instruments should
to instruments and procedures. consult the research literature to identify
adaptations that have already been developed
and validated or new scales that have been
Racial and Ethnic Minorities adapted for the instruments. For example,
When the counselor and the offender are several adaptations of the ASI have been
from different racial or ethnic groups, the developed for use with American Indians
potential for misunderstanding is consider (Carise et al. 1998) and with women (CSAT
able. These differences can affect the staff’s 1997c). Also, new
ability to assess client needs and/or to recom intake and followup
mend culturally competent services for clients scales have been
from other cultures and can jeopardize the developed for the Women respond
client’s chances for treatment success. The ASI (Alterman et al.
sources of misunderstanding originate in cul 1998). Counselors differently to the
ture, socioeconomic class, and language (Sue are encouraged to
and Sue 1999), as well as in race, gender determine whether screening process
(Broner et al. 2001a), literacy, and physical norms for an instru
or cognitive inability to respond to the instru ment make sense than men, and a
ment (CSAT 1994a). with the population
they are testing. If longer, more
A general introduction to a screening or the recognized crite
assessment could include statements about the rion score results in
effects of substance abuse on society or on the flexible format is
too many individuals
client’s culture, along with information about being excluded from
the purpose of the process. Counselors should treatment, perhaps often useful.
ask clients directly about how they view or the counselor should
describe themselves and their preferred usage consider lowering it.
of terms such as black, African American, (See also the forthcoming TIP Improving
person of color, Hispanic, Latino, Chicana, Cultural Competence in Substance Abuse
Pacific Islander, gay, homosexual, or lesbian. Treatment [CSAT in development b].)
Counselors should also be aware of general
cultural beliefs and expectations. For exam
ple, screening American-Indian populations Women
can prove difficult because gaining trust is Counselors also need to be aware of special
sometimes a challenge. Moreover, some tribal issues in screening and assessing female
cultures dictate silence about substance abuse offenders. Women respond differently to the
issues. As a result, a screening that detects screening process than men (Kassebaum
the need for further assessment brings the 1999), and a longer, more flexible format is
stigma of losing dignity in the tribe. often useful, particularly to explore unantici
American-Indian men and women may also be pated areas that may arise. Females are more
the victims of other types of abuse that can likely than males to have a co-occurring men
impede the screening and assessment process. tal disorder and trauma-related problems. In
Further barriers of language, literacy, and addition, they are more likely to be affected
comprehension are also present in this popu by poverty, abuse histories, unstable social
lation (Sue and Sue 1999). supports, and medical problems (el-Bassel et
al. 1996; Fullilove et al. 1993; Haywood et al.
38 Chapter 2
Bartoi 1997). A mental status examination is Alcohol and Substance Use Screening and the
also provided during many screenings for co- Level of Service Inventory–Revised (LSI-R).
occurring disorders. In addition to examining Based on the instruments, an extensive treat
key symptoms, mental health treatment histo ment matching approach places offenders in
ry, and family history of mental disorder, it is correctional settings where intensity varies
helpful to assess the interactive effects of both from no treatment to therapeutic communi
disorders to determine whether there is an ties. The treatment matching approach
independent mental disorder, or if mental dis defines key criteria for admission to each
order symptoms are present only when the level of correctional treatment services based
offender uses drugs or alcohol. on the history of involvement in correctional
treatment, individual motivation, social sup
Screening for suicidal thoughts and behavior port, living arrangements (if in noninstitu
should occur on an ongoing basis for all tional settings), level of mental disorder and
offenders with co-occurring disorders in the substance abuse symptoms, substance depen
criminal justice system. This screening is par dence symptoms, and other factors (O’Keefe
ticularly important for offenders with severe 2000).
depression or schizophrenia and individuals
who are experiencing stimulant withdrawal.
Suicide screening should be conducted at the Florida Department of
time of transfer to new institutions, or at dif Corrections (FDOC)
ferent stages in the justice system (e.g.,
arrest, pretrial diversion, probation). All sui Florida has developed an integrated screening
cidal behavior should be taken seriously and and assessment system for all inmates enter
assessed promptly to identify the types of ser ing its reception centers. The system uses the
vices needed. For more information see TIP SSI-SA coupled with a records review (e.g.,
42, Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons referrals from drug courts, history of DUI or
With Co-Occurring Disorders (CSAT 2005c). drug offenses, FDOC treatment history) and a
self-report gathered from interviews during
the reception process. Responses from the
Integrated Screening various sources are weighted and then used to
determine the offender’s needed intensity of
and Assessment— treatment and placement. Those inmates
Sample Approaches placed in services are administered a further
assessment on transfer to a permanent insti
Programs often integrate a variety of screening tution, including the ASI and other psycho
and assessment instruments to place clients in social information. Key screening and assess
the most appropriate treatment program. ment information is computerized and avail
Several sample models of integrated screening able to treatment, classification, and proba
and assessment implementations are described tion and parole staff (U.S. Department of
below. Justice 1991).
40 Chapter 2
• Appropriate assessment for substance abuse stance use disorders and to provide infor
treatment in criminal justice settings exam mation regarding other areas related to
ines the substance abuse history, psychopa substance abuse. A range of substance
thy and related risk factors, history of men abuse screening and assessment instruments
tal health problems, and other psychosocial have been validated for use with offenders,
areas that are affected by substance abuse. and some are available at relatively little
• Intensive treatment should clearly be expense.
reserved for offenders who have at least • The psychometric
moderate substance abuse problems and at properties of
A range of
least moderate risk for criminal recidivism. screening and
• Because reports of offenders’ drug prob tings in which sev relatively little
lems are incomplete or contain contradicto eral types of treat-
42 Chapter 2
3 Triage and
Placement in
Treatment Services
Overview
In This
Identifying offenders in need of substance abuse treatment is only the
Chapter…
first step in providing help to these individuals. Because no single treat
ment has been shown to be effective for all offenders, effective matching
Treatment Levels and
to individual needs such as vocational or employment skills, family
Components
counseling, and mental health services improves the likelihood that the
client will successfully complete treatment. Matching to specific treat
Potential Barriers to
This chapter provides detailed information on how to best use the infor
mation obtained through screening and assessment in order to match
the offender to appropriate treatment services. It begins by discussing
three major treatment categories and outlines barriers to placement. A
detailed discussion of triage and placement follows.
43
Effectiveness of Treatment Levels—Results From the
DATOS Study
Results from the federally funded Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Studies (DATOS) (Hubbard et al. 1997;
Simpson et al. 2002) indicate that all major treatment levels (including long-term residential, short-term
inpatient, outpatient, and outpatient methadone) are effective in reducing substance abuse and criminal
activity. For example, reductions in weekly cocaine use from pretreatment to 1 year posttreatment followup
ranged from 46 percent among short-term residential clients to 20 percent among outpatient methadone
clients. Reductions in criminal activity from pretreatment to 1 year posttreatment followup ranged from 25
percent among long-term residential clients to 8 percent among outpatient clients.
Key findings and implications from the DATOS studies include the following:
• All substance abuse treatment modalities are effective in reducing substance abuse and criminal activity.
• Residential treatment programs of at least 3 months’ duration are particularly cost-effective for use with
criminal justice clients.
• Client readiness for and commitment to change and engagement and retention in treatment are important
predictors of treatment outcomes. These factors, when routinely assessed by criminal justice programs,
may be useful in targeting offenders who need more intensive services (e.g., intensive case management).
• Measures of client engagement and treatment progress are good predictors of dropout from treatment.
When routinely assessed, these predictors can help identify clients who require specialized interventions
(e.g., peer mentors, motivational enhancement therapies, individual counseling) to sustain their involve
ment in treatment.
• Involvement in posttreatment peer support activities is helpful in preventing relapse. Clients are more
likely to engage in ongoing peer support groups if they begin these activities during treatment.
• Among clients with prior treatment experience, outcomes are more dependent on the quality of relation
ships with treatment counselors than are outcomes for first-time clients (Franey and Ashton 2002).
often are available within each treatment primary prevention programs are in schools
level. As the text box above indicates, or the community.
research suggests that all major treatment • Early intervention. This includes psychoed
levels are effective. Nonetheless, the consen ucational programs for those who have used
sus panel believes that clients should be substances and are considered to be at high
matched not only on the intensity of services risk for substance-related problems or have
they need, but also on the particular compo a history of substance abuse. Other inter
nents that are responsive to their individual ventions include screening and assessment
needs. to identify substance abuse problems. Brief
interventions also are appropriate for
Pretreatment Services offenders who use substances but who do
not meet the diagnosis of having a substance
Pretreatment services, which are not part of use disorder. For example, ongoing evalua
primary treatment, include primary preven tion can help determine if referral to a
tion, early intervention, and detoxification. more intensive level of care is needed. In
Primary prevention and early intervention are some instances, early intervention can be
not typically used in criminal justice settings. used as short-term treatment for individu
• Primary prevention. These are services for als with low-severity substance abuse prob
people who have not used substances. Most lems.
44 Chapter 3
• Detoxification. Medically supervised detoxi Treatment [CSAT in development d] and
fication services are required for offenders Substance Abuse: Administrative Issues in
whose alcohol or drug abuse has caused Intensive Outpatient Treatment [CSAT in
severe and life-threatening symptoms (e.g., development c].)
acute intoxication, blackouts). Although • Methadone treatment. This is a medically
detoxification typically is conducted prior supervised outpatient treatment that pro
to the onset of substance abuse treatment, it vides counseling while maintaining the
is important to provide a thorough assess client on the drug methadone. This regimen
ment during detoxification and to provide is used primarily for heroin or other opioid
orientation to the recovery and treatment addiction and provides a legitimate, closely
process. For more information, see chapter monitored substitute for illicit drugs. The
2 of this TIP and the forthcoming TIP client must be able to document at least a 2
Detoxification and Substance Abuse year history of addiction to qualify for a
Treatment (Center for Substance Abuse methadone treatment program. It is rarely
Treatment [CSAT] in development a). used with those who are incarcerated. (For
more information see TIP 43, Medication-
Outpatient Treatment Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction
Also referred to as ambulatory care, outpatient in Opioid Treatment Programs
treatment provides a broad range of services [CSAT 2005a]).
without overnight accommodation and includes • Day treatment or partial hospitalization.
nonintensive and intensive outpatient treat This is substance abuse treatment with pro
ment, methadone treatment, and day treatment fessional assessment and treatment of more
or partial hospitalization. Some of these ser than 20 hours per week in a structured pro
vices can be provided following inpatient or gram. This is the most intensive of the out
residential treatment, or as followup care after patient treatment options and can be used
involvement in a residential program. for treating clients who demonstrate the
• Nonintensive outpatient treatment. This is greatest degree of dysfunction but who do
substance abuse treatment that includes not require inpatient or residential treat
professional assessment and treatment ment. Evening and weekend programming
involving less than 9 hours per week in reg often is included.
ularly scheduled sessions. Nonintensive out
patient treatment often addresses related Inpatient Treatment and
psychiatric, emotional, and social issues,
and offers a forum to explore issues such as Residential Care
the relationship between violence and men Inpatient treatment options include intensive
tal disorders. Nonintensive outpatient treat medical, psychiatric, and psychosocial treat
ment also can accommodate clients with job ment provided on a 24-hour basis. The contin
or family responsibilities, as treatment ser uum of residential care includes psychosocial
vices may be offered on weekends or care at the most intensive end and group living
evenings. with no professional supervision at the least
• Intensive outpatient treatment. This is sub intensive end. It is unlikely that the full range
stance abuse treatment with professional of services will be available in any one commu
assessment and treatment from 9 to 20 nity.
hours per week in a structured program. • Intensive residential treatment. This long
These programs can be held on evenings or term treatment can be directed by a sub
weekends. (For more information see the stance abuse treatment professional or
forthcoming TIPs Substance Abuse: could be medically directed. Intensive resi
Clinical Issues in Intensive Outpatient dential treatment is appropriate for people
46 Chapter 3
own way to outside activities (e.g., work, tracts and maintain itself can compete with an
court, counseling, vocational training, and offender’s needs for treatment. Or, inmates
schooling). The house sometimes offers could be assigned to institutional education
treatment services. Length of stay is limited programs. In addition, there are also compet
or unlimited depending on the attainment of ing demands for treatment. Treatment service
specific progress goals. options often are limited and waiting lists
• Group home. This refers to a residential, exist for most services in community-based
transitional living situation without any spe programs. The community-based system of
cific treatment plan and minimal staff care across the country largely is funded to
supervision. It is sometimes known as a provide services to a nonoffender population.
three-quarter-way house. Residents may In some cases, prioritization of community
work and receive education, training, or treatment services for offenders has placed a
treatment in the community. House resi strain on the limited number of available
dents generally decide on admission of new treatment slots.
residents. House responsibilities are
shared, and the house is governed and run Information Flow
by its residents. The length of stay is
generally unlimited as long as abstinence Issues regarding the transfer of information
from substances is maintained; the Oxford across different settings in the criminal justice
House model includes complete resident system present a major barrier to effective
self-governance and self-sufficiency. The placement in offender treatment services. For
key to success in all such models is that the example, this might include a need for a cen
living situation is substance free, which sup tralized database that can be accessed by vari
ports abstinence among residents. ous providers as offenders move through the
system.
Potential Barriers to
Placement System
Inadequate Screening and The consensus panel believes that to ensure
appropriate treatment for offenders who
Assessment abuse substances, the offender’s needs and
Accurate screening and assessment are neces available resources must be balanced.
sary for effective placement. However, Coordination of treatment matching within
resources, adequate time to conduct compre the criminal justice system can reduce the
hensive assessments, and trained staff are not long-term costs of incarceration and other
always available in criminal justice settings. As criminal justice functions only if adequate
a result, substance abuse treatment in criminal personnel and funding are available for case
justice settings often is based on sparse and management. Ongoing planning and coordina
inadequate information (Knight et al. 2002). tion among criminal justice staff, substance
abuse treatment staff, and policymakers and
other stakeholders is important to establish
Competing Demands in an effective treatment matching system.
Institutional Settings
Based on the experiences of consensus panel
A challenge for substance abuse treatment
members, the optimal approach would be to
programs in institutional settings is the com
assemble a team consisting of correctional/
peting demands on offenders’ time. For exam
supervision and clinical staff to develop a
ple, a prison’s need for labor to fulfill its con
triage and placement system and to assume
48 Chapter 3
• Range of different levels of treatment intensi
ty available
Compiling Information
• Scope of information needed to determine eli To Guide Triage and
gibility for admission to the various levels of Placement Decisions
treatment
Screening and assessment are discussed com
• Consequences for “mismatching” offenders to prehensively in chapter 2. This section outlines
the different levels of treatment how to use information derived from screening
Under most conditions, triage and placement and assessment to make triage and placement
decisions are guided by the need to reserve decisions.
program slots for offenders with more severe As described in Figure 3-1, placement and
substance abuse problems and who present at triage strategies in criminal justice settings
least moderate risk for criminal recidivism often use a tiered approach. In the first stage
(see Figure 3-1, next page). Research indi of this process (screening and assessment),
cates that treatment programs targeting attempts are made to identify major mental
offenders with moderate to high risk for health problems or psychopathy that would
recidivism produce the greatest posttreatment interfere with involvement in substance abuse
reductions in recidivism and are more cost- treatment. If one of these problems is identi
effective (Andrews et al. 1990; Bonta 1997; fied, the offender can be directly routed to a
Gendreau 1996). However, research does not specialized treatment or management unit/
support placement of moderate- to high-risk program. This tiered approach enables crimi
offenders in minimally intensive treatment nal justice staff to quickly identify offenders
services (e.g., educational groups, 12-Step who are not good candidates for substance
groups) unless additional, more intensive ser abuse treatment and prevents unnecessary
vices are also provided. In summary, offend substance abuse screening and assessment for
ers with more severe addiction problems and offenders who would perform poorly in exist
more significant risks for criminal recidivism ing substance abuse programs.
do not experience positive treatment out
comes unless they are placed in highly struc If a range of offender treatment options is
tured and intensive treatment programs. available, placement in services usually is
Conversely, assigning low-severity offenders determined by the following factors:
to these high-intensity programs often is inef • Risk for criminal recidivism
ficient and counterproductive for people who
use drugs casually, who are then
exposed to the corrosive effects
of more seasoned offenders with Advice to the Counselor:
pronounced criminal attitudes,
beliefs, and lifestyles.
Triage and Placement
• Measurements of client readiness for change, commit
ment to change, and engagement in treatment are
important predictors of treatment outcomes.
• In settings with limited services available, elaborate
triage systems are unnecessary and placement often can
be determined with a brief interview of the offender,
some self-administered tests, and a records review.
• Accurate screening and assessment are necessary for
effective triage and placement in the face of competing
demands for resources.
• Level of offender needs for substance abuse, municate in individual and group settings
mental health and other psychosocial or med and to withstand stress in highly intensive
ical services, and employment therapeutic communities
• Offender motivation and readiness for treat Research indicates that treatment programs
ment that place individuals in services according to
• Other offender characteristics including cog these areas are likely to enhance outcomes for
nitive and intellectual abilities, abilities to offenders (Andrews et al. 1990; Gendreau
read and write, and related abilities to com 1996). The following sections discuss each of
50 Chapter 3
these areas in relation to triage and place intensity interventions such as outpatient
ment services, identify information sources treatment, drug education, and peer support
necessary for placement, and list instruments or 12-Step programs (see Figure 3-1) (Falkin
that can be used to compile the information. et al. 1999).
For more information on the instruments list
ed, see chapter 2 and appendix C.
Information needed for
triage and placement
Risk for Criminal Recidivism
• Criminal history, including age at first
Assessment of the risk for future criminal arrest, number and type of prior arrests,
and/or violent behavior is of vital importance history of violence and aggressive behavior,
in the process of assigning offenders to treat history of incarceration, probation and/or
ment programs within the criminal justice parole revocations
system. Offender characteristics and environ
mental factors used to estimate the likelihood • Age, education, marital status, employment
of future criminal behavior are termed “risk history
factors.” (See chapter 2 for information on • Characteristics of psychopathy, including
identifying risk factors.) entitlement, impulsivity, superficial inter
personal relationships, lack of empathy,
Once criminal risk factors are identified, sensation seeking, poorly controlled anger
research indicates that structured and inten
• Nature of offender’s family and social net
sive cognitive–behavioral approaches can
work (prosocial versus procriminal)
address offenders’ “criminogenic needs”
related to their dynamic risk factors (those • Other personality disorders, including
that are likely to change over time) (Andrews paranoia
and Bonta 1998; Wanberg and Milkman
1998). Andrews and Bonta (1998) have identi Instruments used to compile
fied several promising targets for treatment this information
intervention based on dynamic risk factors:
Use of some of these instruments is described in
• Developing and improving life management, chapter 2.
problemsolving, and self-control skills
• Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R)
• Developing associations or relationships and and the Psychopathy Checklist–Screening
bonding with prosocial and anticriminal Version (PCL-SV)
peers and with prosocial and anticriminal
role models •Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI)
• Enhancing closer family feelings and com •Level of Services Inventory—Revised
munication (LSI-R)
• Improving positive family structures to pro •Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory—III
mote monitoring (MCMI-III), Correctional Form
• Managing and changing antisocial thoughts, •Personality Assessment Instrument (PAI)
attitudes, and feelings •Novaco Anger Inventory
•Jesness Inventory
In general, offenders who are at high risk for
criminal recidivism require more structured •Paulus Deception Scale
and intensive treatment interventions such as •Inventory of Sensation Seeking
intensive outpatient treatment, day treat
ment, residential treatment, or TCs, while
low-risk offenders are better suited for low-
52 Chapter 3
tion and concentration, problemsolving “good time” credit for involvement in correc
skills, interpersonal skills, and frustration tional treatment, and incarceration in jail or
tolerance prison. Offenders also may be motivated by
• Effects of stress and other environmental negative consequences outside the justice sys
influences on mental disorder symptoms tem, including threats to stable housing,
and related behavioral problems employment, family, and marriage (Ziedonis
and Fisher 1994).
• Likelihood of recurrence of mental disorder
symptoms and behavioral problems given However, the consensus panel cautions that
environmental conditions in available treat assessments of motivation and readiness for
ment programs change that occur outside clinical settings can
• Accommodations available in existing treat misidentify signifi
ment programs to address mental disorder cant numbers of
symptoms and behavioral problems offenders who could
benefit from The offender’s
Instruments used to compile involvement in sub-
stance abuse treat motivation and
this information ment. Many offend
Use of these instruments is described in chap ers who initially readiness for
ter 2. appear unmotivated
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality can quickly become treatment is a key
Inventory (MMPI) engaged in treat
ment through peers factor in triage for
• Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory—III who are committed
(MCMI-III) to recovery and who
• Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL90-R)
placement in
are actively involved
• Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) in treatment.
Involvement in
substance abuse
group counseling
Offender Motivation and treatment.
and contact with
Readiness for Change program partici
The offender’s motivation and readiness for pants and staff can
treatment is another key factor in triage for stimulate motivation for change in the previ
placement in substance abuse treatment. ously unmotivated offender.
Motivation and readiness for change are
important predictors of treatment compli Motivation for treatment changes over time,
ance, dropout, and outcome, and this infor and offenders often cycle through several pre
mation is vital (Ries and Ellingson 1990). dictable stages of change during the treatment
Treatment is likely to be ineffective until indi and recovery process. The stages of change
viduals accept the need for treatment of their model has been developed to describe recov
substance abuse as well as other related ery from various types of addictive disorders
problems. (Prochaska et al. 1992), and includes the fol
lowing stages:
An offender’s motivation to participate in • Precontemplation (unawareness of substance
treatment is influenced by justice system abuse problems)
sanctions and incentives, including court
• Contemplation (awareness of substance abuse
orders to complete treatment, probation revo
problems)
cation, more intensive mandatory treatment,
54 Chapter 3
• Review by classification staff to examine Megargee and Case
sentence structure, prior arrests, and cor
rectional history.
Management Classification
• Brief screening for substance abuse prob
Systems
lems and dependence symptoms using a Correctional systems have long used a variety
modified version of the SSI-SA. of typologies to match clients to treatment
• Personal interview. and supervision approaches in institutional
and community settings. These typologies
• Determination of the need for treatment usually are based on a combination of crimi
based on the substance abuse screening, the nal history variables and psychosocial char
history of drug or alcohol offenses, prior acteristics. One example of a multidimension
history in correctional treatment, recom al treatment matching system is the Megargee
mendations by drug courts or other sen System, which is based on an extensive analy
tencing courts, and staff or self-reported sis of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
referral for treatment. Inventory (MMPI) responses given by a large
• Assignment of a “priority score” for sub sample of Federal prison inmates. Ten dis
stance abuse treatment, based on the sub tinctive profile types have been identified,
stance abuse screening score, the number of each with varying treatment implications that
prior substance abuse offenses, number of range from recommended placement in the
prior correctional treatment episodes, posi least restrictive setting to placement in spe
tive drug test results, and counselor inter cialized mental health facilities (Vigdal and
view results. Stadler 1996).
• Routine identification of inmates prioritized
The Case Management Classification (CMC)
for substance abuse treatment through
system was developed by the Wisconsin
“flags” initiated within the computerized
Department of Corrections. Based on an
database.
offender’s responses to a 45-minute
Several of the components contributing to the semistructured interview, four categories are
priority score are weighted, including recom used to determine treatment assignment with
mendations for treatment from drug courts or in the correctional system:
other sentencing courts, DUI manslaughter 1. Selective intervention for offenders who
convictions, and unsuccessful termination have led relatively stable, prosocial lives.
from community corrections residential treat The current offense resulted from an isolat
ment programs. The inmate priority score is ed stressful event and represents a tempo
entered on a computerized database. Inmates rary lapse.
with high priority scores are then transferred 2. Environmental structure for offenders lack
to facilities with substance abuse treatment ing social and vocational skills who are typi
programs, where an additional substance cally led by others into criminal activity.
abuse screening and interview is conducted.
Priority placement in intensive treatment ser 3. Casework control for offenders with very
vices is provided for inmates with at least 12 unstable lives who are actively involved with
to 18 months remaining on their sentence. drugs or alcohol and have a number of
prior arrests.
4. Limited setting for offenders with long-term
criminal involvement and who are comfort
able with their criminal lifestyle and strive
for success through criminal activity.
56 Chapter 3
treatment programs (e.g., day treatment, • In addition to key information regarding
intensive outpatient, residential services). substance abuse problems, risk for criminal
• Mental disorder symptoms and impairment recidivism, and mental health problems,
should be carefully considered in determin triage and placement decisions also should
ing placement in substance abuse treatment consider the offender’s motivation and
services. The functional ability of inmates readiness for treatment, the length of sen
should be the central concern in triage and tence/incarceration, prior history in treat
placement decisions, rather than mental ment, violence potential, and other related
disorder diagnoses. security and management issues.
• A centralized substance abuse treatment • A centralized database that provides timely
database should be created to organize information on offenders as well as the
results from screening and assessment, to availability of services should be developed
help coordinate the triage and placement to improve triage and placement.
process, and to track offender progress in
treatment.
59
Assessing the Severity for treatment, since any use is illegal and may
result in arrest or violations of community
of Substance Use supervision guidelines. Also, most settings
lack the qualified staff and time required to
Disorders make formal diagnoses, and clients are some
Treatment planning within the criminal jus times in the setting for too short a time to
tice system requires a comprehensive assess delay treatment while awaiting formal diagno
ment of an offender’s substance abuse history sis of a substance use disorder. In these set
and patterns of use, including drug(s) of tings, clinical impressions are more feasible
abuse, chronological patterns of use, specific than are formal diagnoses, and common
reasons for use, consequences of use, and sense, assisted where possible by standard
family history of drug and alcohol abuse. ized assessment instruments, should prevail
Often treatment involvement within the crimi in deciding whether and how to provide treat
nal justice system is based primarily on a con ment services. Fortunately, several standard
viction or plea to a drug-related offense. ized instruments with good psychometric
Although the number and type of substance- properties are available in the public domain,
related charges is sometimes a fairly good or at low cost, for the purpose of screening
indicator of substance abuse and related and assessment of substance use severity (see
problems, the offense category alone is not a chapter 2).
foolproof indicator of treatment need or of
appropriateness of referral to a specific pro
gram. The presence of intoxicants in blood or Assessing the Severity
urine at the time of arrest is a better, albeit
imperfect, indicator.
of Co-Occurring
Using multiple indicators for assessing the
Disorders
severity of a substance use disorder is impor Another important area to assess in develop
tant because individuals with few substance- ing a treatment plan is the presence and
related problems typically do not respond impact of psychological and emotional prob
favorably to intensive treatment and fail to lems, particularly those that are not the
identify with the process of recovery. Close direct result of substance abuse. Offenders
association with more severely affected with severe substance use disorders have rela
offenders can result in the less-severe offend tively high rates of affective disorders, anxi
er becoming socialized into a criminal and ety disorders, and personality disorders.
drug-oriented lifestyle through contagion of These disorders can contribute to the devel
attitudes and introduction to a criminal social opment of substance use problems, or the
network. Minimally, an assessment of severity emotional disorders may develop as a conse
should focus on determining the impact of use quence of the physiological effects of long
on the individual’s community adjustment. standing drug use and the stressful or trau
Usually this also entails taking a drug history matic life events that are often experienced as
that inquires about the frequency, dosage, part of a lifestyle in which drug use plays a
and types of drugs used. A drug history may central role. Some individuals have mental
also inquire about the times at which, or set health problems prior to intake; others devel
tings in which, an offender uses. op them during adjudication, incarceration,
or community supervision. Commonly
Assessment of the severity of a substance use encountered disorders include anxiety,
disorder may lead to an actual diagnosis of a depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder
substance use or dependence disorder. (PTSD) (Teplin et al. 1996). Developing pro
However, most offender treatment programs grams to assist those with co-occurring mental
consider routine use of illicit drugs without a and substance use disorders requires inte
diagnosable disorder to be a legitimate focus grating treatments and modifying commonly
60 Chapter 4
used interventions to take into account possi Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
ble cognitive disabilities and increased need
for support among these individuals. In addi
and Depression
tion, system-level barriers in funding, Problematic early life experiences, physical
staffing, and training must be overcome and sexual abuse, witnessing violence among
(Drake et al. 2001). (See also TIP 42, family and friends, and other traumatic life
Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With events often emerge as key issues in substance
Co-Occurring Disorders [CSAT 2005c].) abuse treatment. Whether identified initially
or after a period of treatment, it is important
Although the treatment of co-occurring severe that these issues be reflected in the treatment
mental disorders and substance use disorders plan, matched with interventions likely to be
sometimes is provided in specialized, more effective, and tracked with regard to
intensive programs, less severe mental disor progress. For example, while most clients will
ders that do not cause major functional find that negative mood will decrease over the
impairment can be treated and managed first few months of abstinence and treatment,
effectively within mainstream programs. an individual’s depression, nightmares, and
Moreover, not addressing these underlying other trauma-related symptoms might persist
problems can increase the likelihood of after several months. If symptoms do not
relapse. It is important to note, however, that require transfer to a mental health services
the early stages of recovery often are marked program, this individual should be referred
by increases in depression and anxiety, due, to mental health professionals for further
in part, to residual effects of substance with assessment and treatment. The referral could
drawal and also to the individual’s recogni result in recommendations for antidepres
tion of consequences related to his substance sants and/or antianxiety medications and/or
abuse, including incarceration or other involvement in cognitive–behavioral therapy
restrictions to his liberty. Likewise, substance related to trauma and substance abuse issues.
abuse may mask an underlying mental disor These interventions may be instrumental in
der that may not become apparent until the preventing substance abuse relapse and
offender is no longer using drugs or alcohol. allowing the client to continue making
Thus, assessments should be repeated regu progress within her substance abuse treat
larly during the treatment process. ment program.
62 Chapter 4
The DBT approach typically consists of at psychopathology, is one of the most important
least 1 year of treatment, comprising weekly predictors of treatment outcome. Although
individual psychotherapy and group therapy substance abuse treatment has become
sessions. Individual sessions explore problem increasingly integral to the criminal justice
atic behaviors and chains of events leading up system, it should not be assumed that crimes
to the behaviors, while therapy sessions focus committed by drug-involved offenders are
on interpersonal effectiveness skills, tolerance solely the result of drug-acquiring behavior
of distress, emotional regulation, and self- or are attributable to intoxication and
awareness or “mindfulness” skills. The pre impaired brain functioning. The majority of
treatment phase of DBT is dedicated to drug-involved offenders show a dramatically
assessment, orientation, and developing com reduced pattern of criminal activity while
mitment to the treatment process. they are abstinent and involved in treatment,
as compared with periods of active substance
Three subsequent stages of treatment empha abuse (De Leon et al. 1982; Deschenes et al.
size self-examination and development of 1991). Nonetheless, some offenders persist in
skills. Stage 1 of DBT involves examination of committing a high frequency of property and
suicidal and other problem behaviors that violent crimes, even in the absence of sub
interfere with treatment and the client’s qual stance abuse.
ity of life, and development of related skills to
address these issues. Stage 2 of DBT address
es problems related to PTSD, and Stage 3 is Sources of Criminality
focused on developing self-esteem and Many offenders begin their criminal careers
addressing individual treatment goals. before the onset of substance use, with drugs
and alcohol being more symptomatic of
a broader pattern of delinquency, act-
Advice to the Counselor: ing-out, and social deviance. Three
sources of criminal behavior that are
Borderline Personality Disorder closely associated with drug use can be
• Severely disruptive clients may have borderline personali identified: procriminal values, pro
ty disorder. Dialectical Behavior Therapy has been devel criminal associates, and psychopathy.
oped specifically for treatment of this disorder and can
be successfully integrated with substance abuse treat
ment programs.
Procriminal values
Procriminal values in adults are most
often the result of the combination of
early involvement with delinquent peers, the
experience of parental neglect or abuse, the
Criminality and
absence of prosocial resources and strengths
Psychopathy
(such as literacy, employability, and social
skills), and exposure to an overly permissive
In developing treatment plans for substance- or procriminal environment, such as an
involved offenders, it is important to assess unsafe school or crime-ridden neighborhood.
whether criminal attitudes and behaviors pre Examples of procriminal values include intol
dated drug and alcohol abuse and whether erance for personal distress and unwillingness
criminogenic personality features will impede to accept responsibility for behaviors that
involvement in treatment. This assessment is adversely affect others. Procriminal values
useful in constructing a balance between risk and attitudes, coupled with a longstanding
containment and rehabilitative activities pre pattern of antisocial and criminal behaviors,
scribed for the offender, and, along with sub are the key elements of psychopathy.
stance use disorder severity and presence of
64 Chapter 4
criminal justice system and to significantly
reduce their criminal behavior as the result of
Client Motivation and
Offenders with severe psychopathy tend to do A number of attempts have been made to link
poorly in treatments of all types, when com the readiness to change approach to a
pared to those without severe psychopathy. substance abuse-specific model that involves
Of great importance is the sur
prising and paradoxical finding
(now replicated) that offenders Advice to the Counselor:
with severe psychopathy who Psychopathy
are given intensive treatment • Individuals high in psychopathy require the most inten
re-offend more frequently and sive in-prison and community supervision and monitor
more seriously than offenders ing. Treatment should be limited to practical relapse pre
with psychopathy who go vention activities, including relapse to illegal or seriously
untreated (Hobson et al. 2000; self-defeating forms of manipulation and exploitation of
Reiss et al. 1999, 2000). In others, with increased monitoring for drug use.
other words, treatment may be
contraindicated for offenders • All self-reported aspects of community adjustment must
with severe psychopathy. be carefully corroborated by first-hand observation or an
independent third party.
66 Chapter 4
tend to exaggerate or minimize their ments his perception of his circumstances,
strengths. Assisting clients in identifying and needs, and tendencies, and these are incorpo
getting an accurate estimate of their personal rated into the program treatment plan. The
strengths should emphasize, but not be limit CRP opens the dialog between the client and
ed to, those that are relevant to recovery. the staff on a more equal footing.
Strengths assessment often begins by deter
mining what interests or inspires the client or Coordination of Treatment
by identifying those things in which the client Planning and Sharing of
has a sense of pride. Therapeutic community
settings often identify specific roles within the Treatment Information
treatment environment that clients can take Treatment planning activities in criminal jus
on as their strengths and work to develop tice settings should include the full range of
them further. Other modes of intervention professionals involved in supervising, moni
perhaps need to create roles or activities for toring, and providing therapeutic services. In
clients that use their strengths or identify noncustody settings, it is useful to have pro
opportunities outside of the program itself. bation or parole officers involved in this pro
Women’s programs often emphasize the cess, in addition to staff from halfway houses,
strengths that enabled survival during peri employment/vocational services, and family
ods of abuse or neglect. Identifying and work members. In custody settings, treatment plan
ing with strengths in the treatment planning ning could involve case management or tran
process allows the client to be less defensive sition staff who may be responsible for coor
about the identified deficits and problem dinating prerelease plans and making
areas in the same plan. It is important, how arrangements for treatment appointments fol
ever, that the perception of the strengths as lowing release from custody. The consensus
legitimate and of value be shared among the panel recommends that treatment plans be
members of the planning team and with the updated at different transition points in the
client. criminal justice system (e.g., following release
from custody, transfer to less intensive super
vision status, or departure from a halfway
Implementing an house setting), as the offender’s motivation,
Effective Treatment response to environmental stressors, and level
of involvement in treatment may significantly
Planning Process change. Signed releases of confidential infor
mation and interagency memorandums of
Offender Involvement in the agreement can help to ensure that treatment
plans and other key information are trans
Development of the ferred to appropriate staff during these tran
Treatment Plan sition points.
The consensus panel believes that it is essen Relapse prevention plans often are used with
tial for clients to be involved in setting case in community-based treatment programs in
management goals that are in their own best the criminal justice system to develop a coor
interests. Success of the treatment plan can dinated approach to supervision, treatment,
be greatly aided by the client’s involvement in and judicial supervision that recognizes the
the development of specific objectives and importance of substance abuse relapse.
interventions. An example of this process is Relapse prevention plans often describe high-
the Client’s Recovery Plan (CRP), in use at risk situations for the offender which increase
the Walden House program in San Francisco the likelihood of relapse, relapse “triggers” or
(see Figure 4-1, next page). The client docu cues (e.g., interpersonal conflict, negative or
Note to client
This form is provided to you, as a Walden House client, in order to obtain yourr input into your treatment plan.
Your counselors will be evaluating you and your treatment needs based on the Psycho-Social History and
Assessment that you provided them. This form is your opportunity to do your own self-evaluations on the same cat
egories.
Instructions
Please describe your own preferences or ideas of what you feel you need in the following categories (if the category
does not apply, please put “N/A”).
Childhood/Family
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Relationship/Marital/Sexual
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Criminal Justice
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Education
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Employment
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
68 Chapter 4
Housing
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Mental Health
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Overall, is there anything else you feel you need that is not covered in the above areas that is related to your sub
stance abuse recovery?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
In your opinion, how much treatment time do you feel you need? Be specific.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Thank you. Your input is appreciated and will be taken into consideration in the development of your treatment
plan. You are to bring this completed form with you to your clinical assessment meeting.
positive emotions, drug paraphernalia, old about the client that may be needed by the
drinking or drug associates), skills to be community providers involved. This will
developed to address problems related to allow all the different parties to agree on their
relapse, and specific strategies to deal with own responsibilities to the client as well as the
relapse urges, “triggers,” and high-risk situa conditions for reporting back to the case
tions. Relapse prevention plans are used in a manager as needed for the client’s welfare. In
number of drug courts, and help develop con some cases an interagency audit, however
sensus among court, supervision, and treat informal, can be useful to identify gaps in the
ment staff about an offender’s current “risk” treatment plan and barriers to the client’s
level for relapse and in organizing responses progress, as well as the strengths present in
to critical incidents and problem behaviors. the client’s situation.
70 Chapter 4
5 Major Treatment
Issues and
Approaches
Overview
While many similarities exist between substance abuse treatment for
those in the criminal justice system and for those in the general popu
lation, people in the criminal justice system have added stressors,
In This
including but not limited to their precarious legal situation. Criminal
Chapter…
justice clients also tend to have characteristics that affect treatment.
These include criminal thinking and criminal values along with the
Clinical Strategies
more typical resistance and denial issues found in other substance
abuse treatment populations.
Program Components
and Strategies
Many offenders also have a long history of psychosocial problems that
have contributed to their substance abuse: interpersonal difficulties
Conclusions and
71
recent relapses, continued sobriety, and • Family-related services such as visitation,
improvements in mental and psychological childcare, and reunification
functioning. For more on issues affecting spe • Case management
cific subpopulations within the criminal jus
• Legal assistance
tice system, see chapter 6.
• Vocational skills development and
employment
Clinical Strategies What varies from offender to offender is the
Substance abuse counselors working with emphasis placed on particular needs and the
criminal justice clients are likely to face a treatment and related services available to
host of challenges. Offenders may require meet those needs. The following highlights
help meeting basic life needs, such as finding some of the more salient issues offenders
housing, applying for a job, or cooking a face—detoxification, homelessness, and life
meal. Moreover, counselors generally will skills. For more information on assessing and
have to motivate clients to find new ways to meeting basic needs, see chapters 2, 3, and 4.
manage their feelings, control impulses, and
work toward concrete goals. Confronting
manipulation and setting boundaries are con Detoxification
stant challenges for many substance abuse Chapter 2 provides information on how to
counselors who work with criminal justice identify offenders in need of detoxification
clients. services. However, even if a counselor does
This section discusses some of the issues that not perform screening and evaluation, he or
the counselor is likely to face, along with she should be aware of the signs and symp
strategies for meeting those challenges. The toms of withdrawal. Sometimes offenders in
second part of this chapter, “Program need of detoxification are not identified at
Components and Strategies” addresses a intake because they lied about the extent of
broader range of strategies. their substance use, there was no reason to
suspect substance dependency, or withdrawal
symptoms were mistaken for mental illness.
Addressing Basic Needs Offenders who experience withdrawal without
medical attention are at risk for serious
It is difficult to label any particular needs of
health consequences, and withdrawal from
offenders who abuse substances as more basic
some drugs (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates) even
than others. Offender needs vary depending
carries a risk of death.
on issues such as their legal status, gender,
culture, sexual orientation, age, and function Symptoms of withdrawal vary according to
al capacities. There are also significant differ the substance abused, but signs that may be
ences in what an individual experiences in noted by the counselor include
different criminal justice settings (i.e., jail,
• Anxiety, restlessness, irritability, panic
prison, community supervision). Despite
attacks, insomnia
these differences, there are commonalities in
the treatment needs of offenders. In addition • Profuse sweating, muscle jerks, constant
to substance abuse treatment, offenders typi blinking
cally require the following services: • Yawning, sleepiness, exhaustion, lethargy
• Detoxification • Depression, crying fits, disorientation
• Screening and assessment (see chapter 2) • Suicidal thoughts or behavior
• Treatment for co-occurring mental disor
For some drugs, symptoms of withdrawal can
ders (see chapters 2, 3, 4, and 6)
be prolonged. For example, the insomnia and
• Treatment for physical health issues
72 Chapter 5
anxiety common in people with benzodi ing to talk about criminal activity, substance
azepine dependency can continue for months use, and past trauma before they were willing
following discontinuation of use (Federal to discuss the fact that they were homeless.
Bureau of Prisons 2000). For offenders One way to obtain this information is to ask
undergoing treatment for withdrawal, the offenders where they lived in the month prior
counselor should work closely with the medi to incarceration or arrest and if they antici
cal team to ensure that symptoms are identi pate being homeless upon their release. A
fied and treated. plan should be in place to provide offenders
with housing if they are leaving a prison facil
For more on information on detoxification, ity. In all cases, effective counselors have
see chapter 2 of this TIP and the forthcoming working relationships with personnel in hous
TIP Detoxification and Substance Abuse ing services to which to refer offenders in
Treatment (Center for Substance Abuse need of housing.
Treatment [CSAT] in development a).
Life skills
Homelessness
Many offenders have hidden deficits in basic
The impact of homelessness on offenders life skills (e.g., knowing how to balance a
varies depending on the particular setting in checkbook, prepare a meal, accept feedback
which they are being treated. Jails frequently from an employer). While these deficits are as
work with homeless offenders; in fact, some individual as the offender, the consensus
people enter jail to get food and housing (and panel feels that treatment programs with
may enter substance abuse treatment pro criminal justice clients should address a range
grams for the same reasons). Homelessness of instrumental skills (e.g., meal preparation,
can be a traumatic experience, and for some money management, laundry, resume writ
clients who have had to live on the streets, ing), as well as some basic social skills, partic
jail may be the safest environment in which ularly those needed in employment and other
they have lived for some time. Those used to interpersonal situations. Counselors should
being homeless may need to relearn how to observe offenders to identify problem areas.
live their lives in a stable environment.
Among the skills most underdeveloped in
Some offenders may have become homeless offender-clients are basic problemsolving
because of their incarceration in jail or skills. Because of their impulsiveness and dif
prison. Even if homelessness was not an issue ficulty delaying gratification, many offenders
when the offender was arrested, it is likely are particularly poor at breaking down mod
that an offender will be homeless upon erately complex problems into the few basic
release. In some instances, peo
ple who have served their full
sentence (and therefore are not Advice to the Counselor:
being released on parole) enter
the community without aftercare Homelessness
options or any plan for housing. • Offenders should be asked where they lived in the
month prior to arrest.
Counselors should be aware that
a great deal of stigma and shame • If offenders anticipate being homeless when they leave
is attached to homelessness, and the prison, a plan to provide offenders with housing
many clients are reluctant to should be in place before their release.
discuss it without prompting. • Addressing deficits in basic life skills as well as housing
Panel members have had experi- issues can help prevent recidivism.
ences with clients who were will-
74 Chapter 5
Figure 5-1
Common Thinking Errors
Power thrust Putting people down, dominating
Closed channel Seeing things only one way
Victim stance Blaming other people
Pride Feeling superior to other people
Don’t care Feeling unconcerned about how other people are affected
Want it now Demanding gratification now
Don’t need anybody Refusing to be dependent on others for anything
Rigid thinking Thinking in black and white terms
They deserve it Believing that people have it coming
Screwed Feeling mistreated
Source: Wanberg and Milkman 1998.
addressing criminal thinking not become • Providing regular feedback to the client,
another way of stigmatizing criminal justice usually from peers in a treatment group
clients. Criminal thinking should be viewed as
the outcome of maladaptive coping strategies Criminal code
rather than as a permanent fixture of the
offender’s personality. Offenders tend to have a shared value system
that includes refusal both to cooperate with
authority and to confront negative behavior
Client manipulativeness by others. This “criminal code” or “convict
Criminal justice client manipulativeness can code” is another part of criminal thinking
be addressed by identifying “criminal think that must be addressed in treatment. The
ing errors” or one of the other, similar meth criminal code explains why good treatment
ods of identifying cognitive distortions programs stressing personal accountability,
(Wanberg and Milkman 1998). For example, peer support for change, and peer confronta
a particular client may try to avoid the work tion of negative behavior are so threatening to
of personal change by repetitively demeaning the offender culture. It also explains why it is
others, including the counselor. Another often necessary to separate inmates in treat
client may repetitively project an attitude of ment in correctional institutions from the gen
giving up at every small setback (“zero eral inmate population.
state”). These maladaptive and manipulative Treatment staff need to pay attention to the
coping strategies readily undermine the treat extent to which their clients are being stigma
ment process unless they are addressed. tized by other offenders as “snitches” or
Addressing client manipulativeness involves “weak” because they participate in treatment.
• Counselor or treatment group identifying It is sometimes necessary to remove clients
the primary thinking errors they observe from a negative situation to give treatment a
• Instructing the client to begin self-monitor chance. Sometimes, a newer treatment group
ing when these occur (journaling) might be pressured to revert to the criminal
code with antisocial values predominating
over prosocial values. These situations
NIC’s Thinking for a Change helps offenders learn to change criminal behaviors using three basic tech
niques:
• Cognitive self-change. Offenders learn how to examine their thinking, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes in
order to understand how these factors contribute to criminal behaviors.
• Social skills development . Participants explore alternatives to antisocial and criminal behaviors.
• Problemsolving skills development . Offenders integrate the skills they learn and use them to work
through difficult situations without engaging in criminal behavior.
Thinking for a Change is designed to work in a variety of criminal justice settings, and is ideally imple
mented in groups of 8 to 12. The curriculum is available online, along with more information (at
http://nicic.gov/t4c).
76 Chapter 5
4. Identifying the goals the anger is under nity supervision programs on release from
mining (e.g., staying out of jail or keeping prison, embedded criminal identities can pose
a job). a number of problems.
5. Working toward taking the longer view Regardless of whether the offender is in jail,
(e.g., beginning to use a prosocial thought prison, or under community supervision, the
process to manage the anger). identity of an offender often is an issue that
Several additional strategies can help clients needs to be confronted in treatment. Those
to recognize their feelings. For example, who have adopted a criminal identity need to
counselors can set boundaries on how anger learn new ways of thinking about themselves;
and hostility can be expressed and set limits those whose identity is shaken by the incar
as to reasonable duration of expression of ceration will need help coping with their crim
anger and hostility. Once the offender calms inal charges. An overall rehabilitation goal is
down, the counselor can refocus on what the to help offenders develop more prosocial
client can learn from the situation and how identities consistent with positive social
the client can benefit in the future. values.
Counselors can also use peers in a group set
ting to explore how the client might use anger Cultural identity
and hostility for secondary gain. TC groups
have “cardinal rules” that include no violence Race and cultural background can play an
or threat of violence (justification for pro important role in the life of offenders, but the
gram removal if violated) that provide a safe dynamics of race and culture are especially
environment for exploring anger issues. For pronounced in jails and prisons. In these set
more information on anger management, see tings, Caucasians often are in the minority for
Reilly and Shopshire (2002). the first time in their lives. A number of sub
cultures are found within jails and prisons.
Inmates who belong to minority groups may
Addressing Identity Issues see correctional staff members (including
As offenders move through the criminal jus treatment staff) as adversaries. Gangs repre
tice system, important elements in their iden sent the most significant of these subcultures,
ty can change. In the pretrial stage, their at least among male populations. Gang affilia
identity as a member of a racial or cultural tion can influence with whom an offender is
group, a family member, or employee may be able to socialize. Thus, treatment must take
most prominent. In jails there is generally a into account this aspect of the offender’s
more immediate crisis, as one grapples with identity.
the shame and stigma of being labeled a crim
inal and the fear of facing extensive incarcer Role as a family member
ation.
and/or parent
Family relationships are often an important
Criminal identity part of an offender’s life. Family can repre
In prison, some people learn a new identity sent a connection to the outside world and
based on the prison culture in which they are can be a source of stability for offenders as
involved; some prisoners learn to think of they move through the criminal justice sys
themselves as criminals. In part, this is a tem. Moreover, the quality of the offender’s
result of institutional pressures on them, and relationship with his or her family can be an
partly it is the result of interactions with important factor in recovery. Slaght (1999)
other inmates who have accepted the persona reported that the only independent variable
of criminal. For offenders who enter commu related significantly to relapse at 3 months
78 Chapter 5
involved in criminal activity and be expected offender’s legal goals. In some situations,
to carry on criminal activities such as drug offenders have incentives to admit to a sub
dealing while one member is incarcerated. stance use disorder even if they do not have
such a disorder, so that they can avoid prison
and enter a treatment program instead.
Role as a person of status Admitting to substance abuse can have legal
Prisons and jails are hierarchical societies, consequences for the offender that need to be
and men and women can attain status within understood by treatment providers before
a prison or jail community often using a dif they ask an offender to self-identify as an
ferent set of skills and behaviors than they “addict” or “alcoholic.” It should also be
would use in the community. This is especially noted that there are offenders who use or sell
true in prisons where longer stays make sta substances but do not have a substance use
tus and belonging more important issues. disorder.
Therefore it is possible that an offender may
face a loss of status either by going to prison Denial of criminal activity is a different, but
(and losing a job and a place in the communi related, issue. People may deny criminal
ty) or by being released from prison (where activity even if they have dealt with their sub
the individual may have been a leader). stance abuse. Just because an offender is in
Providers also should be aware that the recovery from substance abuse does not mean
offender may have had high status and a he or she has ceased criminal activity.
large income on the “outside” because of Treatment providers also will find that some
criminal activity (e.g., drug dealing) and may offenders do not believe that what they have
need to deal with a loss of status when incar done is criminal or, at least, do not believe it
cerated or resist the temptation of returning is immoral. Some (e.g., gang members) per
to a high-paying but illegal occupation on ceive their actions as a normal part of daily
release. In other instances, an inmate may life in their community and believe that the
carry status (e.g., as a gang member) into jail only problem was that they got caught. They
or prison, and may resist treatment in order see themselves as victimized by the law,
to maintain that status. Regardless of the set rather than as victimizers. Others admit their
ting, the consensus panel believes that treat substance abuse and even realize that they
ment activities should include opportunities must cease criminal activity but deny that
for participants to “earn” status in the they have to change their lifestyle (e.g., their
program. associations, the place they live), which can
contribute to relapse.
Addressing Denial
Addressing Resistance
Criminal justice clients exhibit denial in ways
similar to those of other populations. For Sending criminal justice clients to treatment
some offenders, denial is a product of their under threat of direct consequences with little
criminal thinking. The criminal justice system incentive and loss of freedoms is not effective
may help reduce denial—it is harder for an coercion. However, coercion can be very
offender to deny that drugs are a problem effective at getting criminal justice clients to
while sitting in a cell. Treatment staff can treatment and keeping them there (Leukefeld
remind clients of the reality of their legal and Tims 1988). This is best done using
problems as a way to break through denial. incentives as well as sanctions and involving
some degree of choice by the client, even if
While substance abuse treatment providers leverage is present to encourage the client to
often are trained to view denial as a negative make the desired choice.
symptom of the offender’s addiction, denial
may be a necessary strategy to further the
For more information on treating coerced Shame can be healthy, if it can motivate peo
clients, see TIP 35, Enhancing Motivation for ple to change their lives. Making amends can
Change in Substance Abuse Treatment (CSAT be a positive way to address guilt and shame
1999b); the TIP includes a section titled and further treatment goals. Talking about
“Motivational Enhancement and Coerced feelings of guilt and self-loathing can also help
Clients” that will be of particular use in the an offender reduce feelings of hostility and
treatment of offenders. anger. Shame and guilt, however, can also
fuel denial and can make some individuals
more prone to violence in order to cover up
their feelings of shame. In general, female
offenders face more shame than
men or are, at least, more con
Advice to the Counselor: scious of the shame they feel.
Addressing the Coerced Client The stigma associated with crim
• Approach coerced clients with understanding and hon- inal behavior and substance
esty, paying careful attention to body language, eye con- abuse also can be very powerful
tact, and tone of voice. but is less useful as motivation
for clients. The criminal justice
• When dealing one-on-one with the coerced client, focus system does much to stigmatize
on the client’s role in forcing the consequence, with the offenders in the system, and
statements such as “You sort of forced the judge into the people involved in that sys-
giving you this consequence for using again.” tem (whether they be corrections
• Focus the client on the future and the difference treat- officers or inmates) often rein
ment can make. force guilt, shame, and stigma.
80 Chapter 5
Sealed Records
A criminal record follows offenders long after they serve their time in prison. Many recovering individuals
find that, despite their best efforts, the stigma of their criminal records limits their options. A 2001 CSAT
initiative, Rehabilitation and Restitution, contains a component to help recovering offenders get their crimi
nal records sealed. Additionally, participating programs may offer
• Comprehensive assessments
• Individualized service plans
• Case management
• Continuum of substance abuse treatment services
• Support in obtaining a GED or other necessary education
• Job training, placement, and retention programs
• Continuum of supervision, aftercare, and continuing care programs
CSAT’s cooperative agreement initiative is aimed at improving the likelihood of successful reintegration.
Programs funded through the initiative will compare the success rates of those who receive additional
assistance with those who receive whatever help is usually offered to recovering offenders.
Stigma also comes from outside the criminal providers need not condone an offender’s
justice system (e.g., family, mass media, soci- past criminal activity, but they should be able
ety). While it is important for offenders not to to accept it as part of the client’s past and not
forget their past, it is not necessarily helpful a permanent character flaw or insurmount
that society does not allow people to move on able obstacle to recovery.
or accept that they have paid their debts. It is
also important for offenders to have appro-
priate role models who have overcome the Establishing Boundaries
stigma of a criminal past and a history of sub- Counselors’ methods for establishing a rela
stance abuse in order to achieve something in tionship with clients vary according to the set-
their recovery. ting. It is much more difficult to develop a
While there has been some
reduction of stigma attached to Advice to the Counselor:
substance abuse and mental ill
ness in recent years, the stigma Establishing Boundaries
associated with arrest, convic • No matter how much empathy they feel for offenders,
tion, and incarceration remains counselors need to remember that they represent the
very strong. Societal change criminal justice system.
occurs slowly, but treatment • Counselors’ self-disclosures can be helpful when balanced
providers can help the situation by appropriate boundaries.
by not burdening clients with
additional stigma because they • Offenders are often deft at conning a counselor into
are involved in the criminal jus doing small and seemingly meaningless things for them,
tice system. The consensus but this is often a first step in an unhealthy alliance that
panel suggests that if crime is can be used against the counselor at a later date. A well-
part of addictive behavior, then trained counselor can confront the offender and turn
criminal behavior can be seen as the attempted manipulation into a step for developing a
another manifestation of a sub stronger treatment alliance.
stance use disorder. Treatment
Major Treatment Issues and Approaches 81
relationship in prisons or jails than in the lation. Of course, the ability to create this
community because boundaries and rules alliance and its relative importance varies
limit how psychologically close one can get to according to staff ability, experience, and
incarcerated offenders. For example, while training. In jails, it may be less crucial
eliciting emotional responses is quite useful in because clients may remain in treatment only
psychotherapy, corrections staff generally see a short time. It may, however, be most critical
this as a problem to be avoided. In these set in community supervision settings if clients
tings there needs to be careful supervision to are engaged in outpatient treatment. In resi
evaluate how closely counselors and clients dential programs, such as therapeutic com
are interacting. munities, peers play a larger part in the treat
ment experience, and the client’s relationship
Because boundaries between staff and clients with his or her peers is often as important as
have a special significance in criminal justice or more important than the relationship with
settings, treatment staff need to be especially the counselor.
vigilant about self-disclosure. The counselor
needs to ask him- or herself whether a per Relationships with criminal justice staff are
sonal disclosure is going to make a difference often quite important in the therapeutic pro
for the client and not just for the counselor. cess. This is especially important for offend
For example, using one’s personal experience ers under community supervision, as their
as guiding life lessons can add credibility and alliance with their probation or parole officer
be helpful on a more personal level, but is critical. In a prison or jail setting, it also
recent experiences that may expose too much helps to include corrections staff as part of
vulnerability should be avoided. Also, recov the treatment team, but clients should be told
ering staff in TCs who often share personal if this is going to be the case. When probation
experiences have found the practice to be officers or corrections staff members are part
beneficial when balanced with appropriate of the treatment team, roles need to be very
boundaries. Counselors also should not asso clearly defined. Because they may lack expe
ciate with clients to the detriment of their rience in treatment, corrections officers can
relationship with corrections and treatment become too involved in the treatment process
staff; no matter how much empathy they feel and become overly distraught over treatment
toward offenders, counselors need to remem failures. In order to operate within a prison
ber that they represent the criminal justice or jail, corrections staff need to maintain a
system. Offenders are often deft at conning a certain degree of distance from offenders as
counselor into doing small and seemingly well as keep their respect. The consensus
meaningless things for them, but this is often panel recommends that treatment programs
the first step in an unhealthy alliance that can that are going to involve corrections staff or
be used against the counselor at a later date. probation officers should provide extensive
Alternatively, a well-trained counselor can cross-training between corrections and sub
often confront the offender and turn the stance abuse treatment staffs. The legal issues
attempted manipulation into a step in devel surrounding confidentiality, for example, are
oping a stronger treatment alliance. a suitable subject for cross-training.
82 Chapter 5
the treatment and less likely to
return to incarceration.
Advice to the Counselor:
Research by Broome and col Establishing Counselor Credibility
leagues (1996a) showed that high • Avoid making promises that you foresee being unable to
self-esteem and high ratings of keep. If you are unable to keep a promise, be clear as to
counselor competence were asso why you cannot do so and accept the consequences.
ciated with a significant reduc
• Demonstrate the attitudes and behaviors you are trying
tion in recidivism by probation
to get clients to implement (credible staff are those who
ers ending their treatment.
do as they say).
Strauss and Falkin (2000) found
similar results with a cohort of • Show a positive attitude toward colleagues, the pro
female offenders. Their data gram, one’s family, and so on.
indicate that clients who suc • Work to have the client respect who you are, even if he
cessfully completed treatment does not like what you represent.
had more favorable perceptions • Ensure that you maintain the respect of your supervisor
of staff within the first 2 weeks and other staff (including corrections officers and proba
of treatment than those who did tion officers). Credibility with offenders is affected by
not. their observations of the counselors’ interactions with
other staff, and clients do watch staff closely.
Striving for cultural • Clearly articulate roles and boundaries. Inmates often see
competence treatment staff as potential inroads into all areas rang
ing from personal property issues, to job assignments, to
Cultural competence is an case management concerns. Treatment staff need to
important factor in developing a clearly define their role and limits or they quickly find
counselor–client relationship. their credibility lost because inmates interpret the staff’s
Programs should have a cultur inability to correct a nontreatment issue as a lack of con
ally diverse staff that reflects cern or caring.
the diversity of the population
they serve; however, that is not
always possible. What is possible is that staff Designing Treatment to
be trained to understand cultural issues Reflect the Stages of Change
affecting the populations in the area in which
they work. Cultural issues reflect a range of The concepts behind the stages of change
influences and are not just a matter of ethnic model of recovery (Prochaska et al. 1992)
or racial identity (e.g., Ohio prisons have a were introduced and summarized in chapter
large number of inmates from Appalachia, 3. While these are important concepts in
and staff there need to understand that cul recovery generally, they are particularly rele
ture). Special training programs can be devel vant in the treatment of criminal justice
oped to help counselors attain cultural com clients because so many of these clients are in
petence for the cultures the agency serves. the early stages of change. Figure 5-2 (next
(The forthcoming TIP Improving Cultural page) summarizes treatment strategies based
Competence in Substance Abuse Treatment on the offender’s stage in recovery.
[CSAT in development b] provides indepth
Counselors with criminal justice clients often
information on developing cultural compe
find they spend much of their time working in
tence and providing culturally competent
the precontemplation and contemplation
treatment.)
stages. This can be discouraging to some, but
the trade-off is that this is important work
that reduces both crime and the number of provide stabilization of acute needs (e.g.,
crime victims, in addition to rehabilitating detoxification from alcohol or opioids, medi
offenders. cation for psychotic or depressive symptoms),
and to engage offenders in substance abuse
treatment services (Peters and Kearns 1992).
Program Components Jails, prisons, and community diversion or
and Strategies supervision programs often serve as the first
point of contact for offenders who have sub
The initial goals of substance abuse treatment stance abuse problems. Motivation to enter
are to “get them there” (engagement) and to treatment frequently occurs at particularly
“keep them there” (retention). This section stressful times such as after being arrested,
addresses programmatic strategies to foster after one’s children have been removed by
both engagement and retention and discusses authorities, or following an overdose or a
other program components that promote “bad high.” Substance abuse treatment staff
effective substance abuse treatment for crimi need to watch for these opportune times and
nal justice clients. respond quickly so that the client can be
engaged in treatment while the motivation is
still strong. Most of these individuals have not
Engagement had previous contact with substance abuse
Arrest and incarceration can provide an treatment agencies, and their first involve
important opportunity to identify substance ment in treatment services is frequently while
abuse and other psychosocial problems, to in jail or prison (Mumola 1999).
84 Chapter 5
Program incentives and ognize he or she has a problem with substance
abuse.
sanctions to encourage
engagement
In the community, the usual sanction for
Effective Use of Coercion at
refusing to participate in treatment is loss of the Program Level
freedom—often incarceration. In jails and “Coercion” means using incentives and sanc
prisons it usually involves longer incarcera tions to encourage program participation. In
tion times. At the point of decision of whether some jurisdictions, coercion may come in the
or not to participate in treatment, the offend form of legal mandate to treatment. This
er usually faces more sanctions than incen rarely affects offenders already sentenced to
tives to participate, and the sanctions may be prison, but it often affects clients under com
severe. munity supervision who may need to be
involved in treatment as part of their proba
A key point in “getting them there” is to be
tion or parole. Clients under community
sure that disincentives to program participa
supervision also may elect to enter treatment
tion are minimized. For example, if offenders
to avoid harsher alternatives (such as invol
lose freedoms or have worse housing (in insti
untary admission into a mental hospital) or
tutions) as a result of program participation,
negative repercussions (such as losing custody
many will not give treatment a chance.
of one’s children). Individuals convicted of
driving while under the influence may be
Enhancing motivation required to complete a psychoeducational
class to retain their driver’s license. The
While legal pressures may be sufficient to get
California initiative known as Proposition 36
a client into treatment, engagement is neces
offers a choice between incarceration and
sary if the client is to become motivated to
probation with substance abuse treatment to
commit to change and maintain recovery
first- or second-time offenders convicted of
(Hubbard et al. 1988). Therefore, treatment
nonviolent drug possession charges (see chap
programs need to be aware of the common
ter 11 for more information). Arizona has
characteristics of clients who leave treatment
enacted a similar law, and other States have
early and use this knowledge to develop
them under consideration. Offenders may
approaches that motivate these clients to stay
also receive pressure from other governmen
in treatment.
tal agencies (e.g., child protective services
In a study of offenders on probation, Broome agencies) to enter or continue treatment, as
and colleagues (1996a) looked at three client part of community supervision or while in jail
background factors that are associated with or prison. Not all forms of coercion are
treatment outcomes to see if they had an explicit for clients involved in the criminal
effect on establishing therapeutic relation justice system; people may receive reduced
ships. Recognition of the existence of a sub sentences or avoid incarceration in a higher
stance abuse problem was associated with a security facility if they enter treatment.
positive therapeutic relationship and engage
ment in treatment, while the degree of peer Retention in Treatment
deviance in the client’s social network and
family dysfunction was not. The fact that Roberts and Nishimoto (1996) studied reten
recognition of substance abuse problems was tion in treatment among a group of women
a positive indicator for successful engagement who were cocaine dependent, many of whom
in treatment lends support to the use of moti were under criminal justice supervision. The
vational approaches that help the client rec type of treatment services provided to the
women made the largest difference in reten-
While some critics have argued that treatment will be ineffective unless a client is motivated to change
his or her substance abuse behavior, treatment itself can alter the client’s motivation. In fact, an impor
tant indicator of an effective program is its ability to engage and retain clients who initially join under
coercive pressures. The major difficulty, then, is often a matter of getting resistant clients to enter treat
ment, and coercion has been shown to increase the likelihood of an offender’s entering treatment (Anglin
et al. 1998).
Coercion such as that from the criminal justice system can play an important role in making sure the
client enters treatment, but it will be internal motivation that predicts whether the client will stay in
treatment and have a positive outcome. Knight and colleagues (2000) showed that external legal pressure
and internal motivation are positively and independently related to retention in treatment. The authors
recommend targeting those with low internal motivation for an intervention to increase readiness.
Research also suggests that in the absence of leverage imposed by the criminal justice system, offenders
have a poor record of retention and graduation from substance abuse treatment programs. Moreover,
outcomes for offenders who receive coerced treatment are as good as or better than for other partici
pants in treatment (Hubbard et al. 1988a; Miller and Flaherty 2000). Leverage through the criminal jus
tice system also helps retain offenders in treatment over time (Miller and Flaherty 2000), which tends to
reduce the rate of criminal recidivism.
tion. The authors concluded that the intensity demonstrate low levels of social conformity
of the treatment, its structure, and the exis (Hiller et al. 1999b). These authors found
tence of woman-focused programming that the strongest predictor of treatment
engaged the clients. However, greater levels of dropout was a high score on a criminality
severity of a substance abuse problem also classification system they developed based on
predicted shorter stays in treatment, and pre the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form
vious substance abuse treatment increased (Walters et al. 1991) that measured aspects of
slightly the risk of dropping out. an offender’s lifestyle related to criminality
(e.g., irresponsibility, self-indulgence, inter
Other research has shown that early dropout personal intrusiveness, social rule-breaking).
from treatment in criminal justice settings is Lang and Belenko (2000) found that offenders
correlated with having a history of psychi in a diversionary treatment program for
atric treatment, high levels of anxiety and felony drug offenders who completed treat
depression, unemployment immediately prior ment had higher levels of social conformity
to sentencing, cocaine dependence, lower lev and more friends, fewer drug felony convic-
els of self-efficacy, and social networks that
86 Chapter 5
tions, less involvement in psychiatric treat There is a risk that treatment could become
ment, less income from drug dealing, less overly coercive and susceptible to charges of
unprotected sex, and fewer injuries from gun cruel and unusual punishment. It is impor
shots or stabbings. tant that participants in treatment be offered
the opportunity to leave the program after a
While many of the factors that correlate with minimum time period (e.g., 90 days). The use
treatment dropout cannot be altered, the con of experienced outside contractors and recov
sensus panel suggests that some changes to ering staff can help reduce the mistrust.
treatment programs can be developed based
on these studies. For one, there seems to be
general agreement that a client’s friends can Incentives and sanctions to
have a good deal of influence on whether that improve retention
person will successfully complete treatment.
Developing positive peer networks should Once the offender enters treatment, more
therefore be a priority for retaining offenders options usually become available for creative
in treatment. use of incentives and sanctions to keep the
offender in treatment. It is important to con
A history of co-occurring mental illness, as tinue to push for a preponderance of incen
demonstrated through a history of mental tives over sanctions to motivate offenders
health system involvement, can have a signifi (Gendreau 1995). Because of the manipula
cant negative effect on treatment retention. tive coping strategies and evidence of criminal
High rates of co-occurring mental illness have thinking that bombard treatment staff daily,
been documented in the offender population it is all too easy to focus on the negative
(estimated to be 7.4 percent in Federal pris behaviors instead of “catching people in the
ons, 16.2 percent in State prisons, and 16.3 act of doing good work.” But positive rein
percent in jails) (Ditton 1999), suggesting a forcement is relatively more powerful than
need for treatment programs tailored for sanctioning in changing behavior as well as
offenders with co-occurring disorders in other aspects of personal growth.
order to reduce dropout rates.
The types of incentives to use are limited only
The consensus panel also recommends that by creativity. Beyond reduced supervision,
coerced individuals be mainstreamed with other incentives can be greater access to other
noncoerced clients where possible—such as in services (e.g., employment training or
community settings—and should not be sepa improved housing), higher status within the
rated into different treatment tracks. Coerced treatment group or community, or even varia
treatment is much less likely to work if only tions on a token economy can be considered.
similarly coerced individuals participate in The point is to continue to refocus on rein
the program. Because research showed that forcing desired behavior, look for additional
coerced treatment can be effective under ways to motivate the clients from a positive
some circumstances, some criminal justice perspective, and to remember that most peo
systems developed new programs for these ple begin and sustain personal change out of
clients that did not build on existing pro external motivation (the internalized motiva
grams; clients in these programs do not seem tion comes later).
to have fared as well because they lacked
community support from clients who were The key points in effective use of incentives
committed to treatment. It is not always clear and sanctions are:
that treatment models are followed accurately • Emphasize incentives over sanctions.
(Farabee et al. 1999). Administrators should Gendreau (1995) has suggested that 4:1 is
avoid creating coercive programs with mini optimal.
mal resources.
88 Chapter 5
There are several advantages to using relapse supervision officers, and others in the
prevention as a general approach throughout offender’s support network. Relapse pre
criminal justice programs: vention plans aid communication from insti
• Relapse prevention is a key issue for com tutional programs to community supervi
munity supervision. Beyond the obvious sion and to community programs.
applicability of self-management training to • Relapse prevention is applicable across the
offenders, this work provides key informa oretical perspectives. Practitioners from the
tion to parole and probation officers. If the theoretical perspectives of behaviorism and
supervision officer knows that a primary disease concepts are currently using relapse
overt relapse sign for a particular offender prevention and recovery planning tech
is isolating in his room, for example, the niques with equal facility. Relapse preven
officer has critical supervision information. tion strategies seem to ring true regardless
Knowing an offender’s early warning signs of beliefs about the etiology of addictions or
for relapse is probably as important to criminality.
supervision as employment and living • Relapse prevention is a unifying concept
situation. across programs. Whether the problem is
• Relapse prevention emphasizes taking alcohol abuse, drug abuse, mental illness,
responsibility for oneself. Relapse preven sex offending, or criminality generally, the
tion work makes it difficult for the offender same basic process seems to occur in relaps
to blame others. Self-management training es, and the same basic strategies seem to be
puts responsibility squarely on the individ needed in recovery. Relapse prevention
ual. The occurrence of a partial or full work therefore offers a unifying concept
relapse is a signal that the individual has and means of communication across types
more work to do in developing or perform of programs and service populations.
ing his own relapse prevention and recovery
plan. Relapse prevention work, then, can Spiritual Approaches
be a primary means of moving from neces
sary external controls (on the offender) Spiritual approaches have been used in com
early in treatment to the needed internal bination with substance abuse treatment ser
controls (from the offender) later in vices and can provide powerful tools for some
treatment. to achieve sustained abstinence. There are,
however, limitations to what can be done in a
• Relapse prevention work emphasizes the public institution such as a jail or prison.
long-term nature of many disorders. Many While a distinction should be made between
major life problems, such as addictions, are “spiritual” and “religious” practices (the for-
life-long problems, requiring
continuing work by the indi
vidual. The concept of relapse Advice to the Counselor:
prevention implicitly commu Spiritual Approaches
nicates this point to criminal
justice clients. • Spiritual approaches can provide powerful tools for some
to achieve sustained abstinence. Counselors can refer
• Relapse prevention work is clients to the religious leaders of their choice for addi
easy to communicate. Warning tional counseling, or to voluntary 12-Step groups that do
signs in the individual’s not explicitly endorse any one religion.
behavior, and specific actions
by the individual in response • Rituals and ceremonies can be used to mark positive
to those signs are easy to com events.
municate between corrections • Providing a time and a suitable place can promote indi
program staff, offenders, vidual meditation, reflection, or prayer.
90 Chapter 5
• While legal pressures may be sufficient to • In jurisdictions that involve probation/
leverage a client into treatment, specific parole officers or corrections staff in treat
engagement strategies are necessary if the ment team activities, roles need to be very
client is to be motivated to commit to clearly defined. Criminal justice staff who
change and to maintain recovery. do not have treatment-related experience or
• Anxiety, guilt, and remorse related to past specialized training can become overly
substance abuse and criminal behavior can involved in the treatment process and over
be productive in motivating offenders to ly invested in treatment issues.
change their lives. Making amends to those • Criminal justice professionals have been
who have been harmed by past behaviors is effectively involved in facilitating psychoed
one strategy that can be used to positively ucational groups and other treatment activ
address these emotions. ities and are often included in treatment
• There is a risk that treatment could become teams and treatment and discharge plan
overly coercive and susceptible to charges ning. Criminal justice professionals provid
of “cruel and unusual punishment.” It is ing group treatment services should receive
important that participants in treatment be specialized training in therapeutic tech
offered the opportunity to leave the pro niques and treatment approaches and
gram after a minimum period of time (e.g., should consider obtaining substance abuse
90 days). certification and licensure.
• Internal motivation for treatment is a better • Many correctional treatment programs in
predictor of retention than external motiva jails and prisons have found it useful to
tion. The panel recommends targeting those establish co-coordinators from both treat
with low internal motivation for an inter ment and correctional/security systems.
vention to increase readiness. These arrangements provide a sense of joint
“ownership” of treatment programs,
• Motivation to enter treatment frequently
enhance program credibility among correc
occurs at particularly stressful times such
tional officers, and provide an effective
as after being arrested, after one’s children
mechanism for addressing critical incidents
have been removed by authorities, or fol
and solving problems that affect both treat
lowing an overdose or a “bad high.”
ment and corrections staff.
Substance abuse treatment and criminal
justice staff should watch for these oppor • To operate within a prison or jail and main
tune times and respond quickly so that the tain inmates’ respect, corrections and treat
client can be engaged in treatment while ment staff need to maintain a certain dis
their motivation is still strong. tance from offenders. Cross-training can
assist staff in defining appropriate “bound
• While clients in criminal justice settings are
aries” that should be maintained in rela
often coerced and resistant to treatment,
tionships with inmates, and to identify
they can become invested in treatment
related situations that can compromise the
through the use of motivational interviewing
effectiveness of security/public safety and
and similar techniques.
treatment operations.
• Clients who agree to enter treatment may be
• Treatment providers need not condone an
seen as “traitors” by other offenders, as the
offender’s past criminal activity, but they
prison culture makes it a point to resist
should accept it as part of the client’s past,
anything that is seen as a further attempt to
and not a permanent character flaw or
control the lives of inmates. For this rea
insurmountable obstacle to recovery.
son, it is useful to provide treatment ser
vices in residential areas or separate pris
ons that are isolated from the general
inmate population.
to Cultural Minorities
Overview
Women’s Treatment
Certain criminal justice system populations may be recognized as having
Issues
specific needs; the consensus panel recommends that whenever possible,
treatment be modified to meet those needs. A thorough client assessment
Men’s Treatment Issues
will enable treatment providers to determine what modifications to treat
Working With Violent
ment are required. However, the panel also recognizes that in order to
Offenders
explain different types of treatment modifications and the need for those
modifications it is necessary to group clients according to certain socially
Treatment Issues Based
defined categories that mark their relationship to a dominant identity.
on Client’s Sexual
This chapter provides a basic overview of treatment needs of offenders
Orientation
belonging to subpopulations including women; men; violent offenders; gay,
lesbian, and bisexual offenders; clients with physical and sensory disabili
Treatment Issues Based
ties; older adults; people with co-occurring mental and substance use dis
on the Client’s
Disabilities
Older Adults
Cultural Minorities
There is no denying that the ethnic and cultural composition of offender
Treatment Issues For
populations is quite different from that of society as a whole. African
Clients From Rural Areas
Americans are disproportionately represented in jails, prisons, and
Treatment Issues For
community supervision programs in comparison with their numbers in
People With Co-
the general population. They represented 39.2 percent of the jail popu
Occurring Substance Use
lation and 44.1 percent of the prison population in 2003, 41 percent of
and Mental Disorders
those on parole, and 30 percent of those on probation. According to the
2000 Census, however, those who said they were African American
People With Infectious
alone or in combination with one or more other races represent only 13
Diseases
percent of the U.S. population. Hispanics/Latinos, of any race, are also
somewhat overrepresented, representing 15.4 percent of the jail popula
Sex Offenders
tion and 19.0 percent of the prison population in 2003, but only 13.3
Conclusions and
Recommendations
93
percent of the U.S. population according to surmise that these individuals are not accept
2002 Census data (Ramirez and de la Cruz ed in either culture and that their efforts to
2002). Caucasians are underrepresented at walk in both worlds contribute to their stress.
each stage of the criminal justice process,
making up only 43.6 percent of the jail popu The forthcoming TIP Improving Cultural
lation and 35 percent of the prison population Competence in Substance Abuse Treatment
in 2003, 40 percent of those on parole, and 56 (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment
percent of probationers in 2003, but 77.1 per [CSAT] in development b) provides detailed
cent of the U.S. population (Glaze and Palla information on adapting treatment to specific
2004; Harrison and Beck 2004; Harrison and cultural populations, and, while it is not ori
Karberg 2004; U.S. Census Bureau 2001). ented toward offenders in criminal justice set
tings, much of what it has to say will apply
McKean (1994) summarizes four somewhat here as well. There are not, however, many
overlapping theoretical perspectives to explain culturally specific programs operating in the
why certain racial or ethnic groups are over criminal justice system, and there also are
represented among offenders: limited data concerning the benefits of cultur
• Social isolation ally competent services in these settings. This
is certainly an area that requires more
• Social disintegration
research.
• Resource deprivation
• Violent cultural orientation Longshore and colleagues (1998) have studied
treatment motivation among African-
These theoretical stances inform substance American detainees who used drugs and had
abuse treatment as well. The social isolation never been in substance abuse treatment. Of
model states that the dominant group will all the factors they studied, “problem recog
always choose to maintain a social distance nition” was most clearly associated with moti
between itself and minority groups, and to vation for treatment, and that recognition
this end may employ discriminatory laws and was strongest among those who more strongly
policies. Social disintegration models look at endorsed Afrocentric values such as commu
how weakened informal and institutional nity, spirituality, collective self-esteem, and
social controls lead to increased crime. The conventional family roles. Incorporating these
resource deprivation theory emphasizes that values into treatment may therefore improve
economic variables such as unemployment, treatment outcomes. For example, it could be
poverty, and income inequality are associated more beneficial to emphasize the prosocial
with crime. The idea of a subculture of vio reasons for stopping substance use than the
lence implies that violent interactions are negative effects of continuing use, to include
more accepted among some groups than oth family counseling in treatment, and to view
ers, for example in gang culture. recovery as benefiting the community, not
just the individual. Compared to clients in
In a study of Alaska Native men, Glass and traditional programs, those in Longshore’s
Bieber (1997) found criminal activity to be culturally congruent treatment were more
related to social disintegration caused by involved in the experience, were more forth
acculturative stress. This stress develops coming in their self-disclosures, and partici
when members of a minority culture are pres pated more actively. They also reported more
sured to adapt to a dominant culture. The motivation to seek help (Longshore et al.
bicultural individuals in their study had the 1998).
highest levels of acculturative stress and vio
lent behavior and seemed more prone to iden The consensus panel recognizes that it is
tity issues, unstable interpersonal relation extremely difficult, however, to create a cul
ships, and unstable emotions. The authors turally specific program within a prison or
94 Chapter 6
jail given the variety of populations who enter
the facility and the need to provide equal lev
Women’s Treatment
els of treatment for all offenders. Culturally Issues
specific programs also require from clients a In 1998, an estimated 950,000 women were
certain level of commitment to their culture under supervision by correctional agencies,
that cannot be assumed for all members of a with 85 percent on probation or parole in the
particular group. community. These women were mothers to
Substance abuse treatment requires two-way about 1.3 million children under age 18.
communication of vital information including Forty-four percent of them, across settings,
instructions, treatment expectations, personal reported that they had been physically or sex
information, and expressions of emotions. In ually assaulted at some time during their lives
a criminal justice setting, where the counselor (Greenfeld and Snell 1999).
represents the same institutional forces that The percentage of women in the criminal jus
have convicted and imprisoned the client, the tice system has increased in the past decade—
levels of distrust and possibilities for misun in jails it has risen from 10.2 to 11.9 percent
derstanding are magnified. While all correc (Harrison and Karberg 2002). The average
tional staff members (including counselors) annual percentage increase in State and
are seen, to some extent, as representatives of Federal prisons for women between 1995 and
the dominant culture, the possibilities for 2003 was 5.0 percent, compared to 3.3 per
misunderstanding can increase when client cent for men. In 2003 more than 100,000
and counselor are from different ethnic or women were in State and Federal prisons,
cultural backgrounds. These misunderstand and women represented 11.1 percent of
ings can jeopardize the client’s chances for adults on parole under State and Federal
success in treatment. It is the counselor’s job jurisdiction in 1997 (Harrison and Beck 2004;
to be aware of and sensitive to the values, Maguire and Pastore 2001).
biases, and assumptions that his or her cul
ture has created in matters of communica About 60 percent of women in State prisons
tion, therapeutic style, and interpersonal conused drugs in the month prior to the offense
tact and how they affect his or her ability to for which they were convicted, and about half
provide culturally competent services to of these women admitted to daily drug use.
clients. The most common misunderstandings Drug use at the time the crime was committed
in counseling originate in culture, socioeco was higher for female inmates than for males
nomic class, and language (Sue and Sue (40 percent compared to 32 percent), but
1999). (See the forthcoming TIP Improving more male inmates than females were under
Cultural Competence in Substance Abuse the influence of alcohol at the time the crime
Treatment [CSAT in development b].) was committed (Greenfeld and Snell 1999).
Interviews with incarcerated women in
California, Connecticut, and Florida State
prisons indicated that more than
80 percent had used substances
Advice to the Counselor: regularly during their lifetimes
Culture and the Counselor while 71 percent reported regular
substance use during the month
•The most common misunderstandings in counseling origi
prior to their most recent arrest
nate in culture, socioeconomic class, and language. It is
(Acoca and Austin 1996). A study
the counselor’s job to be aware of and sensitive to the
conducted by the Connecticut
values, biases, and assumptions of his or her own culture
Department of Corrections indi
and to provide culturally competent services to clients.
cated that 45 percent of female
prisoners compared to 22 percent
96 Chapter 6
as sexual abuse and domestic violence, in sin- The panel recommends that screening for a
gle-sex groups. history of abuse be included as part of the
intake assessments for women in criminal jus
Based on their research with women referred tice treatment settings; to do this, a psychoso
to a jail-based substance abuse treatment cial history should be taken that asks about
program, Peters and colleagues (1997) recom issues such as childhood abuse and domestic
mended that programs for female offenders violence. One difficulty with addressing these
adapt treatment approaches developed for issues with women who are incarcerated is
clients with co-occurring disorders (COD). In that immediate ongoing counseling is not
part, this is because COD are so common in always possible, given that counseling staff
this population, but also because this is one may not be available every day. The consen
area where more sensitive and flexible clinical sus panel feels that programs should have
approaches have been developed. They stress aftercare available for clients with histories of
the need to be flexible in terms of the abuse. These issues can take a long time to
sequence, focus, and intensity of treatment work through and, depending on the setting
and to adapt treatment to individual needs in which treatment is provided, sufficient
wherever possible. They also note that time time may not be available within the pro
needs to be set aside for the assessment and gram. Treatment providers should be aware
diagnosis of COD and for teaching a range of of the range of aftercare options available for
skills (i.e., parenting, nutrition and health clients who are leaving the facility to enter
care, accessing social services and housing) either the community or another
that are generally not considered as impor facility.
tant in treatment programs for male
offenders. Indepth treatment for the trauma related to a
history of abuse should be provided by pro
Further information on women’s treatment fessionals specifically trained in this area.
issues in general can be found in the forth However, innovative strategies that help
coming TIP Substance Abuse Treatment: women address issues of abuse at a level with
Addressing the Specific Needs of Women which they are comfortable have been devel
(CSAT in development g), and more informa oped. For example, the Empowerment
tion about treatment for female offenders can through Literacy Project helps women
be found in Technical Assistance Publication address issues of sexual abuse in a supportive
23, Substance Abuse Treatment for Women group atmosphere. Women participate in a
Offenders: A Guide to Promising Practices reading group that facilitates discussions on a
(Kassebaum 1999). number of important issues (e.g., sexual
abuse, substance abuse) at the same time it
Histories of Physical and promotes literacy. Readings pertinent to these
women’s life experiences are selected, includ
Sexual Abuse ing books such as Maya Angelou’s I Know
Histories of abuse are of partic
ular concern for female offend
ers and can have a significant Advice to the Counselor:
impact on treatment. (In the Treating Female Offenders
general population, about one
third of women and between 3 • Nearly all women’s programs consider the use of harsh
and 24 percent of men have language, expressions of hostility, and physical force by
experienced physical or sexual staff as detrimental to client recovery as these actions
abuse. Among substance using recreate abusive interpersonal situations experienced by
populations, the figures are many of the female offenders while they were in the
higher [Gil-Rivas et al. 1997].) community.
98 Chapter 6
and out of prison are adding parenting work Innovative community reintegration programs
shops to their agendas (see text box below). In for female prisoners may feature eventual
1999, more than 1.5 million children had a reunification with their children as a signifi
parent in prison (Mumola 2000; Petersilia cant motivator for treatment.
2000), and many more children have had a
parent incarcerated during a period of their Many incarcerated women feel enormous guilt
early lives. At least half of the children of about being away from their children and
imprisoned mothers have not seen or visited worry about maintaining custody of their
their mothers since incarceration began. children (Covington 1998). This guilt may be
Under the Adoption and Safe Families Act of a motivating force, but it can also overwhelm
1997, parents of children in foster care for 15 the client and be a cause for relapse. In some
or more of the past 22 months may have their cases, children are used to coerce a parent
parental rights terminated by the State. into treatment; family drug courts, for exam
Given that the average prison term for incar ple, may remove children from a mother’s
cerated women is 15 months (Genty 1998), an custody if she does not successfully complete
increasing number of parents are permanent treatment. However, the presence of children
ly banned from their children’s lives—often a can be a mother’s only link to a stable life,
devastating blow for mothers and their and after losing her children to a Child
children. Protective Services agency or another family
member, she sometimes increases her sub
Parenting is not just a women’s issue, and, in stance abuse.
fact, the vast majority (93 percent) of incar
cerated parents are male. However, mothers Research does suggest that it is in the best
in State and Federal prisons are often (46 interest of both mothers and their children to
percent and 51 percent of the time, respec have continued interactions while the woman
tively) the sole parent living with their chil is incarcerated. Early research by Holt and
dren at the time of their incarceration; 31 Miller (1972) found that maintaining family
percent of mothers in prison were the only ties and providing parenting training positive
adult caring for their children before incar ly affected a parent’s success on parole.
ceration. Only 28 percent of the children of Stevens and Patton (1998) have found that
women in State prisons reside with their other women in a modified TC that enables them to
parent and nearly 10 percent live in foster have their children with them had better
care or an agency. The majority of incarcer treatment outcomes than women who had the
ated mothers rely on grandparents or other same treatment unaccompanied by their chil
members of their extended family to care for dren. The panel encourages jail and prison
their children while they are incarcerated programs to allow for more interaction
(Mumola 2000). If a woman is in prison and between incarcerated mothers and their chil
has no one else to care for her children, her dren; the 2–4 hours of supervised visitation
loss of custody could be permanent. per week that many institutions allow is not
DWCF opened in early 1999 to serve the needs of 900 female offenders. In addition to providing treatment
for substance abuse and mental health problems, DWCF follows recommended treatment principles for
incarcerated women by addressing gender-specific treatment issues such as improving the relationships of
mothers and their children and increasing contact between them. All mothers in DWCF participate in a 12
week Parenting Skills Seminar as well as a 12-week seminar that focuses on family relationships (the Family
Dynamics Seminar). Among other things, these seminars teach mothers about the importance of regular
phone contact with their children to discuss things such as homework, report cards, and special school
events. Additionally, the facility has placed special emphasis on increasing the frequency of phone contacts
and visits between mothers and children. Visits are encouraged and facilitated by the DWCF staff. Special
children’s visiting areas have been created; these are painted with motifs from children’s literature and fur
nished with colorful children’s furniture, games, books, and toys. The environment is attractive and appeal
ing to children and facilitates positive mother–child interactions. The DWCF administration also has estab
lished a collaborative relationship with a Quaker volunteer organization, whose members provide weekly
transportation for children (and their caretakers) who lack other means of transportation to the facility.
Additionally, the facility has developed several apartments within the prison, permitting weekend visits for
mothers and their children during the 4 to 6 weeks prior to the mother’s release into the community; these
visits help to reconnect mothers and their children during the crucial period just prior to discharge or
parole. Staff monitor these visits and provide support and assistance for mothers and their children when
needed.
sufficient for mothers or their children. One pay more than minimum wage) than do men.
program that is attempting to increase inter Vocational training would reduce the need for
actions between incarcerated mothers and women to turn to illegal sources of income to
their children is located at the Denver support themselves and their families after
Women’s Correctional Facility (DWCF) and is release (Peugh and Belenko 1999). Therefore,
described in the box above. vocational training should be a priority for
female offenders in substance abuse treat
ment; however, this often is not the case. The
Job Skills Training vocational options available for female
As Peugh and Belenko (1999) note, female inmates are often extremely limited compared
inmates with substance use disorders have to the options available for male offenders.
poorer employment histories than their male Male offenders have more opportunities to
counterparts, and likely have fewer opportu learn higher-paying job skills (such as car
nities for employment (especially at jobs that pentry or mechanics) than female offenders,
and so women too often return
to jobs in the community that
Advice to the Counselor: pay a low wage, do not enable
Parent Training them to support themselves and
their children, and do not raise
• Discussions of parenting and the welfare of one’s chil their self-esteem.
dren often promote strong emotional explorations and
counseling opportunities. The panel recommends that in
• Offenders are sometimes more receptive to treatment prisons and jails, substance
and more willing to accept prosocial values when the abuse treatment programs and
appeal is made for the sake of their children. TCs introduce vocational pro
grams for women and expand
100 Chapter 6
the range of vocational skills taught. Fathering
Programs for offenders under community
supervision can obtain access to community Male offenders often are very concerned
vocational programs that will accept their about the welfare of their children, although
clients. Because so many incarcerated women socially defined gender roles still put more
with substance use disorders have no real pressure on women to be good parents. Male
employment history or work skills, clients will offenders may not talk as much about their
benefit from learning prevocational skills, children or the feelings they have for them,
earning GEDs, and meeting other educational but they often keep pictures of them and, if
goals. Counselors can assess both women’s asked about them, express concern.
vocational interests and their existing work According to Mumola (2000), 40 percent of
skills. One innovative program that is target fathers in State prison had at least weekly
ing women with substance use disorders who contact with their children.
are serving a prison sentence was developed It is particularly difficult for male offenders
by the Project for Homemakers in Arizona to admit that they failed as fathers. Being a
Seeking Employment (PHASE). A complete good father is not, as some might expect,
description of the program is available online looked down on in prisons as a sign of “weak
at http://www.ag.arizona.edu/impacts/2000/ ness,” but rather is generally perceived as an
ready3.pdf. important and valuable activity. However, an
TIP 38, Integrating Substance Abuse individual perhaps feels a conflict between his
Treatment and Vocational Services (CSAT role as a caring parent and the role of a
2000c), provides information on the impor “hardened criminal” that he presents within
tance of vocational services, how to integrate the prison.
them into substance abuse treatment pro Many male offenders feel inadequate when
grams, and, in a chapter titled “Working dealing with their children and have never
With the Ex-Offender,” specific information had any instruction or assistance in how to be
on the vocational training needs of offenders. a good father. Their own fathers often were
poor role models, and some were (and may
still be) incarcerated themselves, even in the
Men’s Treatment same prison. This does not mean, however,
Issues that they are bad fathers—just that they are
not aware of what they should be doing or
Because men make up the vast majority of
how well they are doing in that role.
offenders and because gender bias often
According to Landreth and Lobaugh (1998),
makes people see men’s treatment as the
at the end of a parent training class a group
norm, it sometimes is difficult to see how cer
of incarcerated fathers was more accepting of
tain issues need to be addressed for men in
their children, perceived fewer problems with
substance abuse treatment programs.
their children, and had less stress about par
Typically, these are issues that have been
enting compared with offenders who did not
thought of as women’s issues (e.g., sexual
participate. The children benefited as well
abuse, parenting) but also can include issues
from the structured play therapy, as their
that are significant for men in the general
self-concept scores improved significantly.
population, but often forgotten for offenders
(e.g., status). Much of the information pre Parent training can also serve as a bridge to
sented above also applies to men. For more counseling. Few criminal justice clients want
information on men’s issues related to sub their children to wind up in prison.
stance abuse treatment, see the forthcoming Discussions of parenting and the welfare of
TIP Substance Abuse Treatment and Men’s one’s children often promote strong emotional
Issues (CSAT in development e). explorations and counseling opportunities.
102 Chapter 6
Drugs influence levels of violence in other to commit (and rewards them for) violent
ways. The business of manufacturing and sell actions.
ing drugs can be very violent, and offenders
who have been involved in these activities Programs such as the Violence Interruption
may have committed violent acts in order to Process (VIP) of the Illinois TASC (Treatment
survive and succeed. A study demonstrating Alternatives for Special Clients) and the Ohio
that legal prohibitions against the use of alco Department of Alcohol and Drug Addiction
hol or drugs actually increase the level of vio Service’s (ODADAS) Ohio Violence
lence (and homicide in particular) was pub Prevention Process (OVPP) were developed
lished by Miron in 1999. from the Oakland Men’s Project model.
Illinois’s VIP works on the assumption that
violent behavior is
Managing Violence learned and has an
Within prison culture, violence is an every institutional as well
day part of life and inmates may resort to vio as a personal dimen
lence in order to protect themselves. The sion. When people
become aware of Treatment should
prevalence of violence in the system reduces a
client’s feeling of safety within the treatment how they have
setting. Many offenders react with violence learned violent atti- encourage men to
because they have never developed the social tudes and behav
and coping skills necessary to react to prob iors, they can learn form relationships
lems in more positive ways. This lack of skills new methods of
is even more prevalent in offenders with communication and based on a shared
extensive histories of substance abuse. resolving conflicts
Interpersonal violence is also associated with (People for Peace experience with
methamphetamine abuse (Cohen et al. 2003). 1996). ODADAS
The prison culture reinforces violent behav provides onsite
trainings in OVPP
recovery.
ior. Individuals who are incarcerated without
a history of violence quickly learn its value in to substance abuse
jail or prison. Past violence is an issue partic treatment programs,
ularly for offenders who are making the tran corrections pro
sition from incarceration to the community grams, school sys
because past actions may come back to tems, and other groups; trainings touch on a
“haunt” them. It can be difficult to find treat variety of issues including the connection
ment programs in the community that will between substance abuse and violence, the
accept violent offenders. role of racism and sexism in violence, and
building multicultural alliances (ODADAS
A number of programs have been developed 2000). More information on promising vio
to help offenders stop violent behaviors. lence prevention and psychoeducational pro
Many of these programs use variations on grams in a range of locales can be found on
cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) and ask the Partnership Against Violence Network
offenders to look at their “criminal thinking” (Pavnet) Web site (http://www.paDV.org).
and the ways in which it leads them to commit
violent crimes. Several programs have been Anger management groups are another useful
developed from the model of the Oakland intervention with this population but the con
Men’s Project, a community-based violence sensus panel recommends that these groups
prevention program for men that began in be connected with other interventions and not
1979. This project developed a series of work simply provided as a stand-alone treatment
shops that use role-playing exercises to help for violent offenders. A variety of curricula
men understand how society pressures them are available for running anger management
104 Chapter 6
Nearly half were African American. Slightly sensually. These partnerships are generally
more than half of the men in this study self- respected by other inmates (Donaldson 1990).
identified as bisexual, with one third of those
preferring female partners (bisexual/hetero Female offenders also seem more accepting of
sexual). Gay and bisexual men were generally openly lesbian women than their male coun
satisfied with their sexual orientation. Almost terparts are of openly gay men. Overall, les
one fourth of the group (a majority of them bian women have an easier time dealing open
gay) exchanged sex for money or favors. The ly with sexuality while incarcerated than gay
bisexual/heterosexual group felt more pres men. They may develop very close relation
sure to have sex and often used it to gain the ships with other women while incarcerated
protection of another inmate. This is perhaps and express regret that the relationship may
a result of the fact that the group was small in end after one partner leaves the institution.
number and that other inmates sought them Some lesbian offenders say that they enjoy
as sexual partners. Most of the group believed the sexual freedom that a prison environment
that their fellow jail inmates treated them dis allows them, and, after release, may express a
respectfully. Only a few gay inmates and none desire to return to a relationship they had
of the bisexuals felt that jail personnel toler while incarcerated.
ated gay behavior or gay or bisexual individu Other issues related to sexual orientation,
als. More than a third of this group feared such as conflicts with the family of origin and
being raped in prison and believed that hav societal discrimination, can create additional
ing the protection of a heterosexual was the stress that can lead to increased substance
best way to do prison time (Alarid 2000). abuse. For more general information on
In male institutions, individuals who do self- working with this population, see A
identify as gay are often victims of rape Provider’s Introduction to Substance Abuse
and/or physical violence. They may need to Treatment for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and
resort to violence to protect themselves or else Transgender Individuals (CSAT 2001).
become a sexual partner of someone who can
protect them. However, these are not typical
ly mutual relationships and the gay partner Treatment Issues
often needs to assume a submissive role that Based on the Client’s
may not be compatible with the sexual role he
prefers; gay inmates often wish to distance Cognitive/Learning,
themselves from these partners upon release. Physical, and Sensory
Many women also face conflicts between sexu Disabilities
al orientation and sexual behavior when People with substance use disorders may
incarcerated. However, generally, confusion experience a coexisting cognitive or physical
around sexual orientation is not as difficult disability. A study by the New York State
for women because sexual encounters in Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse
prison involve more of a relationship than Services found that more than 22 percent of
they do for men; sexual activity is often a the clients served by licensed treatment facili
part of a nurturing, family relationship (and ties had a co-occurring mental or physical
women often explicitly take on roles as “hus disability (CSAT 1998d). Self-reports from
bands and wives”). It is assumed that the inmates in 1997 indicate that 31 percent of
prevalence of homosexual activity in women’s State prisoners and 23 percent of Federal
jails and prisons is similar to that in men’s. In prisoners had learning or speech disabilities,
contrast to relationships among men, women hearing or vision problems, or mental or
establish partnerships voluntarily and con physical conditions. This includes 108,000
individuals with learning disabilities, 135,000
106 Chapter 6
than one place so that if any are stolen they • Rigid habits
will still be able to administer their medica • The likelihood of a physical condition pre
tion. Individuals should always check their senting as an emotional problem
syringes to see if others have used them and
• Lifelong patterns of criminal behavior that
should keep a supply of bleach available to
cannot easily be altered
clean needles if they suspect their needles
have been used. • A lack of assertiveness, suggesting that
younger, more verbal inmates are more likely
Given the prevalence of disabilities in incar to get treatment (Chaiklin 1998)
cerated populations, especially among offend
ers with substance use disorders, the consen Readers are referred to TIP 26, Substance
sus panel suggests that treatment providers be Abuse Among Older
able to screen for co-existing disabilities and Adults (CSAT
make accommodations for offenders who have 1998c), for more
them. For example, someone with mental information on sub
retardation may not be able to participate in stance abuse treat
a traditional TC and may need to be sent to a ment for this popu- Age is a factor
modified TC or have another suitable treat lation. See also
ment option available. Information on treat chapter 9, Issues associated with
ment for clients with co-existing disabilities Specific to
can be found in TIP 29, Substance Use Treatment in positive treatment
Disorder Treatment for People With Physical Prisons, for a
and Cognitive Disabilities (CSAT 1998d). description of how
outcomes.
older inmates can
serve an important
Treatment Issues for function in prison-
based substance
Older Adults abuse programs.
Age is a factor associated with positive treat
ment outcomes. The older one is the more
likely one is to stay in treatment, complete Treatment Issues for
treatment, and have positive outcomes follow
ing treatment. For some older clients the neg
Clients From Rural
ative consequences of a criminal lifestyle Areas
accumulate over time, while the body In the past, alcohol has been the largest sub
becomes less capable of managing substance stance abuse problem in rural areas, but that
abuse and related stressors, leading to a is beginning to change. While certain sub
desire for change. Engaging these individuals stances of abuse are more available than oth
in treatment may be relatively easy. However, ers, illicit substances are reaching rural com
older offenders also have unique issues that munities. There is now no difference in
counselors need to be prepared to address. prevalence of illicit drug use between large
For one, this population is more prone to and small metropolitan areas and rural areas
health problems. Visual impairments and with the exception of marijuana (National
hearing loss are factors, along with chronic Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse
health problems, senile dementia, and demen [CASA] 2000). In an evaluation of substance
tia related to long-term substance abuse. abuse in rural Nebraska, marijuana was
Other characteristics typical of this popula found to be the most common drug (as it was
tion that complicate treatment include in urban areas), but methamphetamine abuse
• A slow response to directions was more common than cocaine abuse; those
108 Chapter 6
reports of psychiatric symptoms; 18.5 percent Co-Occurring Disorders
of the women had experienced symptoms of a
severe disorder (i.e., schizophrenia/
Treatment Programs
schizophreniform, manic episode, major In order to serve the high number of offenders
depressive episode) at some point during their with mental and substance use disorders, a
lives, 33.5 percent had experienced PTSD, number of diversionary and corrections-based
and 70.2 percent had a substance use disor programs have been developed for offenders
der (Teplin et al. 1996). with COD.
Several features distinguish the programs that • Treatment is provided in graduated “phas
treat inmates with COD from other criminal es” or “stages,” using a highly structured
justice substance abuse treatment programs: psychoeducational treatment approach.
Early phases of treatment include a focus
• An integrated treatment approach is used on orientation, assessment, development of
whenever possible. Mental health treatment treatment plans, and engagement and per
staff, substance abuse treatment staff, and suasion activities. Didactic approaches are
criminal justice staff are located in the same particularly useful in early stages of treat
program unit, and often share in decision- ment to help offenders understand the
making. In some jurisdictions, both correc nature of their mental disorders and biolog
tional officers and community supervision ical aspects of both disorders. Secondary
officers have been successfully involved in phases focus more on “active treatment,”
treatment team meetings, treatment groups, such as development of coping and life
and other therapeutic activities. A wide skills, lifestyle change, and cognitive–
range of treatment approaches are imple behavioral interventions. Later phases may
mented, according to the client’s stage of include relapse prevention, peer mentor
treatment. Collaboration and/or consulta activities, vocational training, reentry plan
tion may be adequate to serve offenders ning, and linkage with community support
who have less severe COD. and treatment programs. Case management
• Both disorders are treated as “primary.” and relapse prevention activities often are
Integrated treatment involves simultaneous provided throughout the various phases of
consideration of both disorders and atten treatment, with a particular emphasis dur
tion to the interactive nature of these disor ing prerelease and reentry phases. In jails,
ders. However, the scope and intensity of where the relatively brief period of incar
treatment activities will vary according to ceration may prevent the use of a long-term
the client’s needs and functioning level. phased treatment approach, services may
• Comprehensive treatment services are flexi focus on assessment, brief psychoeducation
ble and individualized. Treatment should al interventions, community “in-reach” ser
be adapted to address different levels of vices, and linkage to community services.
symptom severity, functioning, and commit • The focus of treatment is long term, with an
ment to treatment. Both early intervention emphasis placed on continuity of treatment
and active treatment interventions should in aftercare and postrelease settings.
be adapted for different diagnostic groups Recovery and stabilization for offenders
and for offenders with special needs (e.g., with COD often occurs over a period of sev
those with cognitive impairment, women eral years and includes multiple treatment
with trauma and abuse histories). episodes. COD treatment programs should
• Treatment approaches that are commonly provide linkage with other community
used in substance abuse treatment settings treatment and ancillary service providers,
(e.g., TCs, cognitive–behavioral treatments, and should develop detailed aftercare, tran
relapse prevention, peer and alumni sup sition, and postrelease plans to ensure con
port groups) are adapted to better suit the tinuity of services. These should include
needs of offenders with COD. Common provisions to furnish an adequate supply of
modifications include smaller caseloads, psychotropic medications for the offender
shorter and simplified meetings, special during transition from institutional to com
attention to criminal thinking, education munity programs. The offender also should
about medication, and minimizing con be monitored carefully during transition
periods, when stress levels are high and
110 Chapter 6
there is increased risk for recurrence of • Enlistment of support from family members
mental health symptoms, substance abuse to work with offenders with COD where
tors or other case managers have been used • Close coordination between the community
successfully in some jurisdictions to help in supervision/probation officer and the offend
community transition. er’s clinician
• Staff are trained and experienced in treat
ing both mental disorders and substance Medication Management
abuse. A blend of staff experience is need
ed, including those trained in working with Substance abuse treatment providers working
acute symptoms of mental disorders and with people with COD need to understand
those who have worked in specialized sub and be able to help educate clients about the
stance abuse treatment settings, such as importance of medication management and
TCs. Cross-training activities are useful to compliance. Clients sometimes have trouble
share information from the perspectives of distinguishing between “good” and “bad”
each of the treatment disciplines, and also drugs, particularly at the beginning of treat
from the perspective of security/community ment. The distinction is made more difficult
supervision. by the fact that the “good” medications are
more expensive and more difficult to obtain
than illicit drugs. There still is a myth within
Programs for offenders with the substance abuse treatment field that use
co-occurring disorders under of psychotropic medication by individuals
community supervision with co-occurring mental disorders should be
discouraged. Programs in criminal justice set
This group of offenders will have particular tings should update their formulary so that
difficulties finding aftercare programs to they are using the most up-to-date medica
accept them because of the stigma associated tions. Offenders entering jails may have par
with the combined problems of COD and a ticular problems around medications because
criminal record. Nor will most traditional they may not be able to receive necessary
community mental health interventions be medication while incarcerated or may not be
effective for them, as they typically have com given a supply of medication upon discharge
plex problems that require specialized treat (which they might need until they can get pre
ment (Broner et al. 2002). Community super scriptions filled). It often takes well over a
vision of offenders with COD also requires month to be seen by a psychiatrist and to
specialized strategies (Peters and Hills 1997), receive a prescription for medication. In
including addition, certain medications (e.g., anti
• Recognition of special service needs depressants) take several weeks to build up to
• Use of supportive rather than confrontation effective levels in the bloodstream. Moreover,
al approaches
• Positive reinforcement for
small successes and progress Advice to the Counselor:
• Different expectations regard “Good” and “Bad” Drugs
ing response to supervision • Clients with COD need help with medication manage
• Flexible responses to infrac- ment, especially in distinguishing between substances of
tions abuse and licit medication.
• Use of concrete directions • Counselors must be alert to inmates who skillfully mimic
• Highly structured activities the symptoms of mental disorders in order to receive
medications.
• Ongoing monitoring
112 Chapter 6
Figure 6-1
Traits of ASPD (DSM-IV)
• Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or
pleasure
• Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights and assaults
• Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor
financial obligations
• Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing
acts that are grounds for arrest
• Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead
• Reckless disregard for safety of self or others
• Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen
from another
Source: Hare et al. 1991.
While it is generally believed that ASPD is people who have ASPD but who lie about
more common in men than women, available behaviors that qualify for this diagnosis.
data are mixed. Researchers studying people
in psychiatric hospitals (Grilo et al. 1996), in Psychopathy is a term used to describe a
treatment programs for alcoholism (Cornelius more extreme form of ASPD. In addition to
et al. 1995), and in homeless populations the criminal tendencies apparent in ASPD,
(North et al. 2004) have found significantly people with psychopathy also exhibit affective
higher rates of ASPD for men than for and interpersonal dysfunction (Hare et al.
women. Galen and colleagues (2000), howev 1991). Moreover, offenders who score high on
er, found prevalence rates of 16 percent for the PLC-R (the test for psychopathy; see
men and 22 percent for women in a group of chapter 2 for more information) have higher
235 clients at outpatient substance abuse rates of recidivism and are more prone to vio
treatment centers. Rates are high for offend lence both in and out of criminal institutions
ers of both genders. A study of women enter (Hare et al. 1991).
ing prison in North Carolina found that rates ASPD and psychopathy are difficult to treat
of ASPD were significantly higher than for and in this regard are addressed somewhat
women in the general population (Jordan et differently from other mental disorders.
al. 1996), and Teplin and colleagues (1996) in Approaches used for offenders with ASPD
their study of women in Cook County, and psychopathy are typically focused on
Illinois, jails found that 13.7 percent met behavior management rather than on counsel
DSM-III-R criteria for ASPD within the 6 ing or other therapeutic techniques. These
months prior to their incarceration. approaches involve heightened accountability
The panel cautions that some people who (i.e., surveillance and monitoring), highly
meet the criteria for ASPD do not really have structured programming, and application of
the disorder—their behaviors are the result carefully crafted sanctions and incentives for
of other factors, most notably substance targeted behaviors.
abuse. The behavior of these clients is People with severe ASPD require intensive,
improved greatly after treatment. It is not long-term residential treatment for their dis
easy, though, to determine who really does order and for substance abuse; if they inter
have ASPD and who does not. There also are rupt treatment they are likely to return to
Figure 6-2
Borderline Personality Disorder
People diagnosed with BPD must have five or more of the following behaviors:
• Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment
• A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between
extremes of idealization and devaluation
• Identity disturbance or markedly and persistently unstable self-image or sense of self
• Impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging (e.g., spending, sex, substance abuse,
reckless driving, binge eating)
• Recurrent suicidal behavior or gestures, or self-mutilating behavior
• Affective instability due to marked reactivity of mood (e.g., intense episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxi
ety usually lasting a few hours and only rarely more than a few days)
• Chronic feelings of emptiness
• Inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g., frequent displays of temper, constant
anger, recurrent physical fights)
• Transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms
Source: APA 2000.
114 Chapter 6
• Violent behavior and antisocial traits. tive behavior that often results when the
Treatment courses will vary according to offender feels in danger of being aban
the degree of violent or antisocial behavior. doned.
In mild cases (e.g., shoplifting), cognitive
therapy is recommended. For more severe
cases, residential treatment (e.g., a TC)
may be effective. Episodic violence may A general clinical observation is that the TC is
benefit from the use of mood-stabilizing an effective treatment for both ASPD and BPD
medication. For severe antisocial features, through the emphasis on interventions that
hospitalization may be required. facilitate socialization and maturity.
• Self-destructive behavior. Addressing self-
destructive behavior is a primary part of Special Considerations in
treating BPD. Behaviors such as self-muti Treating Depressive and
lation, suicide attempts, risky sexual behav
ior, and reckless driving are immediate Bipolar Disorders
threats to the individual and should be Treatment strategies for offenders with co-
given treatment priority. Helping clients to occurring major depressive disorders have
think through the consequences of destruc focused on modifying thoughts that lead to
tive behavior can be of use. depression or that are related to substance
• Childhood trauma and PTSD. While not abuse. Issues surrounding loss and trauma
universal, childhood trauma is very com are typically addressed when an offender is
mon among people with BPD. Treating able to tolerate uncomfortable mood states
offenders with BPD will often entail without turning to substance abuse. Activities
addressing the trauma and symptoms of are designed to promote understanding of
PTSD. how trauma and abuse experiences are
expressed through emotions, physical reac
• Dissociative symptoms. Because there often
tions, and behaviors, including substance
is comorbidity between BPD and dissocia
abuse. In addition to the interventions for
tive disorders, counselors must also be
depressive disorders, treatment for offenders
aware of the likelihood that the offender
with bipolar disorders addresses impaired
with BPD experiences transient dissociative
judgment that occurs during manic episodes,
symptoms (e.g., depersonalization, dereal
and the effects of substance abuse on judg
ization, and loss of reality testing), and/or
ment. Treatment strategies often focus on
dissociative identity disorder. Counselors
building an acceptable set of coping responses
can assist by exploring the extent of the dis
to manic or hypomanic impulses, as well as
sociative symptoms, the current issues that
medication adherence when warranted.
may lead to dissociative episodes, and the
nature of dissociative symptoms. It may
also be helpful to teach clients how to con Special Considerations in
trol dissociation and to work through post-
traumatic symptoms.
Treating Schizophrenia/
• Psychosocial stressors. Stress can heighten
Psychotic Disorders
the symptoms of BPD, trigger relapse, and Treatment for offenders with co-occurring
undermine recovery. Moreover, because of psychotic disorders is designed to address dis
their intense fear of abandonment, many organized thought patterns and communica
clients with BPD will be sensitive to any tion style. Specialized approaches used in
perceived rejection within any relationship, treatment include use of concrete concepts,
including the client–counselor relationship. avoiding harsh confrontation, and greater use
Counselors should thus be watchful of reac of structured exercises and written materials.
116 Chapter 6
implemented systemwide programs to educate The Federal prison system undertakes ran
inmates about these diseases or to institute dom HIV testing of inmates for data collection
preventive measures. High-risk behaviors for purposes, and all inmates are tested on
the spread of HIV occur with great frequency release; otherwise inmates are tested only if
in correctional facilities. These include there is a clinical indication that they may be
unprotected sexual activity, substance use, HIV-positive or if they request testing. States
and tattooing. The data clearly show that have various procedures for testing the HIV
there is transmission of HIV between inmates status of inmates. Some States test all inmates
(Hammett et al. 1999). Curricula for HIV who meet the criteria for belonging to a high-
prevention are available in many prisons. risk group, some test everyone entering the
However, although female inmates have high facility, and still others test inmates upon dis
er rates of HIV than their male counterparts, charge from the facility. More information on
few HIV educational programs have been substance abuse treatment for people with
developed for the particular needs of women. HIV/AIDS can be found in TIP 37, Substance
Abuse Treatment for Persons With HIV/AIDS
(CSAT 2000e).
Project ARRIVE
Project ARRIVE, a NIDA-funded AIDS prevention training model, was designed specifically for recent
ly released parolees with histories of intravenous drug use—a population particularly vulnerable to
resuming high-risk behaviors (Wexler et al. 1994). ARRIVE’s assumption was that reinforcing parolees’
general social and personal rehabilitation could reduce the risk of contracting AIDS. The program
incorporated the principles and techniques found to be useful for treating those with substance use dis
orders in other settings.
• Social learning approach to prevention training. The training program emphasized learning skills to
resist relapse and develop personal and social competencies (Botvin et al. 1984) and included rational
decisionmaking, coping with anxiety, assertiveness, and relaxation skills.
• A strong self-help orientation. Participants were encouraged to accept responsibility for their behav
ior; to develop their capacity to change negative features of their daily lives; and to engender a sense
of mutuality, trust, and honesty among participants (Gartner and Riessman 1977).
• Use of principles effective in TC programs (De Leon 1999, 2000; DeLeon and Ziegenfuss 1986). Some
ARRIVE training staff were themselves in recovery and could function as role models. In addition, the
program fostered the development of peer support networks. Graduates were encouraged to continue
their association with the program through weekly aftercare groups.
• Job readiness preparation and placement assistance.
These elements were combined into a structured 8-week, 24-session AIDS prevention program. Each
new class met for 2 hours a night, three times per week over an 8-week period. Participants received $10
per session for a total of up to $240 if they attended all 24 sessions. Trainees also were given two subway
tokens per session. ARRIVE participants were offered confidential HIV testing and counseling.
During the NIDA study, a total of 394 eligible parolees were recruited, of whom 241 (61 percent) attend
ed the Training Program, including 164 program completers, for a 68 percent graduation rate. (During
the second half of the program, 81 percent graduated.) The outcome evaluation, conducted 1 year after
study recruitment, compared program graduates with parolees who never attended, controlling for
observed group differences at baseline. ARRIVE participation significantly decreased most sexual and
some drug-related risk behaviors and improved parolees’ community adjustment during the followup
period (Wexler et al. 1994).
118 Chapter 6
Sex Offenders ally deviant behavior. Alcohol and drug issues
are usually seen as one part of a broad array
Self reports of those incarcerated for rape or of problems contributing to the sex offense
sexual assault reveal that 23 percent admitted and specific attention to substance abuse
they were under the influence of alcohol alone issues may comprise only one of many treat
when they committed their crime, another 15 ment modules designed to address these
percent acknowledged using both alcohol and underlying problems (Barbaree et al. 1998).
drugs, and an additional 5 percent reported Many sex offenders with substance abuse
they had been using drugs alone (CASA issues are excluded from many substance
1999). That even these self-report numbers abuse treatment programs. Analysis of
considerably underestimate the pervasiveness Bureau of Justice Statistics data reveals that
of substance abuse among sex offenders is 34 percent of sex offenders receive drug treat
suggested by the fact that 42 percent of those ment in prison, as opposed to 42 percent of
arrested for sex offenses tested positive for other violent offenders (Peugh and Belenko
drugs at the time of arrest (CASA 1999). 2001). Often if they are to get any treatment
Similar evidence for alcohol use is not avail for their substance abuse problems, it must
able but can be presumed to be considerably be in or in conjunction with a sex offender
higher. Among incarcerated sex offenders, treatment program. Otherwise, to participate
two of every three have a history of alcohol or in substance abuse treatment, they must con
drug use, abuse, or addiction (Peugh and ceal their sex offender identities and histo
Belenko 2001). ries—not a promising foundation for fostering
the self-disclosure treatment requires.
While the high prevalence of substance abuse
among sexual offenders is clear, solid infor The subpopulation of sex offenders among
mation about the relationship between sub offenders who require interventions for sub
stance abuse and sexual offending is not read stance abuse issues raises many questions and
ily available. While many convicted sex complications, especially since they also may
offenders will admit to problems with alcohol be concurrently mentally ill, culturally
or illicit drugs, it is unusual for someone diverse, developmentally disabled, or other
identified with alcohol or drug problems to wise high need (Raymond et al. 1999). Sex
freely disclose illegal sexual behavior. The offenders often stir strong emotions and reac
negative consequences of such an admission tions (Jenkins 1998). The criminal justice sys
would usually be too great. Consequently, tem, other offenders, and the community at
what is known about the co-occurrences of large typically think of sex offenders, particu
substance use disorders and the commission larly those whose victims are children, as a
of sex offenses comes mainly from the person different class of criminal. Within jails and
al history and self reports of identified sex prisons, if identified, they are at great risk of
offenders within the criminal justice system being victimized by other inmates (and some
and their victims. times correctional staff) because of the nature
of their crimes. Some States provide sex-
Sex offenders apprehended and labeled
offender–specific treatment services for a
through the criminal justice system are
portion of these inmates, pre- and post-
thought to represent a small portion of those
release, and many counties require treatment
who actually commit sexual offenses (Center
as one of the conditions of probation (Burton
for Sex Offender Management 2001a). Only
and Smith-Darden 2001). When released
those individuals actually convicted of sexual
from incarceration, sex offenders are
offenses are likely to be identified as a sex
required to register with local authorities,
offender subgroup with COD requiring spe
often receive more stringent supervision than
cialized attention. And for this population,
other offenders, can be subject to community
the focus of treatment is likely to be the sexu
120 Chapter 6
SHARPER FUTURE
Awareness of the presence of significant numbers of sex offenders among inmates participating in
California’s in-prison substance abuse treatment programs—as high as 30 percent—led to the develop
ment of a specialized aftercare program specifically tailored to address both substance abuse and sex
offense issues concurrently. For many reasons, in-prison programs do not address sex offense issues.
SHARPER FUTURE (Social Habilitation and Relapse Prevention – Expert Resources), a private-sector
forensic mental health agency, has been operating a program under contract in central Los Angeles since
1999 to meet the needs of parolees who have completed one of the in-prison substance abuse programs
but who are screened out of other aftercare programs because of their sex offense histories. (SHARPER
FUTURE also has a component to treat offenders with mental disorders.)
SHARPER FUTURE is staffed by licensed clinicians with expertise in treating both areas concurrently.
The existence of many parallels between treatment strategies for substance abuse and for sex offense
issues offers a foundation for such an integrated approach. Concepts from relapse prevention apply
equally well to both areas of concern.
Because of restrictions in California codes prohibiting registered sex offenders from sharing a common
residence, SHARPER FUTURE is exclusively outpatient. As an outpatient program, SHARPER
FUTURE cannot fully continue but does support the therapeutic community philosophy that is the
foundation of the prison-based system. Although the program is considered “aftercare” for substance
abuse issues, which have been directly addressed previously in the institutional setting, the sex offense
issues are addressed directly for the first time only in this outpatient phase. During the 14-month inten
sive treatment phase of SHARPER FUTURE, participants, all on parole, attend three 2-hour groups
per week. A weekly aftercare group can subsequently continue until the end of the parole period or
beyond.
Because personal issues related to substance abuse already have been addressed in prison and because
the level of shame related to sex offense behavior generally is much more intense, greater resistance in
dealing with the sexual behavior is common. Frequently analogies with substance abuse cycles, behavior
chains, thinking errors, low capacity for delayed gratification, and similar themes offer a more accept
able entrance to the sex offense work. Creating a group treatment culture supportive of the work needed
to address deviant sexual patterns is essential to treatment success.
Standards of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA—see http://www.ATSA.com)
require substantial training and experience for staff involved in treating sex offenders and finding such
qualified staff, especially individuals who also have expertise in substance abuse treatment, has been a
challenge, as has working collaboratively within such a large and complex system as the California
Department of Corrections. Future goals include replicating this pilot program in other geographical
areas and, ultimately, developing structures to allow the sex offense issues to be addressed from the
beginning of treatment in specialized separate tracks of the in-prison substance abuse treatment system.
122 Chapter 6
the cultural diversity of the population they sonal contact and should be trained in tech
are treating. Efforts need to be made to niques for adapting treatment approaches
adopt treatment to specific cultural popula to reflect these differences, in order to more
tions (e.g., ethnicity, race, age, sexual ori effectively engage and maintain clients in
entation, rural cultures, socioeconomic program services.
class, and language). Counselors need to be • The therapeutic community has been suc
aware of different cultural sets of values, cessfully modified to treat specific popula
biases, and assumptions related to commu tions, including female offenders and
nication, therapeutic style, and interper offenders with COD.
Pretrial and
Diversion Settings
Overview
In This
The pretrial period of criminal justice processing is unique in that for
Chapter…
most people it is brief and the outcome is uncertain. Yet, it represents an
opportunity to identify those who could benefit from substance abuse
Introduction
treatment and begin to engage them in the process. Providing effective ser
vices at this early stage of involvement with the criminal justice system can
Characteristics of the
vism.
Treatment Services in the
sion of some of the strategies that are effective during the pretrial stage,
What Treatment Services
as well as some of the issues that are specific to it. Some of the qualities
Can Reasonably Be
of effective pretrial and diversion programs are the next topic: the staff
Provided in the Pretrial
resources, training, coordination, program components and proce
Setting?
dures. Finally, the chapter describes several existing diversion pro
grams and lists resources, research findings, and conclusions.
Treatment Issues
Developing Pretrial
Treatment Services
Introduction
There are several challenges in developing treatment interventions dur
Resources
ing pretrial criminal justice processing and the presentencing phase. A
Conclusions and
large number of offenders move relatively quickly through the system,
Recommendations
and many different agencies are involved with each case and supervi
sion. At the pretrial stage, offenders have been charged with a crime,
not convicted, and involvement with treatment may or may not be in the
offender’s legal interests. The trauma and uncertainty of the arrest can
either help or undermine motivation for treatment. Diversion to treat
ment can occur at several points before incarceration. The offender
may opt for treatment in lieu of incarceration or to reduce the length of
incarceration by participating in treatment.
125
Variations in local prosecution and diversion • Pretrial defendants are often uncertain as to
practices may affect a jurisdiction’s ability to the status of their case and experience signifi
develop the criminal justice treatment link cant disruption related to their arrest. The
ages presented in this chapter. Not all juris uncertainty of their case disposition influ
dictions have established procedures or pro ences a counselor’s ability to engage an indi
grams for clients who abuse substances; those vidual in treatment. For example, defendants
jurisdictions that do have programs to treat may be unsure whether treatment will be
offenders often maintain such programs with required by the court as part of their sen
limited resources. Recognizing the disparities tencing arrangements, or whether voluntary
between available treatment programs for pretrial involvement in treatment would be
offenders, the consensus panel posited the fol more rigorously monitored than standard
lowing observations as a starting point for probation that they would receive as an alter
discussions of treatment in pretrial and diver native to involvement in diversion programs.
sion settings. For some, the arrest provides strong motiva
• Expanding and institutionalizing pretrial tional leverage to engage individuals, while
treatment services are important goals. The for others, the stress related to arrest and
pressure of overcrowded jails and prisons is lack of clarity regarding their case disposition
expanding and institutionalizing programs makes offenders less receptive to treatment.
for drug treatment in pretrial and diversion This chapter highlights some of the innovative
settings nationwide. In the past, the criminal programs to treat offenders and the issues that
justice system and the treatment community substance abuse treatment and criminal justice
have often operated independently, but the personnel are likely to encounter when treating
advent of drug courts and other diversion clients in a pretrial or diversion setting.
programs has created a better climate for col
laboration.
• Treatment remains a low priority in the crim Characteristics of the
inal justice system at the pretrial stage,
although it has been credited with helping to Population
reduce criminal behavior. Each jurisdiction In 2000, the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring
decides what priority to give substance abuse Program (ADAM) collected data on male
treatment and whether it merits significant arrestees from 35 urban sites (National
financial resources. Outside of formal drug Institute of Justice 2003). Of the male arrestees
court and diversion programs, treatment tested and interviewed, more than 50 percent
access is limited. from every site tested positive for at least one
126 Chapter 7
drug. Marijuana was the drug detected most lowing arrest. For example, in 1996 in large
frequently, followed by cocaine. urban areas, 62 percent of drug traffickers
and 71 percent of other drug offenders were
In the 29 sites where data were collected on released before trial (Dorsey and Zawitz
women, more than half tested positive for at 1999).
least one drug. Unlike the male arrestee pop
ulation, cocaine was most frequently detected
among female arrestees, followed by marijua The Need for Treatment
na and methamphetamine (National Institute Services
of Justice 2003).
Very few arrestees were in treatment at the
Nationally, 65 percent of all arrestees test time they entered the criminal justice system,
positive for an illicit drug. Seventy-nine per yet 24 percent of those interviewed for the
cent of arrestees are “drug-involved,” mean ADAM study in 1997 indicated that they need
ing they tested positive for a drug, reported ed treatment. Thirty-six percent of arrestees
that they had recently used drugs, had a his reported use of cocaine, but only 6 percent had
tory of drug dependence or treatment, or ever received drug treatment (National
were in need of drug treatment at the time of Institute of Justice 2000).
their arrest (Belenko 2000).
> After arrest and prior to initial arraignment or bail Arraignment is a technical term
128 Chapter 7
ble cause review. This hearing is not referred jail for detention prior to trial. Successful
to as an arraignment. completion of the treatment or other condi
tions can mitigate the sentence imposed by the
The period of time between arrest and court if the offender is convicted. The consen
arraignment is a window of opportunity to sus panel recommends that, ideally, judges
intervene and articulate the value of sub should mandate as a condition of release that
stance abuse treatment. Drug testing, screen offenders receive treatment within 24 hours.
ing, and assessment for substance abuse and
dependence, needs assessment in other areas,
and relapse prevention are important compo Pretrial Diversion: Treatment
nents of intervention at this time as well as at in Lieu of Prosecution
other points along the continuum. The con
sensus panel recommends a multidisciplinary In some instances, arrest charges against the
approach, with treatment providers available defendant are dropped if the person com
to work with police and court personnel to pletes treatment. The decision to order treat
guide offenders who abuse drugs into treat ment as part of pretrial diversion typically,
ment. though not always, rests with the prosecutor’s
office. The prosecutor offers to cease all pros
During arraignment, charges are brought ecution of the case if the defendant completes
against the defendant, and the defendant is the prescribed treatment regimen. However,
informed of his rights. The defendant then if the defendant fails to complete the treat
enters a plea in response. Additional person ment and to satisfy the other conditions of
nel, including staff from pretrial service agen diversion, he may risk being sentenced more
cies, judges, prosecutors or defense attor harshly (if prosecution proceeds and a con
neys, court referral officers, and representa viction results) than if the individual had
tives of referral systems, handle this process never entered the diversion program.
and become involved as the defendant moves
through the arraignment process. Each of Because pretrial diversion occurs before an
these individuals can refer the defendant to individual enters a guilty plea or is convicted
substance abuse treatment services. by a judge or jury, the defendant is still tech
nically innocent. Anxiety about the outcome
As a result of the arraignment, a defendant of pending charges may motivate those
can be released on his or her own recog charged to agree to treatment, and many
nizance (i.e., a sworn promise to return); treatment providers view this as an ideal time
detained pending the posting of a certain to intervene and offer the individual an
amount of bail; detained with no bail (very opportunity to participate in treatment.
unusual); or released under certain condi
tions, such as keeping a curfew, reporting
periodically to a supervising officer, or wear Plea Bargaining
ing an electronic tracking device. With court docket overcrowding, plea bar
gaining is used in a large number of cases. In
a plea bargain, defendants are allowed to
Pretrial Diversion: Supervision plead guilty to lesser charges than the charges
in Lieu of Detention that they would have had to face at trial. In
An increasingly common condition of release most cases, especially misdemeanors or low-
is participation in some form of treatment in level or nonviolent felonies, the sentence is
which a pretrial supervision agency or proba agreed to by prosecutor and defense attorney
tion department monitors compliance. Should as part of the plea bargaining agreement. So
the individual fail to comply with the condi although judges have the power to change the
tions of release, he or she can be returned to
130 Chapter 7
sentencing recommendations are made. that the penalty is based on the offense without
However, in some jurisdictions, the prosecu regard to information contained in the report.
tion conducts an investigation prior to making Laws requiring the sentence to be based on
the plea offer, thereby preventing the prob fixed criteria are known as sentencing guide
lem of changes in plea at the sentencing stage. lines, and their purpose is to eliminate wide
judicial discretion that can result in disparate
Many jurisdictions have presentence investi sentences by jurisdiction within a system or
gation agencies that specialize in writing the even by courtroom. However, these guidelines
presentence report. Elsewhere, probation allow for very little flexibility based on defen
officers compile the report. The sentence or dant-specific factors such as substance use or
penalty handed down by the judge is based on mental disorders.
the information compiled in the report.
Therefore, with more relevant information
available, the judge is better equipped to Diversion to Treatment
132 Chapter 7
10 Key Components of Drug Courts
The following components were developed by a national committee of experts for the Office of Justice
Programs, Drug Courts Program Office (National Association of Drug Court Professionals 1997).
• Drug courts integrate alcohol and drug treatment services with justice system case processing.
• Using a nonadversarial approach, prosecution and defense counsel promote public safety while protecting
participants’ due process rights.
• Eligible participants are identified early and promptly placed in the drug court program.
• Drug courts provide access to a continuum of alcohol, drug, and related treatment and rehabilitation
services.
• Abstinence is monitored by frequent alcohol and illicit drug testing.
• A coordinated strategy governs drug court responses to participants’ compliance.
• Ongoing judicial interaction with each drug court participant is essential.
• Monitoring and evaluating achievement of program goals is necessary to gauge effectiveness.
• Continuing interdisciplinary education promotes effective drug court planning, implementation, and
operations.
• Forging partnerships among drug courts, public agencies, and community-based organizations generates
local support and enhances drug court program effectiveness.
client’s level of functioning, mental health sta A range of treatment interventions is employed
tus, and physical condition may change along in DTCs. Most use a tapered approach that
with his treatment needs. Continual monitor employs intensive outpatient treatment during
ing will allow both systems to tailor treatment initial stages of treatment, followed by progres
to the client’s stage of recovery by identifying sively less intensive involvement in outpatient
and addressing emerging health or mental treatment (e.g., 1–3 times per week) in later
health issues. stages of the program. In addition to regular
involvement in treatment, DTC clients attend
In DTC proceedings, the judge takes an regular status hearings in court, receive indi
active and leading role in monitoring the vidual and group counseling, are involved in
offender’s progress in the treatment process case management services, are drug tested, and
through mandatory court appearances and participate in peer support groups and a range
data from urinalysis. The judge encourages of other ancillary services.
the offender to stay in treatment through
graduated rewards and sanctions. Generally,
treatment lasts about a year, although incen Other Diversion Models
tives and sanctions can shorten or lengthen
this time (Hora et al. 1999). Treatment Accountability for
Treatment through drug courts usually con Safer Communities (formerly
sists of three or four phases: Treatment Alternatives to
• Orientation, drug education Street Crime) (TASC)
• Treatment TASC programs focus on providing a bridge
• Relapse prevention, educational/vocational between treatment providers and the criminal
services justice system and offer a range of services,
• Aftercare and transition including screening and assessment, referral
136 Chapter 7
indicated that criminal justice clients were especially improved when treatment
(whether or not they came from Proposition lasts 18 months or longer.
36) with high-severity drug abuse were less
likely to be admitted to residential programs. Work by Steadman and colleagues (1995)
Of high-severity outpatient clients, the notes six central features of effective diver
SACPA clients were more likely to be re sion programs for offenders with co-occurring
arrested for a drug-related offense (Farabee disorders: integrated services, key agency
et al. 2004). meetings, boundary
spanners, strong
leadership, early
Diverting individuals with identification, and Recent
co-occurring disorders distinctive case man
agement. Boundary evaluations
People with some types of mental disorder are spanners in this con
more frequently jailed than sent to hospitals. text are individuals of drug court
About three quarters of these individuals also with knowledge of
have a substance use disorder (Broner et al. both criminal justice
2001a). Their multiple problems present a programs
and treatment sys
challenge to criminal justice personnel. tems who can bring throughout the
Some of these individuals are good candidates the systems together
for diversion in the approximately 50 jail- to collaborate on the
shared goal of
United States
based diversion programs that currently
exist. Arrestees with co-occurring disorders obtaining substance
abuse and mental indicate that they
can enter a diversion program in either the
pre- or postbooking phase. In prebooking health treatment for
diversion, the police officer is the decision- an individual who are achieving their
maker, although few police departments pro must answer to
vide training in specialized responses to those restrictions set by goals.
with mental disorders. In postbooking diver the criminal justice
sion, there is usually screening, mental health system.
evaluation, and negotiation between diversion
and legal staff for a diversion rather than Driving Under the Influence
prosecution. In some postbooking programs,
drug court procedures for case management courts
have been adapted for a population with co- Recent evaluations of drug court programs
occurring disorders. In others, a “mental throughout the United States (Belenko 2001),
health court,” based on the drug treatment which work to rehabilitate drug offenders,
court model, has been established. These reduce recidivism, and save money, indicate
courts focus on the mental disorders rather that they are achieving their goals. This suc
than on prosecution. cess has prompted practitioners and various
institutions such as the National Association
Many of those with co-occurring disorders do of Drug Court Professionals and the U.S.
not respond well to traditional community Department of Justice to discuss the potential
interventions; their problems are too com benefits of widespread use of Driving Under
plex. It is clear that integrated treatment is the Influence (DUI) courts. Although arrests
more effective than either parallel treatment for DUI have been on the decline since 1987,
of mental disorders and a substance use dis serious, habitual abusers of alcohol remain
order or sequential treatment of the two largely unaffected by stiff criminal penalties
(Weiss and Najavits 1998). Drake et al. and public awareness campaigns to stop
(1998b) concluded that treatment outcomes
138 Chapter 7
other brief interventions in more detail Detoxification
(CSAT 1999a).
Detoxification is the term used to describe the
process of withdrawal from alcohol or drugs
Behavior contracts that cause physical addiction. Detoxification,
as the word implies, entails a clearing of “tox
Some treatment programs use contracts with
ins” from the body. The most immediate pur
clients that describe precisely what is required
pose is to safely alleviate the short-term
of them. For example, offenders may be placed
symptoms of withdrawal from chemical
under less restrictive conditions of supervision
dependence, including physical discomfort.
if they successfully complete a pretrial treat
ment program. These behavior contracts offer Detoxification may occur in either an inpa
rewards or incentives for specific behaviors. In tient or an outpatient setting. It involves sev
drug court, individuals move to the next phase eral procedures for therapeutically super
only when they complete the requirements in vised withdrawal and abstinence over a short
their contracts. Contingency contracts can term (usually 5 to 7 days but sometimes up to
reduce relapse and improve retention in treat 21 days), often using pharmacologic treat
ment (Prendergast et al. 1995). ments to reduce client discomfort and reduce
medical complications such as seizures. It is a
first step for many clients who will enter
Sliding scale (client fees)
treatment, but it is not synonymous with com
Many drug courts and pretrial diversion pro prehensive, ongoing treatment. The detoxifi
grams require participants to pay treatment or cation process entails more than the removal
diversion fees in order to participate. Often of alcohol and illicit drugs from the body; it
these are based on ability to pay, or clients are includes a period of psychological readjust
allowed to defer some payments until after they ment that prepares the individual to enter
become employed, one of the principles being ongoing treatment.
that charging fees gives the offender some
“buy-in” to the treatment process. Withdrawal from certain drugs such as seda
tive-hypnotics, alcohol, benzodiazepines, and
barbiturates can be life threatening. Thus, it
Treatment Modalities is recommended that medical detoxification
In addition to previously discussed drug treat be provided for these classes of drugs.
ment courts and related specialty court/diver Though not life threatening, opioid withdraw
sion programs, several other types of treatment al should also be treated in order to provide
modalities can be used effectively in pretrial humane conditions to inmates and to avoid
settings. the potential for morbidity from dehydration
as well as suicide attempts. TIP 19,
Detoxification From Alcohol and Other Drugs
Sobering stations (CSAT 1995a), describes clinical detoxifica
Willamette Family Treatment Services in tion protocols for a variety of substances (see
Eugene, Oregon, offers a Sobering Station, a also the forthcoming revision of TIP 19,
24-hour facility designed as a safe and clean Detoxification and Substance Abuse
facility where an individual can be monitored Treatment [CSAT in development a]).
while coming off drugs or alcohol. The service
is not detoxification. The individual is housed
and monitored until he can leave safely. Those
Day reporting centers
admitted to the Sobering Station are offered Day reporting centers are used to monitor the
detoxification services when appropriate. behavior of arrestees in the pretrial setting
and of probationers and parolees under com-
munity supervision. They provide closer Stamps; and housing programs available for
supervision than twice-a-week drug testing, clients willing to enter treatment
but are less restrictive than residential treat
ment. These additional services are integral to fos
tering long-term recovery but they do add
cost, more service and supervision layers,
Additional treatment and the need for case management. In the
components long run, however, treatment can save greater
costs to the criminal justice, medical, and fos
The vast majority of offenders processed ter care systems. In a Philadelphia study of
through the criminal justice system during the Medicaid clients receiving outpatient treat
pretrial phase have chronic substance prob ment with “enhanced services” (supplemental
lems, as well as high rates of vocational, health and social services), McLellan and col
social service, educational, mental, and phys leagues (1998) found that on almost all out
ical health needs. The following components come measures, the clients receiving the sup
can be an important and useful adjunct to plemental services showed the best outcomes,
standard counseling services offered in the including drug and alcohol use.
pretrial setting and treatment providers may
need to contract these services out on an as-
needed basis. Use of Sanctions
• Vocational training Judges and prosecutors have seen that sanc
• Job readiness assessment and preparation tions encourage participation in treatment
and are necessary to gain public acceptance
• Liaison with employer
of treatment in lieu of punishment. Sanctions
• Literacy assessment and referral include a range of measures that focus on
• Anger management training holding offenders accountable for their
• Criminal thinking assessment and treatment actions. When a system of sanctions is imple
mented in concert with a sound treatment
• HIV education (sexual health)
plan, offenders swiftly experience real conse
• Assistance in accessing State or Federal enti quences of their actions. This accountability
tlements such as Medicaid; Temporary is achieved through graduated sanctions. For
Assistance for Needy Families; Women, example, an offender in an outpatient pro
Infants, and Children Program; Food gram requires drug testing three times per
week. After a first positive drug test, the
140 Chapter 7
offender may be required to participate in gations) pay a higher overall fine than those
treatment exercises to address reasons for with lower incomes (and/or more obliga
relapse and may be required to submit to tions) for the same crime. This approach to
more frequent testing. If the offender contin setting the fine amount is typically coupled
ues to test positive, he or she may be required with expanded payment options and collec
to enroll in more intensive services (e.g., resi tion procedures that are tighter than usual.
dential treatment). Further, if an offender, • Community service. This is the performance
who pleaded guilty and received a deferred by offenders of services or manual labor for
jail or prison sentence so that he could enter government, private, or nonprofit organiza
treatment, continues to fail to comply with his tions for a set number of hours with no pay
treatment program, despite the imposition of ment. Community service can be arranged
intermediate sanctions, the ultimate sanction for individuals, case-by-case, or organized
of a sentence of incarceration will be by corrections agencies as programs. For
imposed. It is important, from a motivational example, a group of offenders can serve as
standpoint, that other program participants a work crew to clean highways or paint
see what will happen to them (i.e., incarcera buildings.
tion) if they fail to comply with their treat
• Restitution. Restitution is the payment by
ment programs.
the offender of the costs of the victim’s loss
Other sanctions such as victim impact meet es or injuries and/or damages to the victim.
ings encourage the offender to recognize how In some cases, payment is made to a general
drug-related activities affect the community. victim compensation fund; in others, espe
If the offender fails to complete the required cially where there is no identifiable victim,
treatment activities, victim restitution may be payment is made to the community as a
imposed as the next level of sanctions. By whole (with the payment going to the munic
holding offenders accountable, graduated ipal or State treasury).
sanctions can be effective in redirecting indi • Outpatient or residential substance abuse
viduals away from substance abuse and treatment centers. Both public and private
toward recovery. In general, the availability treatment centers may be contracted to pro
and use of sanctions tends to strengthen the vide treatment to offenders, as described in
impact of treatment, just as involvement in this TIP.
treatment tends to strengthen adherence to • Day reporting centers or residential centers
community supervision arrangements. for other types of treatment or training.
These centers are established to provide
Examples of sanctions used services other than substance abuse treat
ment. For example, a center may provide
in diversion skills training to enhance offenders’
• Means-based fines (also called “day” fines). employability. Offenders must report to the
The total amount of these fines is calibrated center for a certain number of hours each
to both the severity of the crime and the day, and/or report by phone throughout the
discretionary income of the offender, with day from a job or treatment site, as a
the calibration and calculation established means of monitoring.
by the court as a whole for all cases in • Intensive supervision probation. The level
which this type of fine is to be imposed. and types of supervision that are labeled
(This type of fine contrasts with traditional intensive vary widely but usually involve
fines that are imposed at the discretion of closer supervision and greater reporting
the judge according to ranges set by the leg requirements than regular probation for
islature for particular offenses.) Defendants offenders. This level can range from more
with more income (and/or fewer family obli than five contacts per week to fewer than
142 Chapter 7
movie tickets, and certificates of phase and offenders who do not genuinely have a drug
program completion. or alcohol problem will participate in treat
ment nonetheless. One example is a drug
dealer who does not have a substance use dis
Treatment Issues order, but earns income from drug traffick
The counselor–client relationship in a pretrial ing. During assessment the offender may deny
setting raises unique challenges. For one, the using substances. However, once a clinician
role of the counselor can become blurred threatens to send the offender back to the
between therapist and gatekeeper, answerable judge, the offender may prudently decide he
to both the treatment and the criminal justice is boxed into “admitting addiction.” In this
communities. In the midst of this role confu instance, the offender is simply using common
sion, the client’s legal rights need to be careful sense to avoid harsher sentencing and
ly guarded. improve his chances for leniency in the crimi
nal justice system.
The discussion below highlights some of the
issues counselors operating in a pretrial setting To address this dilemma, the panel suggests
are likely to face. that treatment counselors assess collateral
evidence of a substance use disorder.
Orientation and other “pretreatment” pro
Importance of Screening gram components are also used to determine
Unpredictability characterizes the hours and individual readiness and commitment to
days immediately following arrest. The rapid treatment, prior to involvement in more
ly developing nature of arrest and arraign intensive program services. Not every offend
ment creates a challenge for counselors in er is appropriate for treatment. For example,
gaining access to the arrestee. Arrests can if a counselor assesses an individual who does
occur at odd hours, while assessment staff are not have a substance use disorder, the person
unavailable. Interviewing conditions, such as should be referred back to the judge in order
in a police lockup, are less than ideal. Still, to avoid denying the offender’s due process
the consensus panel believes that detainees rights, such as the right to a speedy trial.
should receive screening for substance abuse Early drug screening and the use of profes
during the initial intake proce
dure to determine whether fur
ther assessment should be rec Advice to the Counselor:
ommended or whether referrals Operating in a Pretrial Setting
should be made. (See chapter 2,
Screening and Assessment, for • Counselors must maintain a client’s confidentiality. One
examples of appropriate screen strategy is to avoid discussing the client’s criminal case.
ing instruments.) Prompt • Counselors should bear firmly in mind that the client is
screening is also important to presumed innocent before trial.
identify offenders in need of
• Counselors should be realistic about the responsibilities
detoxification services.
that a client is capable of handling in pretrial settings.
It is important for counselors to For example, it is unrealistic to believe that a defendant
understand that offenders some will suddenly become a model citizen, meeting all of his
times sign up for treatment or her responsibilities, simply because of an arrest.
because “it’s the thing to do.” • Counselors should avoid allowing individuals to be inad
Accessing drug treatment can vertently penalized for enrolling in treatment.
help an individual appear more • Counselors should be aware that clients may be more
sympathetic in the eyes of the focused on “beating the case” than on recovery.
court. Understanding this, some
144 Chapter 7
Although Federal policies do not require an Protecting Clients’ Rights
individual’s benefits to be terminated immedi
ately upon incarceration, they do stipulate a The client’s due-process rights can affect the
timeframe after which benefits cannot be counselor’s role in the pretrial setting. Clients
received. Whether communities suspend or and counselors should not discuss the client’s
drop an individual’s Medicaid benefits ongoing criminal case. The boundaries of the
depends on the State (National GAINS Center counselor’s responsibilities can begin to blur
1999b). when clients discuss their criminal cases.
Counselors should avoid the situation of being
In Lane County, Oregon, diverted individuals forced to report to a prosecutor something
with co-occurring mental and substance use they have been told concerning the client’s
disorders experienced difficulties in maintain case.
ing uninterrupted treatment due to issues
with Medicaid and Social Security Insurance A memorandum of understanding (MOU) can
benefits. In response, the County raised its also protect a client’s rights. An MOU signed
concerns with the Oregon Medical Assistance by the prosecutor will ensure that the prose
Program director. The State recognized this cuting attorney in the case will not use infor
situation as a continuum-of-care issue for mation gathered during the treatment process
those with short-term stays in the jail. The against the client. A judicial order attached to
State adopted the Interim Incarceration such an MOU may carry more weight: If the
Disenrollment Policy, which states that indi judge rules that information given to a treat
viduals cannot be disenrolled from the ment provider is out of bounds for a prosecu
Oregon Health Plan during their first 14 days tor, the client has that much more assurance
of incarceration (National GAINS Center that he or she may speak freely to the coun
1999b). selor.
counselor’s role is potentially more adversari Efforts to expand and institutionalize treat
al. Self-disclosure to a counselor is not neces ment programs in order to make them a stan
sarily in the client’s best interest. As a result, dard part of the pretrial criminal justice sys
it may be more difficult to engage the client in tem often face a number of challenges. In
an open relationship. The counselor should planning such programs, the consensus panel
inform the client at the outset that at some believes the following strategies may be help
point it may be necessary to report to the ful:
court or pretrial supervision staff. The coun • Increase the number of experienced coun
selor should be absolutely clear about this selors and trained clinical staff.
process, its requirements, and his or her role
in relation to the community supervision • Create special licensing and certification for
agency. In some settings, such as drug courts, counselors who provide treatment in the pre
counselors are part of a multidisciplinary trial setting.
team and play a vital role in case reviews and • Increase awareness of the importance of the
determining clients’ disposition. For example, pretrial setting in promoting clients’ suc
counselors provide regular and periodic cessful recovery.
reports regarding client treatment adherence • Educate the media concerning the effective
and progress. The judge may defer to the ness, usefulness, and importance of provid
counselor’s opinion regarding recommenda ing treatment in pretrial and diversionary
tions for the client’s promotion to different settings.
phases, or graduation from the program, giv
• Demonstrate that the services provided are
ing the counselor additional leverage in moti
effective in reducing substance abuse and
vating clients to engage in treatment.
recidivism.
• Expand treatment options to include brief
Checks and Balances on a interventions and treatment readiness
Counselor’s Influence programs.
The power of the counselor in pretrial and • Consider the effects of treatment on case
diversion settings raises several important processing.
ethical questions. Should counselors be able
146 Chapter 7
Baltimore’s Response to Drugs and Crime
Since the early 1990s, Baltimore, Maryland’s substance abuse prevention and treatment agency, the
Board of Directors of Baltimore Substance Abuse Systems, Inc. (BSAS), has faced a crime rate that is
double the national average, an increase in the spread of infectious diseases, and economic costs of drug
use exceeding $2.5 billion a year. Baltimore’s drug problem is among the worst in the Nation. At least
60,000 Baltimore city residents need alcohol and drug treatment (Smart Steps 2000).
In its efforts to tie high-quality, readily available treatment to comprehensive wraparound services,
BSAS recognizes that outside help is crucial, given the strict limitations on Baltimore’s own budget. To
aid in this effort, neighborhoods across the city have come together to form a Crime and Drugs Solution
Work Group, whose major goal is to improve the quality and quantity of drug treatment. Another orga
nization, the Greater Baltimore Interfaith Clergy Alliance, which represents over 200 congregations in
the region, is working to strengthen community-based treatment services in neighborhoods throughout
the city. Over the past several years, The Baltimore Sun, the city’s major newspaper, has editorialized
frequently to raise awareness of the need to boost the city’s investment in drug treatment. Other local
organizations and foundations have advocated more public funding for treatment, and have even con
tributed their own dollars (Smart Steps 2000).
For more information on Baltimore’s commitment and approach to improving drug treatment, go to
http://www.drugstrategies.org/Baltimore.
148 Chapter 7
ting, and specific services required. of how the other components will access,
Counselors can work with the court to devel share, and use information (Tauber et al.
op consensus-building approaches to deal 1999). Second, when participants sign the
with these critical issues that arise during the consent to disclosure (permitting the coun
course of treatment, with the goal of develop selor to share information from the client’s
ing mechanisms to advise judges regarding the treatment), the MOU can be used to explain
best course of action for an individual’s treat how information will be distributed to the
ment. Decisions regarding diversion to treat criminal justice system. (See alsoæCSAT 2004.)
ment that provide a balanced consideration of The following are the consensus panel’s
public safety needs are complex when offend recommendations for elements that
ers have multiple cases in different courts, should be contained in MOUs.
including noncriminal systems (e.g., family
court, housing court, child welfare cases). • MOUs typically note that discussions at team
Some offenders are already on probation, meetings are confidential, in part because of
parole, or other types of supervision when legal concerns but also to promote trust and
they are arrested. The challenge is then to fairness.
determine and arrange a hierarchy of services
• If outsiders are permitted to attend treat
within multiple systems (e.g., criminal justice,
ment team meetings, the MOU should
treatment, child welfare).
require them to sign an agreement that they
Successful interagency cooperation requires adhere to the confidentiality provisions of
information sharing that is coordinated as the law (redisclosure) and the MOU.
quickly as possible. Establishing commonly • MOUs should state that the prosecutor’s
accepted protocols, such as those required for office will not use information obtained in
sharing information, is also useful in promot the drug treatment to prosecute the partici
ing this coordination. (For information on pant, with two exceptions: child neglect or
confidentiality,æsee CSAT 2004.) Case managers abuse and crimes committed at the treat
who provide wraparound services and work ment center or against treatment personnel.
within both the treatment and justice systems A prosecutor frequently learns of offenses
are also instrumental in improving interagen by participants, particularly drug posses
cy coordination and can address critical sion offenses. In some cases, an offender
issues such as insurance coverage and navi who commits a crime may lose eligibility for
gating through managed care networks. the drug court program (among other possi
ble consequences) but should not be prose
cuted for crimes based on information that
was acquired during the drug court pro
Memorandums of ceedings.
Understanding • The MOU should describe the conditions
MOUs are useful for clarifying who has under which the information can be shared
responsibility for various decisions related to or held confidential.
sanctions, treatment, and case disposition, • The MOU should encourage the free flow of
and under what conditions these decisions information within the drug court team to
can be modified. Effective programs set up promote the drug court’s mission.
MOUs to establish guidelines and procedures
for treating the client, sharing information, • The MOU should include rules governing
and maintaining the confidentiality of infor the storage of, and the access to, written
mation. First, MOUs foster cooperative inter- and electronic records. Federal law
agency relationships by ensuring that each requires such written policies (Tauber et al.
component of the treatment system is aware 1999).
150 Chapter 7
would be more likely to release detainees if Many clinicians believe that offenders who
they required periodic drug testing because have not been able to access drug treatment
this condition of release would act as a system should not be punished for testing positive.
for monitoring their behavior. In fact, this Nonetheless, use of drug testing alone without
has not happened. Second, staff costs and sanctions is sometimes used as an alternative
costs for purchasing drug-testing equipment to treatment and may lead to an individual’s
are substantial. Third, the accuracy of drug exclusion from treatment. The Washington,
testing technology is not perfect. False-posi D.C., Drug Court provides drug testing and
tive results can have serious consequences for sanctions without drug treatment. This com
a defendant, and given the number of drug bination of sanctions without treatment is
tests an offender is required to take over the referred to as the “Coerced Abstinence
course of 6 months, the chances of receiving Model.” The D.C. Drug Court does demon
at least one false-positive result can be signifi strate reduced recidivism, though the impact
cant. Finally, mandatory drug testing raises on drug use is unclear (Belenko 1990).
constitutional issues of due process, self-
incrimination, and unnecessary search and
seizure. Resources
Pretrial drug testing is considered a search
under the Fourth Amendment to the U.S.
Examples of Diversion
Constitution. Court rulings have determined Programs
that it complies with due process when collec These programs, in the view of the consensus
tion and testing procedures meet the legal test panel, exemplify effective diversion programs.
of reasonableness (Bureau of Justice While some are still in operation in 2005, oth
Assistance 1999). From the treatment per ers are not.
spective, however, part of the difficulty with
drug testing is that it can only flag the pres
ence or absence of certain drugs. It cannot Brooklyn Drug Treatment
discriminate between chronic and casual Alternative to Prison (DTAP)
users—between those with a substance use
disorder who would benefit from treatment
Program
and those who are experimenters. The Brooklyn Drug Treatment Alternative to
Prison program was established by Kings
Drug testing alone does not provide enough County District Attorney Charles J. Hynes in
information to make decisions about pretrial 1990 to divert nonviolent felony offenders
release or detention or referral for treatment. with one or more prior felony convictions and
Rather, these results should be combined with a documented history of drug abuse into
other information available in the pretrial treatment. Although DTAP started as a
setting or from a thorough clinical assess deferred prosecution model, in 1998 the
ment. Drug testing is, however, a necessary DTAP shifted to a deferred sentencing model
and useful adjunct for monitoring offenders’ (Kings County District Attorney’s Office
compliance with conditions. As an intermedi 2001).
ate sanction, drug testing often decreases
drug use among offenders. Although drug DTAP’s target population includes nonviolent
testing and sanctions alone are limited in felons who, under New York State’s Second-
what they can provide, there are some indi Felony Offender Law, face a mandatory
viduals who will stop using drugs if they are prison sentence. Defendants accepted into
tested. DTAP have their sentences deferred while
undergoing 15–24 months of rigorous, inten
sive drug treatment. Those who successfully
152 Chapter 7
Assistance for drug treat Substance Abuse and Mental
ment courts Health Services
The National Association of Drug Court Administration
Professionals (NADCP) is the main member To help States break the pattern of incarcera
organization that provides advocacy and sup tion without treatment and reduce the high rate
port for the development of drug treatment of recidivism, SAMHSA provides grants for
courts throughout the country. The group has diversion and reentry programs for adolescents,
an extensive training and technical assistance teens, and adults with substance use and mental
program with experience in planning and disorders. These grant programs focus on treat
implementing drug courts and establishing ment as well as housing, vocational and employ
community linkages with law enforcement. A ment services, and long-term supports. For
network of 27 mentor drug courts uses practi more information go to http://www.samhsa.gov.
tioners to act as resources at meetings and
conferences and onsite visits. (For more
information, see the NADCP Web site at Bureau of
http://www.nadcp.org/.) Justice SAMHSA
Assistance provides grants
Other pretrial diversion (BJA)
models The BJA in the U.S. for diversion and
• Phoenix, Arizona’s and Eugene, Oregon’s Department of
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Justice is authorized reentry programs
Administration (SAMHSA) Diversion by Congress under
Projects (for co-occurring disorders) the Edward Byrne for adolescents,
• Jacksonville, Florida, Drug Court (pays for Memorial State and
aftercare) Local Law
teens, and adults
Enforcement
• Pensacola, Florida, Drug Court (serves as Assistance Program
“mentor” court for other drug treatment to make grants to with substance use
courts) States in order to
• San Bernardino, California, Drug Court improve the func and mental
(higher level of supervision and services pro tioning of the local
vided for the most serious offenders) criminal justice sys- disorders.
• Reno, Nevada, Family Drug Court (one of tem. The program
the earliest family/dependency drug courts) places emphasis on
violent crimes and
• South Carolina’s statewide diversion program
serious offenders, and the enforcement of
• Various sites participating in the SAMHSA State and local laws that establish offenses
Jail Diversion project similar to those in the Federal Controlled
Substances Act. The Drug Court Grant
Program Resources Program in the BJA administers financial and
The following resources include instructional as technical assistance and training to State,
well as financial assistance. local, and tribal governments and jurisdic
tions to develop and implement drug treat
ment courts. (Additional information is avail
able at http://www.BJA.gov.)
154 Chapter 7
housing, transportation, economic support, • Few studies have examined treatment ser
and vocational placement and training. vices in pretrial and diversionary settings.
Counselors should consider use of brief Further research could help identify and
interventions that are based on early identi reduce gaps in services, identify beneficial
fication of substance abuse treatment and services, inform clinicians regarding useful
other urgent needs. and effective changes, evaluate program
• Drug courts and other diversion programs effectiveness, and assist in providing pro
hold considerable promise for engaging and gram funding.
retaining offenders who have substance use • More research is needed to determine the
disorders and for reducing substance abuse economic costs and benefits of treatment
and criminal recidivism during periods of interventions at the pretrial stage. Intensive
program participation and following pro and long-term programs that target first-
gram completion. time or low-risk offenders are not likely to
• Providing access to continuing involvement be cost-effective. At the same time, limited
in community recovery services is essential nonintensive interventions for chronic seri
to maximize the long-term impact of pretri ous offenders are also unlikely to be cost-
al and diversion programs. effective.
• Diversion programs for those with co-occur
ring disorders are most effective when they
provide integrated treatment for mental dis
orders and substance use disorders (Broner
et al. 2002).
Overview
In This
This chapter addresses treatment options that can be provided for jail
Chapter…
inmates with substance use disorders who are incarcerated for relative
ly short periods of time. This chapter discusses treatment issues specific
Definitions to jails through an examination of what constitutes a jail, who is incar
cerated in jail, how and when substance abuse treatment can be provid
Trends
ed, and what types of treatment are effective in this setting.
Treatment Services in
Recommendations are made regarding the treatment services that can
Jails
be provided within the physical, legal, and policy confines of a jail; and,
finally, the treatment interventions that are best suited for brief, short-
Description of the
term, and long-term periods of jail treatment. This is followed by an
Population
overview of the larger systems that affect treatment in a jail setting.
Key Issues Related to
Lastly, the chapter outlines the research, provides examples of existing
Treatment
programs, and makes recommendations for the treatment of substance
abuse in jails and detention centers. It should be noted that this chapter
What Treatment Services
addresses diversion only as it relates to the jail population. For more
Can Reasonably Be
information on diversion, see chapter 7.
Provided in a Jail
Setting?
Coordination of Jail
Definitions
Treatment Services
Jails (also called detention centers) house diverse groups of people
detained for a wide variety of reasons. Jails confine people during the
Examples of Jail
adjudication process (i.e., arraignment, criminal court, grand jury,
Treatment Programs
hearings, trial, sentencing). These individuals are referred to as
Research Related to Jail
detainees and have not yet been sentenced. Jails also confine those sen
Treatment
tenced to short-term incarceration (usually 1 year or less) and serve as
a holding facility for
Recommendations for
• Individuals who have allegedly violated probation, parole, or bail condi
Treatment Providers
tions
• Those who are absconding from court-ordered programs or other com
munity placements
• Juveniles who are awaiting transfer to juvenile authorities or adult State
prisons
157
Defining a Jail
For the purposes of the Jail Manager Certification Program only, the American Jail Association defines a
jail as
1. A county, municipal, or regional facility(ies) that houses pretrial and sentenced inmates and/or an
institution that houses pretrial and sentenced inmates where the State is responsible for jail opera-
tion(s) (e.g., Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Rhode Island, Vermont); and/or a private facil
ity that houses pretrial and sentenced inmates and exists to serve the local jail needs of the communi
ty in which it operates.
AND/OR
2. A facility that houses only pretrial detainees, regardless of what entity operates it. This includes, but
is not limited to, facilities that house people for less than 72 hours (lockups); facilities that house
Federal or military custody inmates awaiting trial (e.g., the Immigration and Naturalization Services,
U.S. Marshals, Armed Forces); institutions where the State is responsible for the operations of jails,
and private facilities.
AND/OR
3. A local government or private facility that houses convicted people who, without this facility’s exis
tence, would serve their sentence in the local jurisdiction’s jail (e.g., Milwaukee County House of
Correction).
A facility is not a jail if its purpose is to house sentenced inmates
1. Who are, or who would be under normal circumstances, incarcerated in a State institution
2. Who are, or who would be under normal circumstances, incarcerated in a Federal institution
These institutions include State prisons, Federal prisons, Texas State Jails, State work camps, and State
boot camps.
• Inmates awaiting transfer to State, Federal, inmates, while those incarcerated in large,
or other local authorities complex systems have less chance of being
• Inmates transferred from overcrowded housed with someone they know.
Federal, State, or other prisons
• Individuals detained by the military Trends
• Those held for protective custody
Several recent trends have led to changes in
• People punished for contempt the jail population. Enactment of harsher
• Witnesses detained by the court sentencing laws for drug offenses has led to
• People with mental illness pending transfer to increases in the number of minority and
appropriate mental health facilities (Harlow female inmates. At the same time, significant
1998) ly reduced funding for the mental health care
system has led to an increase in the number
The approximately 3,365 jails in the United of multiproblem inmates (National GAINS
States (Stephan 2001) range in size from small Center 2002; Peters 1993; Peters et al. 1997).
jails located in rural areas to large jails typical
ly located in or near large urban areas. The As a result of these changes, jails house grow
sociodynamics of jails vary according to size. ing numbers of individuals who have been
For example, inmates housed in jails that serve displaced from traditional societal “safety
rural communities often are familiar with other nets” such as State hospitals. By necessity,
jails have enlarged the scope of their mission
158 Chapter 8
to serve as community “gatekeepers” in iden
tifying and addressing a range of psychosocial
Treatment Services
problems, such as HIV/AIDS, domestic vio in Jails
lence, educational deficits, homelessness, Findings from several studies indicate the
mental illness, and, increasingly, substance effectiveness of in-jail substance abuse treat
use disorders (Peters and Matthews 2002). ment programs in reducing criminal recidi
Substance use disorders among the jail popu vism (Peters and Matthews 2002). Reductions
lation have risen since the 1980s. In 1989, 67 in rearrests for treated inmates range from 5
percent of jail inmates had committed a drug percent to 25 percent in comparison to
offense or used drugs regularly. By May 1998, untreated inmates, over followup periods of 6
that number had increased to 70 percent— months to 5 years. Treated inmates also have
approximately 7 in 10 jail inmates. An esti a longer duration to rearrest following release
mated 16 percent committed their offense to from incarceration, relative to untreated
obtain money for drugs (Wilson 2000). inmates. Other positive outcomes associated
Increases in jail substance abuse treatment with in-jail treatment include reduced rates of
programs have not kept up with this trend relapse among treatment participants (Tucker
(Belenko and Peugh 1998; Peters and 1998), lower levels of depression (San
Matthews 2002). In recent years, however, Francisco County Sheriff’s Office Department
levels of substance use and abuse seem to 1996), and fewer disciplinary infractions
have stabilized or even decreased slightly (Tunis et al. 1997). Cost savings associated
depending on the substance in question. In with jail treatment programs have been
2002, 66 percent of jail inmates reported reg reported from $156,000 to $1.4 million per
ular alcohol use (down from 66.3 percent in year (Center for Substance Abuse Research
1996) and 68.7 percent reported regular illicit 1992; Hughey and Klemke 1996).
drug use (up from 64.2 percent in 1996), with Despite the positive outcomes associated with
regular use defined as use at least once a in-jail treatment, two-thirds of jails do not
week for a month or more (James 2004). offer treatment (excluding such ancillary ser
Jails often serve as the first opportunity for vices as assessment, self-help groups, and
offenders to have their substance use disorder educational programming) (Substance Abuse
and other problems (e.g., other mental disor and Mental Health Services Administration
ders) identified, to have their acute needs sta [SAMHSA] 2000). About two-thirds have self-
bilized (e.g., detoxification from alcohol or help programs and about 30 percent have
opioids), and to receive referrals to in-house detoxification programs. Of jail inmates who
or community services (Peters and Matthews reported ever having used drugs, only one in
2002). In fact, many offenders’ initiation into eight had participated in any treatment (even
treatment is in jail (Mumola 1999). Thus, the broadly defined) since their admission, and
challenge to jail administrators is two-fold: to most of those reported were self-help pro
recognize the need for treatment and to grams (Wilson 2000).
understand that treatment must vary based
on the population (e.g., by culture, average
length of stay, type of crimes, psychosocial
Description of the
needs). Population
At midyear 2003, local jails held or super
vised 762,672 people, of whom approximately
10 percent (71,371) were outside the jail facil
ity (e.g., under electronic monitoring, in out
side treatment programs, on work release,
etc.); this figure represented a 3.9 percent
160 Chapter 8
hol (38.5 percent) and/or illicit drugs (33.2 grams such as self-help and educational
percent) at the time of their offense than groups for alcohol abuse, compared with 62
African Americans (29.3 percent and 27.3 percent of probationers who receive these ser
percent respectively) or Hispanics/Latinos vices. Only 4 percent of those jailed for DWI
(30.1 percent and 23.8 percent respectively) receive any type of alcohol abuse treatment
(James 2004). including detoxification or counseling
(Maruschak 1999a).
Substance Abuse
A history of drug use is a common character HIV Status
istic of the jail population, although patterns At midyear 2002, 1.3 percent of jail inmates
of use have changed somewhat in recent who reported their test results were known to
years. Compared to jail inmates in 1996, be HIV positive (Maruschak 2004), rates far
inmates in 2002 reported more use of mari in excess of those within the general popula
juana, depressants, stimulants (other than tion (Centers for
cocaine), and hallucinogens in the month Disease Control and
prior to the offense and less use of cocaine Prevention 2004a).
and heroin/opioids. As noted earlier, in 2002, Between 1998 and The percentage of
66 percent of jail inmates reported regular 1999, AIDS-related
alcohol use and 68.7 percent reported regular deaths accounted for those who partici
illicit drug use. Approximately 35 percent of 8.5 percent of all
all convicted males and 31 percent of females deaths in jails mak- pate in substance
reported that they had been drinking alcohol ing it the third lead
when they committed their offenses (James ing cause of death in abuse treatment
2004). Of convicted jail inmates who were jails (death by natu
actively involved with drugs, 72 percent were ral causes was the programs in jails
on criminal justice status at the time of their leading cause of
arrest (i.e., were on probation or parole, had death, followed by
varies widely.
pretrial status, were out on bail, or had suicide) (Maruschak
escaped) (Wilson 2000). 2001). However, the
number of AIDS-
The percentage of those who participate in related deaths in
substance abuse treatment programs in jails jails decreased from 9 per 100,000 inmates in
varies widely. The average population is 2000 to 6 per 100,000 in 2002 (Maruschak
young, male, and, like the general jail popu 2004).
lation, fairly evenly distributed between
African Americans (42 percent) and In 2002, 3 percent of African-American
Caucasians (39 percent). The majority of par women, 2.9 percent of Hispanic/Latino
ticipants (58 percent) are ordered to treat inmates (both male and female), 1.6 percent
ment programs as a condition of their sen of Caucasian women, 1 percent of African-
tence, and most have prior felony convictions American men, and .6 percent of Caucasian
(Peters and Matthews 2002). The percentage men reported testing positive for HIV.
of jail inmates who used alcohol or other African-American men, however, made up the
drugs regularly participating in some type of largest number (163,219) of HIV-positive jail
substance abuse treatment (including self- inmates (Maruschak 2004).
help group participation) after arrest has
increased from 12.3 percent in 1996 to 15.1
percent in 2002 (James 2004). Among inmates
jailed for driving while intoxicated (DWI)
offenses, only 17 percent are involved in pro
162 Chapter 8
Key Issues Related to involvement with individuals who often cycle
through a variety of community services and
Treatment agencies, jails are ideally situated to develop
Several factors affect the availability and partnerships to improve community services.
effectiveness of treatment in jails. It has been Many jails have worked to establish “beach
the experience of consensus panel members heads” to develop healthcare services, pre
that treatment, if available at all, may not be vention and education programs, and voca
offered to those in need because the methods tional services, particularly for “high-risk”
for screening and selecting treatment partici groups such as the homeless, those with
pants may not be comprehensive. For some HIV/AIDS, and inmates with co-occurring
inmates, the length of jail stay may be too mental disorders. Jails can serve a pivotal
short for substance abuse interventions. role in engaging family members, peers, and
Others, especially those in pretrial status, community organizations in supporting sub
may decline to participate. Even when ser stance abuse treatment and the recovery
vices are available, they are not always efforts of inmates who are enrolled in treat
responsive to the inmates’ psychological, ment services. Jails can also help facilitate
social, medical, and mental health needs, and partnerships between community groups and
some inmates have special needs that are too local corrections for the purpose of identify
complex to be addressed fully in brief or ing, treating, and referring (through diver
short-term treatment. sion or aftercare) inmates with substance use
disorders, and reinforce the concept that
This section addresses factors unique to jails “treatment works.”
that the consensus panel believes can impact
the availability and/or effectiveness of treat
ment. See chapter 5 for more general issues Time Constraints
affecting treatment. One of the most serious challenges for sub
stance abuse treatment in jails is the small
amount of time available, both in terms of
Public Perceptions About Jails scheduling treatment and in terms of the
Although jails are designed to improve public duration of jail incarceration (Leukefeld and
safety and to provide punishment through the Tims 1992). Many pretrial inmates are
short-term detention of defendants and con housed in jail for only short periods of time.
victed inmates, they are sometimes perceived Time constraints are a particularly significant
negatively by the public. A negative percep factor given that research shows a correlation
tion can affect the morale and attitudes of jail between treatment effectiveness and length of
staff, particularly relating to treatment ser time spent in treatment (Swartz et al. 1996).
vices. The community may not realize that
jails hold a significant number of individuals A jail must operate on a schedule that
who are arrested for low-level, nonviolent includes periods of time during which inmates
charges; that many offenses committed by jail are locked-in for inmate count for meals or
inmates are related to their substance abuse other structured activities (e.g., work). Thus,
and/or mental health problems; and that most despite the importance of time spent in treat
will return to their community within a short ment, programs must compete for the
amount of time. inmate’s time. Some jails offer evening pro
gramming, but this is sometimes difficult to
Through their work with local community arrange and substantially increases staffing
agencies, treatment staff can assist in dis costs. Due to scheduling constraints within
pelling misperceptions and increase the sense jails, an inmate may have to decide between
of inclusion of the jail as part of the commu enrolling in a treatment or an educational
nity’s network of services. Because of their program.
164 Chapter 8
or new criminal charge during
detention. Knowledge of the Advice to the Counselor:
gangs in the jail may allow the Jailed Clients
counselor to foresee which activ
• Counselors should be aware of gang affiliations as well
ities could be used to inflame
as the jail’s policy regarding who should participate in
rival gangs, to set clear group
certain groups. This knowledge may allow the counselor
rules for activities, and to clear
to foresee which activities could be used to inflame gang
ly define the counselor’s role of
rivalries, set clear group rules for activities, and balance
balancing security and facility
security with good treatment practices.
rules with good treatment prac
tices, thereby avoiding sending
mixed messages to the inmate or processes, or diversion planning), or the sta
placing him- or herself at odds with correc tus of the case can rapidly shift and the
tions. detainee may be suddenly released from jail.
Often there is little communication between
the court, jail staff, and treatment staff,
Stress Related to Incarceration which has direct impact on the therapeutic
A number of issues beyond the individual’s relationship, as the detainee’s legal status is a
readiness for treatment can affect his engage major concern.
ment in the treatment process within a jail
setting. Many of the stressors identified in Defense attorneys do not always visit clients
chapter 5 are present in jails, including trau while they are in jail, with brief visits often
ma related to the recent arrest, uncertainty of occurring at court prior to the stressful and
the legal situation, and possible loss of a job sometimes confusing court proceedings.
or custody of children. Counselors are in a Further, for those detainees who reach out to
position to assist the client in developing cop peers for support, information is often inac
ing mechanisms to address substance abuse curate and can increase their sense of urgen
issues within the context of multiple internal cy and hopelessness. Due to the wide variety
and external stressors, to clarify which issues of populations incarcerated in jails, detainees
can be addressed while incarcerated within may learn about scenarios that are not rele
the bounds of certain timeframes, and to vant to their own case processes.
make referrals to other jail or community ser Attorneys do not always recognize the bene
vices to address non–substance-abuse-related fits of treatment and may not encourage the
issues and to facilitate continuity of treatment inmate’s involvement in treatment. For exam
from jail into the community (e.g., legal and ple, due to heavy caseloads, many public
medical problems, education, vocational defenders do not take the time to advise
training or work programs, diversion or clients about how treatment could benefit
aftercare programs). See chapter 7 for a more them. In some jurisdictions, the appointed
detailed discussion of interpersonal issues fac defense counsel may not be from the public
ing recent arrestees. defender’s office and may not be aware of
diversionary or other treatment options.
Issues Related to Justice Despite the presence of substance abuse prob
lems, defense counsel may in some cases be
System Processing and Legal reluctant to advise their client to voluntarily
Representation submit to treatment due to conditions of
The legal process can understandably confuse supervision that are likely to lead to sanctions
detainees, and either this disorientation can and incarceration. The flow of information
persist for a lengthy period (e.g., during between legal and treatment professionals can
adjournments, plea bargaining, competency also be problematic, related to the types of
166 Chapter 8
substance abuse treatment programs and jail develop and cannot be altered in just a few
treatment guidelines (SAMHSA 1996). There weeks. Figure 8-1 (p. 168) outlines optimal
is still a need, however, for more specific treatment components that might be deployed
guidelines that can be operationalized by at each level, followed by a more detailed
local jails. The American Correctional explanation of each. Each successive level of
Association (ACA) and the National treatment in this layered approach includes
Commission on Correctional Health Care service components from previous levels.
(NCCHC) have standards related to jails, but
they are extremely limited in the area of sub Regardless of the duration of treatment, com
stance use, and far less specific and detailed plicating factors for those in jail include co-
than those developed for mental health ser occurring medical problems and histories of
vices in jail. No specific guidelines have been physical and sexual abuse, unstable relation
adopted for substance abuse treatment in jail, ships and social support structures, poverty,
nor do existing standards account for the homelessness, gender, and cultural differ
elaborate contextual and environmental fac ences, among others.
tors affecting treatment in jail settings. Combinations of
factors can interact
There is currently no single prototype for jail differently with any Support and
substance abuse treatment programs, but of these subpopula
rather a range of available programs that tions, have implica- continued
vary in content and intensity according to the tions for treatment
inmates’ length of stay (Leukefeld and Tims strategies, and have professional
1992; Peters and Matthews 2002). Some an impact on treat
detainees are in jail less than a week, during ment outcomes. development can
which they may receive only assessment and Consequently, when
referral, whereas others are serving a sen designing or adapt- reduce therapist
tence in a jail setting. Several different dura ing treatment pro
tions of treatment are discussed in this section grams, it is impor
to examine the range of treatment options tant to factor in
burnout and
that might be provided in jail. In this section these variables along
the panel recommends a framework by which with the substance increase treatment
to identify priority treatment services, given a choice patterns of
defined period of time available to provide use and types of pre- efficacy.
treatment services for inmates. For purposes vious treatment and
of this section, “brief” treatment is defined as services.
up to 30 days, “short-term” treatment is
defined as from 1 to 3 months, and “long
term” treatment is defined as 3 months and Level I: Brief Treatment
longer. Regardless of the duration of treat Some offenders may be identified within a
ment, however, the goal should always be to short period of jail detention for involvement in
engage clients so that treatment and recovery community diversion programs that include
can continue when they leave jail. Issues of participation in treatment. For many other
screening and assessment, regardless of the inmates who are incarcerated 30 days or less,
setting, are discussed in chapter 2. case management, referral, and brief interven
tions can be provided. Brief treatment usually
Treatment intensity and duration are increased focuses on supplying information and making
with length of stay, as is the scope of topics that referrals.
can be addressed. More intensive treatment
services are often necessary, given that the sub
stance abusing lifestyle has taken years to
168 Chapter 8
quences of substance abuse. Other useful released back to the community with their
exercises include the Decision Matrix, which numerous needs unchanged and/or unmet.
looks at advantages and disadvantages of con Clients can be referred to Alcoholics
tinued substance use from the client’s per Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous
spective and at the benefits of choosing to dis (NA) groups, and counselors can provide help
continue use. This helps identify functional with finding job training programs, general
aspects of their substance use (e.g., socializa educational programs, clothing, food, and
tion, reduction of negative emotions) that sus public assistance. Before this information is
tain patterns of use, and that may serve as presented to inmates, however, counselors
barriers to continued abstinence and involve must check to see that an agency will accept
ment in treatment. referrals from the criminal justice system,
and assess eligibility criteria. Some programs
have developed resource directories with
Substance abuse education descriptions of community services programs
Because inmates may not have examined the and relevant contact information.
negative health consequences related to sub
stance abuse, an educational component can Facilitating access to
inform and possibly change risky behaviors.
Films, presentations, and literature can be
community services
used to present this education. The ultimate Incentives can be established for substance
goal of treatment is abstinence, but people abuse treatment staff to enter jails to work
who have abused substances long-term have with inmates enrolled in treatment. One step
had difficulty successfully addressing issues is to develop contract language that identifies
jail inmates as a priority group to receive
such as boredom, anxiety, social discomfort,
publicly funded substance abuse treatment
and being ostracized by family and peers.
services. Another is to establish funding for
health benefits. In New York City, for exam
ple, an inmate’s Medicaid eligibility in a com
Information on available
munity program can be reinstated while the
community resources inmate is still in jail so the paperwork is
Community resource information ranges from ready when that inmate is released; a similar
how to obtain a restraining order to what system has also been developed for establish
community organizations offer substance ing temporary Medicaid coverage. Some com
abuse treatment. Counselors in the pretrial munity organizations may be less resistant to
setting need to be aware of their community’s taking on former inmates as clients if these
resources in order to assist their clients after individuals are receiving Medicaid support.
release. Many of these individuals will be Once a health problem or mental illness is
A Voice of Experience
I believe that jail administrators have an obligation to provide the programs by which inmates can better
themselves, and this includes alcohol and drug abuse programs. But in South Carolina—and only in South
Carolina—anyone sentenced to more than 90 days, with the exception of family court, goes to State prison.
The rest come here. Consequently, with this small average length of stay, it’s very difficult to justify the sig
nificant commitment of resources that are needed with such a revolving door atmosphere.
A Voice of Experience
Since 1993, the Clark County (NV) Drug Court’s 1,725 graduates have experienced only a 17 percent recidi
vism rate—as compared with the 80 percent recidivism rate of people addicted to drugs who are released
from jails or prisons. According to our drug court judge, this is the best method so far to treat people
addicted to drugs. I agree. To have an impact on substance abuse in the jail population, an approach of
long-term, high-quality treatment with community follow-up is the answer.
170 Chapter 8
A Voice of Experience
I am a psychologist working in a jail. We learned that our policy of stopping methadone “cold turkey”
resulted in a very high frequency of booking recidivist inmates on drug charges related to heroin. So, work
ing with our County Executive, we stopped withdrawing and stopped the practice of “stopping” on Sundays.
Now, if someone comes in, they continue, and we encourage agencies to send their case manager into the jail
and make plans for the inmate’s release, so there is no gap ... What we’ve noticed is—we have very, very
few bookings of individuals who were taking methadone. But we haven’t reached the point of initiating
methadone treatment—that would be our next step. And I think that would be a great idea, because every
body is so happy with what we’ve been doing.
—Lawrence W. Smith, Ph.D.
Psychiatric Services Administrator
King County (WA) Department of Adult and Juvenile Detention
mental health problems and ongoing medica and urges are tied into relapse prevention.
tion regimens. They can also complete exercises to identify
personal “substance use triggers” and review
For a significant number of inmates with a strategies for avoiding and dealing with these
history of opioid abuse, review of existing opi triggers. For example, group discussion may
oid substitution medications will also be quite focus on what inmates may expect when
useful, including methadone, levo-alpha returning to their families, who may not fully
acetyl-methadol, buprenorphine, and other support their involvement in recovery. While
medications used in detoxification from or support from non–substance-using family
reduction of opioid use. There has not been members can be an enormous contribution to
widespread use of these medications in jails, help the client stay clean and sober after
primarily because they are seen as potential release, reunification with family members is
sources of contraband, prolonging physical often accompanied by stress related to the
dependence on opioids, and requiring special family’s distrust and anger over the offend
ized medical supervision. er’s past substance use, unresolved conflicts
with the partner or spouse, shifting parental
Level II: Short-Term Treatment roles, and added financial obligations (Peters
1993). Returning to live with family members
Level II, short-term treatment (approximately who actively use substances or who condone
4–12 weeks in duration) enables greater depth substance use within the home creates addi
of involvement in the treatment process. Short- tional high-risk situations for the offender. In
term treatment is built upon the previously some cases, return to the home environment
described basic Level I services. Level II or can trigger a relapse. Counselors should
short-term treatment interventions provide assess the home situation and possibly exam
more focus on coping skills to prevent sub ine alternative housing arrangements.
stance use and sustain recovery. Counselors may instruct clients that certain
areas of town (e.g., drug neighborhoods) are
“no-fly” zones and that they will be violating
Substance cravings, urges,
conditions of their treatment program and/or
and relapse prevention supervision if they frequent those parts of
Inmates learn about actions that can trigger town.
their substance cravings and how cravings
172 Chapter 8
that arise in personal relationships, whether work the next day. If that individual’s
at work or in the home. response did not improve the situation, others
in the group might indicate what they would
do when faced with a similar situation: “I
Anger management would avoid the situation,” “I’d try to ignore
These activities can help inmates recognize him,” “When he asked me something, I’d get
when they feel angry, identify some of the defensive.” The purpose of this exercise is to
causes of their anger, and learn to use alter identify effective ways to proceed. An effec
native problemsolving techniques to help tive response that could result in desirable
manage their anger. These interventions are responses and outcomes might be, “I went in
also helpful in understanding the connection to ask my boss if I
between anger and substance abuse, given could speak with
that poorly managed anger often precipitates him for a minute, Strengths building
substance abuse. apologized, gave him
the reason for the identifies and uses
tardiness, and made
Domestic violence a commitment not to
the assets that
In these cases, short-term strategies are have this happen
developed to maintain personal safety for vic again.” This
tims of domestic violence and protect chil approach is most clients bring to the
dren, and longer term solutions are consid effective when coun
ered that involve legal and law enforcement selors make use of treatment
action. Having staff who are aware of avail real-life issues, role-
able community shelter and domestic abuse playing, and group program to
counseling services is also helpful. interaction.
improve their
Problemsolving Social skills chances for
These skills allow people to address and solve training
their own everyday problems in a rational Social skills training successful
manner by defining those problems and can be provided
examining potential solutions. Inmates can recovery.
independently or as
begin by talking about problems they have
part of modules
encountered in the past, how they tried to
solve them, and whether their efforts succeed related to problem-
ed or failed. Then they can examine problems solving and anger management. This training
they have solved in a positive manner. can help inmates deal appropriately with
Inmates learn how to select a solution ratio coworkers, family members, and friends. The
nally, instead of emotionally or acting out process includes acquiring and rehearsing
immediately. This requires that they learn drug-free and prosocial skills to deal with
how to take time to look at a problem, weigh interpersonal problems faced during recov
the advantages of alternate solutions, and ery. Key components include communication
anticipate their effects. skills, assertiveness, skills for developing and
Discussions involving real incidents of prob sustaining interpersonal relationships, and
lemsolving can help inmates articulate meth specific drug coping skills to handle high-risk
ods of problemsolving that typically produce interpersonal situations. Other areas include
success. For example, a client might describe conflict management and learning interper
an argument with his employer, and how he sonal skills related to work, family, and com
or she intentionally arrived 15 minutes late to munity settings.
—Tim Ryan
Santa Clara County (CA) Department of Correction
President-Elect, American Jail Association
174 Chapter 8
A Voice of Experience
Both short-term and long-term substance abuse treatment programs in jails are most effective when accom
panied by aftercare within the community upon release. Inmates will readily volunteer to participate in
treatment programs within the confines of the jail. However, few inmates will participate in voluntary post-
release care. To be effective, the post-release aftercare should be mandatory with ongoing monitoring and
testing by drug courts.
band, limits on visitation, glass barriers interpersonal relationships and lead to con
between mother and child, and having staff flict with others and involvement in criminal
members monitor the visits, which often have behavior. Inmates frequently do not see the
a negative impact on family relationships. For connection between their criminal behavior
some issues related to the family, it is impor and these patterns of thinking or belief sys
tant to have the family present. tems. By identifying and challenging mal
adaptive criminal thinking patterns such as
There are innovative jail programs that work generalizations, absolutes, exaggerations, and
with the inmate and child welfare agency to lies, offenders can become more critical in
create specific visit times for father or moth their thinking and question the thoughts that
er, caseworker, and child in order to stream lead to their criminal behaviors. A number of
line visit procedures for agencies (City of New structured curricula have been developed for
York 2001). Such models may be able to be this purpose that blend cognitive and behav
used for other types of family meetings. ioral approaches that are consonant with
other skills approaches used in jail-based
Co-occurring disorders substance abuse treatment programs. For
more information on criminal thinking, see
Longer term treatment provides the opportu chapter 5.
nity for learning about the interrelated
nature of substance abuse and mental disor
ders, including events leading up to relapse of Coordination of Jail
tions include psychiatric consultation to The consensus panel believes that in order to
review medications, education regarding men operate a successful jail drug treatment pro
tal disorders, and development of transition gram, cooperation is needed between funding
plans for followup mental health and sub sources, the community, substance abuse
stance abuse services in the community. counselors, criminal justice personnel, out
Treatment of individuals with co-occurring side agencies, and the offender, among oth
substance use disorders and mental illness is ers. This section is based on the experiences
discussed in greater detail in chapter 5. of consensus panel members and highlights
some of the potential barriers involved in
coordinating jail treatment services, then dis
Criminal thinking cusses a number of possible solutions to bar
Many inmates have developed ingrained pat riers that are frequently encountered while
terns of thinking that contribute to poor implementing these services.
Figure 8-2
Goals of the Treatment and Corrections Systems in the Jail Setting
Goals of Treatment System Goals of Corrections System Shared Goals
Behavior change Safety of inmates Reducing crime
176 Chapter 8
jail treatment resources may mirror the Prioritizing substance abuse
underfunding of treatment in the community.
Jail treatment programs may even compete
treatment for traditional
with, or be viewed as competing with, commu versus special needs
nity resources. populations
If a community surveys the needs of its jail Because of scarce resources, many jails find
population, scarce treatment resources can be that they must prioritize how to allocate
allocated in a way that is most effective. Jails treatment services for inmates with differing
with adequate resources can develop both levels of treatment needs. One major issue is
specialized and generalized substance abuse whether to target populations that require
treatment services. Jails with fewer resources specialized care and that are at greater risk
may choose to divide resources between iden for relapse, criminal recidivism, and high uti
tification and referral to community pro lization of community services (e.g., chroni
grams for inmates who have various co-occur cally mentally ill, mentally retarded, or
ring disorders and problems (e.g., people homeless inmates) or to focus resources on
with severe mental illness, the homeless), and inmates with more traditional substance
providing traditional treatment services to abuse treatment needs. There are advantages
inmates whose primary problem is their sub and disadvantages related to targeting one
stance use disorder. group in favor of another. The consensus
panel recommends that jails assess their own
To more efficiently focus limited resources, resources available for treatment and the
the consensus panel suggests that jail-based scope of subpopulations with special treat
substance abuse treatment programs have ment needs to devise a plan that ideally would
clear goals and objectives tied to reasonable address the needs of both groups. Figure 8-3
outcomes, given the limitations imposed by (p. 178) compares the advantages and disad
the correctional setting. For example, if the vantages of prioritizing substance abuse treat
goal of jail treatment is to reduce inmates’ ment services for traditional and special
negative health consequences related to their needs populations.
substance abuse (e.g., HIV risk), the program
would be constructed somewhat differently
than if the goal were for maintenance of sus Promote understanding of
tained abstinence following release from cus institutional security rules
tody. Jail treatment programs have found it and confidentiality
useful to enlist the help of multiple stakehold
er groups that can offer additional resources requirements
both in the institution and during transition An incomplete understanding of the rules
to the community. related to confidentiality of substance abuse
treatment information and to the security
guidelines within the institution may lead to
Solutions for Coordinating conflict between correctional and treatment
Jail-Based Treatment Services staff and may reduce the effectiveness and
There are a number of ways substance abuse credibility of the treatment program. For
treatment providers can work to improve ser example, counselors may unwittingly bring
vices for people in jails and overcome the materials into the jail for treatment purposes
barriers described above. These are discussed that could be considered contraband by secu
in the sections that follow. rity staff or may make promises to inmates
regarding scheduled activities, visitation, tele
phone calls, or other privileges that are not
Can increase outreach Comprehensive multi- Rapid identification of Possibly less effective
to detainees and problem screenings and detainees through charge because intensity of
inmates otherwise not assessments are costly category or urine testing treatment is not matched
identified or provided to inmates’ needs
with treatment
Can reduce correction- Committed space and Interventions reach more Less effective without dis
al officer and inmate specially trained profes inmates crete program space and
injuries by providing sional staff are more experienced, trained staff
stabilization and obser expensive and could
vation of potentially reduce resources to gen-
volatile inmates eral substance abuse
population
Makes more beds avail Requires more aftercare Focuses more resources Not as effective with spe
able through reduced planning staff and coor on substance abuse treat cial needs populations
cycling of “high-risk” dination with community ment who need more intensive
inmates agency visits services
Allows for creation of Allows for direct after Requires aftercare plan
aftercare and commu care and diversion link ning staff, coordination
nity linkages for special age to reduce negative with community agencies,
populations outcomes and increase and coordination with
positive gains courts, and may increase
officer time for court
transportation and
staffing agency visits
allowed. A thorough awareness of the rules ly address and solve potential areas of con
allows the treatment program staff to antici flict related to housing assignments, schedul
pate these difficulties and develop creative ing, reviewing responses to critical incidents
solutions. Treatment counselors should be (e.g., dealing with contraband), information
invited, and be willing, to participate in train sharing, and other aspects of program devel
ing related to security guidelines and meth opment.
ods. Treatment supervisors could also offer
support by advising counselors on techniques
for handling safety concerns and conflict with Improve coordination of
security staff. Finally, treatment and jail information systems
supervisory staff can use cross-disciplinary A lack of coordinated information can be a
meetings and cross-training activities to joint problem for detainees involved in multiple
178 Chapter 8
systems. Several nonproprietary computer within the institution. However, relatively few
ized management information systems have jails provide medication-assisted treatment
been developed for this purpose. This soft for opioids and other drugs. Figure 8-4
ware allows efficient, timely, and continuous (p. 180) describes some of the advantages and
care through treatment matching and fol disadvantages of medication use, for inmates
lowup and may also include data on drug test enrolled in jail substance abuse treatment
results. One model, based on the University programs.
of Maryland’s High Intensity Drug
Trafficking Area Automated Treatment There are legitimate concerns regarding the
Tracking Software (HIDTA-HATTS), enables use of some medications in jails, particularly
substance abuse treatment and criminal jus when there are not adequate healthcare staff
tice personnel to access the same information available to monitor and supervise medication
in making decisions about the client (Taxman use. Pharmacological treatments used in jails
and Sherman 1998). Other proprietary mod should be monitored by a qualified physician
els based on drug courts have expanded their or nurse practitioner. Project KEEP is an
applications to include mental health screens example of a program that integrates pharma
and assessments. Still other jurisdictions have cological treatments with a jail environment
developed mechanisms to share mental health (see p. 181).
and substance abuse database information
between the correctional institution and the Provide for staff
community managed care provider (e.g.,
National GAINS Center 1999c). Each juris development
diction involved in developing these types of Many front-line jails require that staff have
management information systems has worked only a GED or high school diploma and no
out informed consent and differential confi criminal record. While correctional staff
dentiality issues for information sharing. The receive extensive security training, training is
models cited have also developed their work not always provided in working with specific
in the context of multisystem collaboration populations and substance abuse treatment.
and at times through formal consensus-build Cross-training is an effective approach to
ing processes between the key stakeholders have correctional and treatment staff learn
relevant to ensure continuity of treatment from each other about key issues related to
(Broner et al. 2001b). institutional security and rehabilitation.
Correctional officers can benefit from learn
ing about the length, course, and components
Educate staff regarding of substance abuse treatment; effective com-
pharmacotherapies
Some jail administrators resist Advice to the Counselor:
using pharmacotherapy because
they are philosophically opposed Cross-Training
to administering medication • Treatment and corrections staff should learn from each
(e.g., methadone, psychiatric other.
medications) to people with sub
• Counselors in correctional settings can benefit from
stance abuse problems, but most
training in security guidelines, and learning about
jails administer a range of psy
inmate behavior and attitudes.
chiatric medications for inmates
with mental disorders. Most of • Correctional staff can benefit from training in working
these medications are not addic with specific populations, components of substance
tive and do not present a risk abuse treatment, and their role in shaping a therapeutic
for distribution as contraband environment.
munication strategies with treatment staff ate and graduate training, along with a foren
regarding inmate behavior and attitudes; sic certificate, through the New York
involvement in treatment team, group meet University school of social work. Flexible job
ings, and other unit activities; and their role scheduling could help many employees
in shaping a therapeutic environment. improve their education, and providing
Treatment staff can benefit from training course work for credit at the job site would
related to security guidelines, effective com allow jail personnel to work toward under
munication with corrections staff regarding graduate or graduate degrees. Another option
inmate behavior, contraband and other secu is to set aside time for career development on
rity infractions, and their role in maintaining the job—with a few hours per week to take a
the security of the housing unit and the jail. class that will not only help their job perfor
Both corrections and treatment staff can be mance, but will also aid their career progress.
productively involved in identifying critical
incidents that may occur within the jail treat
ment unit, the type of information that needs Developing community and
to be shared between treatment and correc correctional partnerships
tions staff, and methods of resolving these sit Creating partnerships between the jail and
uations. the community can allow for the development
Instituting treatment programs within jails or enhancement of both in-jail treatment pro
creates a unique opportunity for treatment grams and coordination of offenders’ transi
staff to collaborate with jail staff in develop tion into community diversion and aftercare/
ing in-service training programs and to reentry programs. Such a model of coopera
encourage certification and degree training at tion and collaboration exists in many jails in
local universities. For instance, New York the areas of education and health care or in
City offers incentives and tuition reimburse some jails for diversion and aftercare of those
ment for city employees for both undergradu with substance use disorders or other mental
180 Chapter 8
Project KEEP
A significant increase in the number of drug-related arrests in the New York Metropolitan area in 1987
led to overcrowding and unrest at the Correctional Facility on Riker’s Island. In response, researchers
developed a program that serves as both a methadone program and an AIDS prevention initiative.
Called KEEP (Key Extended Entry Program), the program enables opioid-dependent offenders who are
charged with misdemeanors to be maintained on a stable dose of methadone during their stay at Riker’s,
and then receive a referral at release to a participating community methadone program. KEEP, intend
ed to be a route into long-term community drug treatment, aims to break the cycle of illicit drug use and
criminal recidivism. It was one of the first methadone treatment programs of its kind in the United
States for incarcerated persons addicted to heroin (Tomasino et al. 2001). This program allows for a
humane detoxification for offenders who desire it upon entry to jail, and it allows new patients to enroll
in maintenance and to receive treatment in the community. Finally, and most importantly, it provides a
continuity of care upon release from jail to people enrolled in methadone therapy prior to arrest.
Seventy-four to 80 percent of methadone treatment patients discharged to the community, mostly to out
patient KEEP programs, report to their designated program. Recidivism rates show that 79 percent of
KEEP patients were re-incarcerated only once or twice during a recent 11-year period. KEEP data indi
cate the importance of administering sufficient blocking doses of methadone to patients in outpatient
treatment centers in order to eliminate heroin craving and to maintain the patients in treatment. About
6 percent of KEEP patients are at a higher risk for recidivism (e.g., those with co-occurring disorders)
and require specialized treatment (Tomasino et al. 2001).
182 Chapter 8
New Haven, Connecticut, the drug court • Offers a treatment curriculum shaped in
judge orders jail sentences as a sanction and part by results of satisfaction surveys
requests on an individual basis that drug administered to inmates.
court participants receive priority access to
drug treatment and self-help groups during
the ensuing period of jail incarceration King County Jail System,
(Huddleston 1998). For more information on North Rehabilitation Facility,
drug courts and diversion programs, see Stages of Change Program
chapter 7.
(Seattle, Washington)
• Provides an integrated system of
Examples of Jail “wraparound” treatment services.
Treatment Programs • Partially funded through work contracts.
Several innovative components and unique fea • County’s Department of Public Health man
tures of metropolitan jail substance abuse ages the jail.
treatment programs are described in this • Offers screening and triage for inmates
section. placed in the jail for more than 1 week.
• Provides individual sessions with counselors.
Multnomah County Sheriff’s • Offers acupuncture services.
Office In-Jail Intervention • Assigns all inmates to jobs that have the
potential of developing employment skills.
Program (Portland, Oregon)
• Offers a specialized co-occurring mental dis
orders emphasis and features domestic vio Philadelphia Prison System
lence services and a relapse prevention track. OPTIONS Program
• Provides acupuncture treatment to assist (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)
inmates in dealing with cravings and with
• Provides gender-specific programming for
drawal symptoms during the initial stage of
women.
treatment.
• Provides relapse prevention services, com
• Offers an intensive short-term treatment
bined with modules on the “psychology of
program (22 days, 50 hours per week, 1:7
achievement” and entrepreneurship training,
staffing ratio) with significant emphasis on
using motivational and action-oriented strate
aftercare linkage.
gies of Fortune 500 companies.
• Provides transition and linkage services,
• Integrates family therapy sessions in which
which includes driving inmates to communi
families come into the jail.
ty treatment providers (often residential
services), as needed, and picking up medi • Program staff make home visits.
cations and refilling prescriptions prior to • Program staff use videotaped material from
the aftercare placement. jail and home-base settings for inmates and
• Coordinates with community treatment their families.
providers to share information about after • Provides aftercare followup services.
care treatment plans and other records.
• Plans aftercare programs that include case
management and client needs assessment.
184 Chapter 8
following release from jail has also been However, effects of the program on recidivism
found to reduce criminal recidivism (San rates were modest in the year after release.
Francisco County Sheriff’s Office Department Inmates participated in the treatment on a
1996; Swartz et al. 1996). Offenders released voluntary basis in the programs they studied,
from jail are more likely to participate in which consisted of counseling and self-help
aftercare treatment if they have previously groups and aftercare opportunities in the
been involved in a jail treatment program community were extremely limited.
(Taxman and Spinner 1997). Additional training for correctional staff
could have increased their support for
aftercare.
Predictors of Treatment
Outcomes
A number of studies have examined predic
Recommendations for
tors of jail treatment outcomes—what ele Treatment Providers
ments help people finish treatment (“com
The consensus panel believes that to maximize
pleters”) and what elements militate against
the benefits of substance abuse services, treat
completion (“noncompleters”). The most
ment staff working with clients in jails should
important predictor in one study examining
consider the following recommendations:
rearrest during a 1-year follow-up period was
the number of lifetime arrests, although other • Recognize that many people in the communi
psychological indicators and living arrange ty frequently move back and forth from com
ments were also found to be predictors munity to jail and that triage and referral to
(Peters et al. 1993). A similar study (Peters et services can be critical.
al. 1999) found that cocaine users were less • For individuals in community treatment
likely to complete a treatment program than agencies, make staff available to provide ser
alcohol or marijuana users. Other factors vices in jails and share expertise through
predicting noncompletion were lack of a high training and consultation with jail treatment
school diploma, living outside a parent’s staff.
home, lack of full-time employment, and hav • Provide ongoing consultation to jail adminis
ing been arrested for charges other than drug trators and other jail staff about substance
possession. It is likely that similar factors abuse issues, and work to establish a continu
may influence retention in jail treatment pro um of services in the jail and community for
grams, although more research is needed in people with substance abuse problems.
this area.
• Develop treatment approaches that are tar
geted to recognized special populations, such
Importance of Aftercare as those described in this chapter.
Unfortunately, a majority of released • Assist in conducting periodic quality assess
detainees are not linked to aftercare services ment reviews.
or treatment and the majority of jails do not • Employ evidence-based practices such as
use diversion resources such as drug courts. motivational enhancement techniques, cogni
Treatment mandated by drug courts is associ tive–behavioral interventions, relapse pre
ated with decreased recidivism, increased vention, contingency management, and ther
treatment retention, and better aftercare apeutic communities.
linkages (Leukefeld and Tims 1988). Tunis
and colleagues (1997) found that drug treat
ment programs in jails provide a “behavioral
management tool” that results in fewer behav
ioral problems, especially physical violence.
Overview
In This
The unique characteristics of prisons have important implications for
Chapter…
treating clients in this setting. Though by no means exhaustive, this
chapter highlights the most salient issues affecting the delivery of
Description of the
effective treatment to a variety of populations within the prison sys
Population
tem. It describes the prison population as of 2003, reviews the treat
ment services available and key issues affecting treatment in this set
Treatment Services in
ting, and considers the question, “what treatment services can reason
Prisons
Setting?
Description of the Population
In-Prison Therapeutic
Prisons differ from jails in that inmates generally are serving longer
Communities
periods of time (1 year or longer) and the offenders have often com
mitted serious or repeated crimes. Prisons and jails both vary in size,
Specific Populations in
but prisons are unique in that they are separated by function and
Prisons
inmate classification. Types of prisons include
Systems Issues
• Intake facilities (processing centers for inmates receiving orientation,
medical examinations, and psychological assessment)
Recommendations and
Further Research
• Community facilities (halfway houses, work farms, prerelease centers,
transitional living facilities, low-security programs for nonviolent
inmates)
• Minimum security prisons (dormitory style housing for inmates classi
fied as the lowest risk levels serving relatively short sentences for non
violent crimes)
• Medium security prisons (higher security risks such as those with a his
tory of violence)
187
• Maximum security prisons (most restrictive Race and Ethnicity
prisons for violent inmates and those posing
the highest security risks) Although the total number of sentenced
inmates increased greatly over the past
• Multi-use prisons (inmates of different securi decade, only a slight variance existed in the
ty classifications generally used in States with racial and ethnic composition of the inmate
smaller prison populations) population. At yearend 2003, African-
• Specialty prisons (for inmates with special American males (586,300) outnumbered
needs, such as people with mental illness, Caucasian males (454,300) and
physical disabilities, or HIV/AIDS) Hispanic/Latino males (251,900) among
(National Center on Addiction and inmates with sentences of more than 1 year.
Substance Abuse [CASA] 1998). African-American inmates represented an
estimated 44 percent of all inmates with sen
At the end of 2003, State and Federal prisons tences of more than 1 year, while Caucasian
in the United States housed a total of inmates accounted for 35 percent and
1,470,045 inmates. This meant that there Hispanic/Latino inmates, 19 percent. More
were approximately 482 sentenced inmates than 9 percent of all African-American men
for every 100,000 United States residents. between the ages of 25 and 29 were in prison
About 1 in every 109 men and 1 out of every in 2003 (Harrison and Beck 2004).
1,613 women were incarcerated by State or
Federal authorities. The Nation’s prison pop
ulation grew 2.1 percent in 2003 (Harrison Substance Abuse
and Beck 2004). The lifetime incidence of substance abuse or
The percentage of prison inmates incarcerat dependence disorders in the prison popula
ed for parole violations has decreased in tion is roughly 75 percent (Peters et al. 1998).
recent years. Between 1990 and 1998, the In 2001, 20 percent of State prison inmates
number of people in prison for parole viola were incarcerated for drug-related offenses
tions increased by 54 percent, but since 1998 (Harrison and Beck 2003).
the number of parole violators has increased In a 1997 Bureau of Justice Statistics survey,
less than 1 percent (Harrison and Karberg approximately half of all State and Federal
2004). inmates reported that they had used drugs in
the month before their offense, and over
Gender three-quarters indicated that they had used
drugs during their lifetime (Mumola 1999).
Since 1995, the rate of incarceration of Almost one in three prisoners said they had
women in prisons has increased at a higher committed their current offense while under
rate (5 percent on average) than that of men the influence of drugs, and about one in six
(3.3 percent). In 2003, the number of women had committed their offense to get money for
in State or Federal prisons increased by 3.6 drugs. In addition, a quarter of State and a
percent, while the number of men in those sixth of Federal prisoners had experienced
institutions increased by 2 percent. Women problems consistent with a history of alcohol
accounted for 6.9 percent of all inmates in abuse or dependence. Drug offenders
State and Federal prisons as of yearend 2003, accounted for more than half the total
an increase from 5.7 percent of all inmates in increase in parole violators returned to State
1990 (Harrison and Beck 2004). prisons (Beck 2000b).
Offenders who use drugs are more likely to
commit violent crimes. In a report by CASA
(1998), almost half (43 percent) of those iden
188 Chapter 9
tified as “regular drug users” in State correc Communicable Diseases
tional systems were incarcerated for a violent
offense, including murder, manslaughter, Many offenders in State and Federal prisons
rape, robbery, kidnapping, and aggravated have poor general health. Their access to and
assault. use of healthcare services may have been lim
ited, and behaviors such as intravenous drug
injection and unsafe sex may have exposed
Mental Illness them to communicable diseases. Prisoners
have disproportionate rates of HIV, hepatitis
At midyear 1998, 16 percent of State prison
C (HVC), sexually transmitted diseases, and
ers and 7 percent of Federal inmates reported
tuberculosis (TB) (Hammett 1998; HIV and
having a mental condition (Ditton 1999). As
Hepatitis Education Prison Project 2002;
of 2000, 13 percent of State prison inmates
Maruschak 2004).
(approximately 79 percent of those with men
tal disorders) were receiving some type of reg
ular counseling or therapy from a trained HIV and AIDS
professional. Approximately 10 percent of all
inmates in State prisons were receiving psy The number of all
chotropic medication (Beck and Maruschak State and Federal
prison inmates with
2001). The lifetime
HIV infection is esti
According to 1998 data, State prison inmates mated to be nearly
six times higher than incidence of
who reported having a mental condition were
more likely than other inmates to be incarcer that of the general
ated for a violent offense (53 percent com population substance abuse
pared to 46 percent). They were also more (Hammett 1998). In
likely than other inmates to be under the recent years, the or dependence
influence of alcohol or illicit substances at the rate of infection has
time of the current offense (59 percent versus decreased somewhat disorders in the
51 percent), and more than twice as likely as for the general
other inmates to have been homeless within prison population. prison population
the previous 12 months (20 percent compared The number of pris
to 9 percent) (Ditton 1999). Approximately 78 oners known to be is roughly
percent of females and 33 percent of males in infected with HIV
State prisons who have a mental illness was down from 2.2
percent in 1998 to
75 percent.
reported they had been physically or sexually
abused at some point in their lives (Ditton 1.9 percent at
1999). yearend 2002. The
number of State and Federal prison inmates
Many offenders in State or Federal prisons known to have AIDS also decreased from
who had a mental illness reported negative 5,754 reported cases in 2001 to 5,643 in 2002
life experiences related to drinking, including (Maruschak 2004). As in the general popula
losing a job, getting arrested, and getting into tion, HIV infection rates were higher for
a fight. Inmates with a mental illness were racial minorities. In 1997, of all State prison
also more likely than others to be under the inmates, 2.8 percent of African-American
influence of alcohol or drugs while committing inmates and 2.5 percent of Hispanic/Latino
their offense; 60 percent of State prisoners inmates, compared to 1.4 percent of
who had a mental illness compared to 51 per Caucasian inmates, reported to survey inter
cent of other inmates were under the influ viewers that they were HIV positive
ence when they committed their offense (Maruschak 1999b).
(Ditton 1999).
190 Chapter 9
Figure 9-1
Reasons for Limitations to Providing Treatment to Prison Inmates
Reason Percentage
Budgetary constraints 71
Space limitations 51
Legislative barriers 2
shame and guilt. Thus, in addition to treating tating, with a series of accompanying medical,
substance abuse and other mental disorders, psychological, and social costs (Dumond
the consensus panel recommends that in- 2000).
prison treatment also address the trauma of
the incarceration itself as well as a prison cul Even for inmates who do not suffer abuse or
ture that conflicts with treatment goals. exploitation while in prison, the trauma of
incarceration alone may worsen existing post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or create
Trauma and Hopelessness PTSD-like symptoms. Markers of PTSD
Inmates’ responses to prison environments include
vary, but virtually all will experience some • Irritability
degree of trauma and hopelessness. Derosia • Hypervigilance
(1998) conducted a review of the literature and
• Sleep difficulties
determined that the inmates who were most
likely to have difficulty coping in prison • Restricted range of affect
• Have unstable family, living, work, and/or • Feelings of detachment
education histories • Flashbacks and/or nightmares of traumatic
• Are single, young, and male incidents (American Psychiatric Association
2000)
• Exhibit histories of chronic substance abuse
or psychological problems Counselors should be able to recognize these
symptoms and encourage clients to talk about
When accompanied by violence and exploita
their feelings related to the incarceration.
tion from other inmates or custodial staff, the
Counselors should be especially aware of
sense of trauma and hopelessness can be mag
signs of suicidal ideation. For more informa
nified. Sexual assaults are particularly devas
tion on PTSD see the forthcoming TIP
Screening and • Diagnosis of chemical • Screening and assess • Standardized screening and
assessment dependency by a physician ment assessment
and determination of
whether that individual
requires pharmacologically
supported care
Treatment plans • Individualized treatment • Development of com • Individualized treatment
plans prehensive treatment plans
services
• Continuity of services
across the corrections
system
Other • Referrals to community • Staff recruitment • Matching to different levels
resources upon release • Staff training or types of treatment ser
(ACA 1990) vices
• Sanctions
• Case management services
• Program accountabil
ity and evaluation • Use of cognitive–behavioral,
(NIC 1991) social learning, and self-
help approaches
• Inclusion of relapse preven
tion training
• Use of self-help groups
• Use of therapeutic commu
nities
• Provision for isolated treat
ment units
• In-prison drug testing
• Continuity of services
• Program evaluation
• Cross-training of staff
192 Chapter 9
ceration, and many believe that being in Men in prisons
prison and participating in prison culture are
the norm. Others feel they are the victims of The consensus panel suggests that, where pos
society, and still others take pride in belong sible, programs provide specific groups and
ing to an alternative culture (e.g., the drug educational curricula that emphasize the gen
culture, a gang) and being outside the majori der-specific aspects of treatment. For exam
ty culture. ple, issues related to relationships and to
fatherhood should be explored. Fathers may
Unlike jail detainees, who are likely to be be encouraged to participate in parenting
incarcerated for short terms, prisoners often education, with an emphasis on responsibili
learn to identify as inmates as a matter of ties and the impact of neglect, anger, and
survival. In part, this is a result of institu abuse on children.
tional pressures on them, and partly it is the
result of interactions with other inmates who Employing both male and female counselors is
have accepted the role or persona of a prison helpful in an all-male program, as male
er. In prisons, as opposed to jails, there are inmates may be less guarded and confronta
many more people who are accustomed to the tional with female staff. Treatment staff also
setting and who take the attitude that it is “no should focus on gender dynamics that affect
big deal.” The assumption of an identity as an many male participants’ willingness to assess
inmate is an issue of survival for most offend honestly their own conduct, typically includ
ers. The hardened demeanor and “macho” ing behaviors such as avoiding responsibility,
attitude adopted as part of the inmate culture excessively blaming others, and repressing
can discourage offenders from participating feelings.
in treatment. Treatment is often perceived as For many incarcerated men, learning to
a sign of “weakness” within the inmate cul express anger in healthy and constructive
ture, and inmates who enroll in treatment are ways is vital. Many male offenders have been
often characterized by other prisoners as too perpetrators of domestic and/or sexual vio
weak to “handle their drugs” in the communi lence and/or have gotten into trouble because
ty. of fighting or assaults. Violence prevention
groups may help participants explore
Gender-Specific Issues thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are
often the underpinnings of violent behavior
Gender in particular is a defining category and sexual aggression—issues such as a lack
for treatment and recovery in prison settings. of empathy, narcissism, anger management
Populations are segregated by gender so that problems, an overblown sense of entitlement,
in addition to the difference in psychosocial and the lack of effective thinking skills and
issues facing male and female inmates, the sense of self-efficacy.
character and experience of men’s and
women’s prisons are widely divergent. Research shows that sexual offenders may be
Programs must be attuned to the differences at greater risk for violent assaults by other
inherent in treating men and women within a offenders (Brady 1993). By taking a “scatter-
prison setting. For more information on gen shot” approach that treats all participants as
der-specific issues, see chapter 6 of this TIP if they have a history of violence or sexual
and the forthcoming TIPs Substance Abuse offenses, rather than singling out specific
Treatment: Addressing the Specific Needs of individuals, treatment providers can address
Women (CSAT in development g) and latent and manifest coercive behavior focus
Substance Abuse Treatment and Men’s Issues ing attention on specific individuals.
(CSAT in development e).
194 Chapter 9
Group counseling Treatment (Wanberg and Milkman 1998), and
As the most common treatment method, others described in chapter 5 of this TIP.
group counseling seeks to address the under In REBT, the client’s thinking patterns are
lying psychological and behavioral problems also the focus of attention. Individuals who
that contribute to substance abuse by pro abuse substances tend to think automatically,
moting self-awareness and behavioral change in rigid terms, and with overgeneralizations.
through interactions with peers (CASA 1998). Rationalizations are also commonly used by
Although the intensity and duration of group offenders to justify maladaptive behaviors,
therapy can vary, trained professionals typi including substance abuse and a range of
cally lead groups of 8 to 10 inmates several other criminal behaviors. Clients are taught
times a week with the expectation that partici to be aware of their thinking patterns and to
pants will commit to and engage in meaningful challenge their assumptions. Once these
change in an emotionally safe environment. errors in a client’s thinking are pointed out,
Group sessions typically range from 1 to 2 they can be changed. Correcting the client’s
hours in length. thoughts can lead to exploration of alterna
tive behaviors and attitudes that do not
Cognitive–behavioral groups
involve substances.
Substance abuse treatment programs in cor
rectional settings should be organized accord Specialty groups
ing to empirically supported approaches (i.e., Specialized treatment groups are often orga
those based on social learning, cognitive– nized around a shared life experience (e.g.,
behavioral models, skills training, and family children of alcoholics, incest survivors, peo
systems) (Cullen and Gendreau 1989). ple with AIDS) or common problem (anger
Programs based on nondirective approaches management, parenting, stress reduction, or
or medical models or those focusing on pun prerelease planning). Specialty groups offer a
ishment or deterrence have not been shown to chance to work on specific issues that may be
be effective (Peters and Steinberg 2000). impeding other treatment initiatives or
Cognitive programs include such strategies as require special attention not readily available
“problem solving, negotiation, skills training, in the regular program. Two types of special
interpersonal skills training, rational–emotive ty groups are briefly described below.
therapy (REBT), role-playing and modeling,
or cognitively mediated behavior modifica • Anger management groups. Anger manage
tion” (Izzo and Ross 1990, p. 139). ment groups are widely used in drug treat
ment programs. They are especially helpful
Cognitive/behavioral/social learning models for inmates who are either passive and
emphasize interventions that assist the nonassertive or express anger in an explo
offender in changing criminal beliefs and val sive fashion. By careful analysis of emotion
ues. Such interventions concentrate on the al reactions to painful and threatening
effects of thoughts and emotions on behav experiences, treatment staff help the inmate
iors, and include strategies (e.g., behavioral learn to manage anger in a more socially
contracting) that promote prosocial behavior acceptable manner. For example, inmates
and accountability through a system of incen may feel incapable of expressing negative
tives and sanctions. Examples of cognitive– feelings verbally. Instead of responding
behavioral group interventions include the appropriately to a provocation, they allow
National Institute of Corrections’ Thinking feelings to build up, which leads to a
for a Change curricula (online at delayed explosive reaction. Learning to
http://www.nicic.gov/t4c), the Criminal Conduct express angry feelings verbally and in an
and Substance Abuse appropriate manner helps inmates feel
196 Chapter 9
or unavailable. These individuals shared offender’s beliefs, needs, and interests. Other
common problems and a personal commit groups include Survivors of Incest
ment to do something about their condition. Anonymous, Secular Organizations for
Self-help programs are not considered “ser Sobriety (SOS), religious groups, women’s
vices,” which require client dependence on groups, and veteran support groups. One sur
providers. Instead, they are programs based vey found that 74 percent of prison facilities
on a philosophy of self-responsibility. The offered self-help programs of various types.
philosophy involves a powerful belief system Of those, AA had the strongest representation
that requires individuals to commit to their (in 95 percent of those facilities), followed by
own healing. For many, this approach has NA (in 85 percent). Less than one third
proven inspiring and successful. offered other types of self-help programs.
Because of the lack of empirical evidence
A major focus of the self-help approach is about the effectiveness of self-help programs
altering the fundamental beliefs and overall in reducing recidivism and relapse, the con
lifestyles of participants. By taking responsi sensus panel believes that these groups are
bility for their own problems, individuals can best viewed as support activities that can
gain control over their situation and develop enhance more structured and intense treat
a new sense of self-respect and competence. ment interventions (CASA 1998).
Recovering role models provide support and
guidance. The entire approach can result in At times compulsory self-help group atten
far-reaching changes in personal lifestyles dance is used as a sanction. The panel feels
and social relationships. In general, the self- that the compulsory use of any treatment or
help movement successfully instills the more supportive service as a sanction is ill advised
positive aspects of individualism—self and can be detrimental to other treatment
reliance and responsibility—while also stress efforts. Moreover, the constitutionality of
ing the importance of group effort in over mandatory participation in spiritual-based
coming common problems. groups has been challenged. When compulso
ry attendance is a part of the treatment, secu
The concept of empowerment is perhaps the lar alternatives should be made available.
most central to understand the positive effects
of self-help groups. (For other benefits, see
previous page.) Self-help processes are geared Educational and vocational
to invoke and develop a sense of personal training
power among members. Empowerment can be
derived from a “higher power,” from the Educational and vocational training, in addi
group, or entirely from within the individual, tion to attention to psychosocial and behav
where the idea of “bottom line” responsibility ioral needs, is a critical dimension that helps
for the conditions of one’s life teaches mem offenders become responsible family mem
bers that they have the power to alter their bers, employees, and community members.
lives and living conditions. Self-help groups The acquisition of skills such as basic litera
also encourage members to use their personal cy, GED certification, and life skills can
strength to enable others to feel less helpless. improve employment opportunities and
This, in turn, enhances the power of the improve self-esteem. Such enhancements also
helper. Since self-help programs are peer cen can help keep inmates from returning to sub
tered, they encourage mutual support and
stance-using subcultures and ways of life.
offer many opportunities for leadership.
These services are generally provided by the
The best known self-help groups are prison and must be closely coordinated and
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics monitored by the treatment staff as part of
Anonymous (NA). However, other self-help case management function.
groups may be appropriate, depending on the
198 Chapter 9
“Blended” approaches Texas, among others, have well-established
TC programs in place.
The “blended model” recognizes that a melding
of different approaches and techniques can Surveys of the membership of Therapeutic
prove effective in prison-based treatment. Communities of America (Melnick and
More subtly, the corrections environment itself DeLeon 1999) and the residential TC pro
already incorporates a blended approach, sim grams in the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome
ply because the nature of prisons requires Survey (De Leon 2000; Melnick and De Leon
adaptation of existing structural and security 1999) show high levels of agreement among
concerns. TCs as to the nature of the essential treat
ment elements including the treatment
Blended approaches expand in-prison treat approach, the role of the community as a
ment offerings to include more innovative therapeutic agent, the use of educational and
techniques and treatment modalities. These work activities, the formal elements of TC
require creativity, the imaginative use of treatment, and the TC process. The stan
available resources, proper identification of dards have undergone field testing conducted
inmate problem severity (i.e., the more severe by the Therapeutic Communities of America
the inmate’s problem, the more intensive the and the Office of National Drug Control
treatment services), support for program Policy. The more than 120 revised standards
ming, adequate physical plant and design, cover 11 domains, from theoretical basis and
attention to the impact of activities on classifi administration to staffing, stages of treat
cation and movement, cost, monitoring, and ment, and aftercare.
continued professional development of cor
rectional staff.
Program Elements of a TC
Rod Mullen, founder of the Amity prison TC program, has attempted to define the program elements need
ed for a TC and suggests that programs that do not meet this standard be identified simply as “residential”
to avoid indiscriminate use of the TC identification:
• Twenty-five to 50 percent of the staff should have a substance abuse history and at least 2 years of contin
ual sobriety.
• The program must emphasize peer leadership and a structure of peer responsibilities and authority.
• The program must have a defined structure of community ceremonies that occur daily (as well as at other
intervals), which reinforce the beliefs and mission of the community.
• Regular encounter groups are held for all participants and confidentiality of the group is a paramount
community value.
• All staff members participate in community activities.
• The emphasis of the community is on the healthy, positive development of all aspects of its members.
200 Chapter 9
ues, and culture of the environment and a essence of the TC philosophy: “Give people a
great deal of commitment and cooperation fish and they have food for a day. Teach them
from prison administration and staff to prop to fish and they can obtain food for a life
erly structure and control that environment. time.”
While residents must take responsibility for TCs depend on the staff and participants’
their own recovery process, treatment staff, community-building capabilities. The degree
including ex-offenders, act as role models and and intensity of confrontation with partici
provide support and guidance. Individual pants tends to correspond to the strength of
counseling, encounter groups, peer pressure, the supportive atmosphere of the program.
role models, and a system of incentives and Confrontation in prison, for example, may be
sanctions form the core of treatment interven less intense than in a community-based envi
tions in a TC. Residents of the community ronment, since confrontation can be a threat
must live together, participate in groups, and to prisoner codes of acceptable behavior. The
study together. In the process, inmates learn success of the TC also depends on the collabo
to control their behavior, become more hon ration between treatment and corrections
est with themselves and others, and develop staff in classification of inmates who are
self-reliance and responsibility. appropriately assessed and placed in treat
ment as well as in the delivery of sanctions
TCs are most often implemented in a residen and removal from the treatment unit.
tial structure isolated from the general popu
lation to provide enough safety and sense of
belonging to begin the process of change. Successful Prison-Based TC
States of anxiety, secrecy, fear, and alien Programs
ation—conditions permeating the antisocial
inmate subculture of the general prison popu The TC is widely recognized as an effective
lation—are antithetical to positive change. In approach that is highly intensive in nature and
fact, separation from the prison subculture scope, deals effectively with issues related to
during treatment has been found to be most implementation and maintenance, and address
conducive to achieving major changes in atti es many of the more important treatment
tudes and behavior. However, the safe TC issues. Some examples of successful in-prison
environment, coupled with gains in interper TC programs are described below along with
sonal skills, helps offenders relate to the gen references that provide further information.
eral prison population with the inner strength
needed to combat the negative cues of the Stay’n Out in New York
prison environment.
The Stay’n Out program was implemented in
Practitioners note that there can be no July 1977 as a modified hierarchical TC.
“watchers” in a TC, only active participants. Stay’n Out began at a time when many other
TCs demand the participation of the inmates in-prison TC programs were closing. Program
in the emotional, physical, and intellectual capacity was 120 inmates at the time this
work required for the process of change and research was conducted. Residents lived in
personal growth. Work in a TC, as a part of two housing units segregated from the rest of
treatment, involves an increasing set of the prison population. They had contact with
responsibilities designed to build self-confi prisoners in the general population only when
dence and coping skills. As active participants off the TC unit (e.g., at the cafeteria, infir
in their own recovery process, inmates learn mary, library). The Stay’n Out staff com
self-sufficiency and competence. Practitioners prised mostly persons in recovery with TC
often cite an old maxim that captures the experience.
Figure 9-3
Stay’n Out Program Outcomes
Male Graduates Males with No Femate Graduates Females with No
Treatment Treatment
Rearrest
27 percent 41 percent 18 percent 24 percent
202 Chapter 9
phase (2 to 3 months) includes orientation, ment at 12 and 24 months were not main
clinical assessment of resident needs and tained at 36 months (Wexler et al. 1999b).
problem areas, and planning interventions
and treatment goals. Most residents are
assigned to prison industry jobs and given Texas Kyle New Vision
limited responsibility for the maintenance of Program
the TC. During the second phase of treatment The Kyle New Vision program was the first
(5 to 6 months), residents are provided in-prison TC (ITC) developed under 1991
opportunities to earn positions of increased State legislation that outlined plans for sever
responsibility by showing greater involvement al corrections-based substance abuse treat
in the program and by focusing on emotional ment facilities in Texas (Eisenberg and Fabelo
issues. Encounter groups and counseling ses 1996). It is a 500-bed facility that provides
sions address self-discipline, self-worth, self- treatment to inmates during their final 9
awareness, respect for authority, and accep months in prison. After release, parolees are
tance of guidance for problem areas. During mandated to attend 3 months of residential
the reentry phase (1 to 3 months), residents aftercare in a transitional TC (TTC), followed
strengthen their planning and decisionmaking by up to another year of supervised outpa
skills and work with program and parole staff tient aftercare. An evaluation conducted by
to prepare for their return to the community. the Institute for Behavioral Research at
Upon release from prison, graduates of the Texas Christian University revealed that 3
Amity prison TC may elect to participate in a percent of those who completed both ITC and
community-based TC treatment program for TTC programs were rearrested within 6
up to 1 year. Residents at this Amity months of their release from prison, com
Aftercare TC have responsibility for main pared to 15 percent of those who only com
taining this facility (under staff supervision) pleted the ITC and 16 percent of an untreat
and continuing the program curriculum. The ed comparison group (Knight et al. 1997).
aftercare TC also provides services for the Furthermore, results from hair specimens
wives and children of residents. collected during a 6-month followup indicated
that fewer of those who completed both the
An evaluation conducted by the Center for ITC and TTC tested positive for cocaine (the
Therapeutic Research at the National primary drug of choice for those in the sam
Development and Research Institutes, Inc., ple), compared to those who completed only
assessed 36-month recidivism outcomes for a the ITC and a comparison group (Knight et
prison TC program with aftercare using an al. 1998). A recently completed study showed
intent-to-treat design with random assign that TTC completion following the ITC was
ment. Outcomes for 478 felons at 36 months the strongest predictor of remaining arrest-
replicated findings of an earlier report on 12 free for 2 years following release from prison.
and 24-month outcomes, showing the best Aftercare completion was strongly associated
outcomes for those who completed both in- with parolee success (Hiller et al. 1999a). A 3
prison and aftercare TC programs (Wexler et year outcome study revealed that high-severi
al. 1999a). For those who completed the TC ty aftercare completers recidivated only half
aftercare program, 27 percent had been rein as often as those in the aftercare dropout and
carcerated at a 36-month followup, compared comparison groups. These results indicate
to 75 percent for the other groups. that intensive treatment can be effective when
Researchers also noted a significant positive it is integrated with aftercare and that the
relationship between the amount of time spent benefits of intensive treatment are most
in treatment and the time until return for the apparent for offenders with more serious
parolees who recidivated. However, the crime and drug-related problems (Knight et
reduced recidivism rates for in-prison treat al. 1999b).
204 Chapter 9
San Carlos Correctional Facility—A TC Modified for
Offenders With Mental Illness
In response to the increasing number of inmates with co-occurring substance use and other mental dis
orders, the Colorado Department of Corrections contracted with a private not-for-profit agency to
develop the Personal Reflections Therapeutic Community program at the San Carlos Correctional
Facility in Pueblo (Sacks et al. 2001). Based on evidence of the effectiveness of the TC approach for co-
occurring disorders implemented in a community-based setting (De Leon et al. 2000), the San Carlos
program, a Modified Therapeutic Community (MTC), uses TC principles and methods as the foundation
for recovery. Modifications from traditional TCs include smaller caseloads, shortened and simplified
meetings, and minimized confrontation. In addition, the MTC contains components to address criminal
thinking and to provide medication education.
The goal of the program is to use a positive peer culture to foster personal change and to reduce the
incidence of return to a criminal lifestyle. The inmates progress through program stages, typically mov
ing from orientation to primary treatment (“family” phase) and then preparation for re-entry to the
community at large. Upper level inmates in the MTC program function as a positive peer leadership
group, or “structure,” to guide and support newer members as they begin to develop and apply new val
ues, beliefs, and skills to their daily lives. Thus the San Carlos TC, modified for the mentally ill popula
tion, functions as a healthy family for its members, reinforcing affiliation with the recovery community.
A NIDA-funded evaluation of MTCs showed significantly better outcomes on self-reported crime and
arrests for the MTC group as compared to standard mental health and nontreatment groups. The best
outcome was for the MTC group that also received TC aftercare. In response to such results, a CSAT
Community Action grant supported an initiative to improve services for released offenders with histories
of substance abuse and severe and persistent mental illness (Wexler 2001). Preliminary cost analysis
indicates that the incremental (or additional) costs of prison MTC programs for offenders with co-occur
ring disorders are low compared to both the overall costs of incarceration and the additional cost of ser
vices for people with co-occurring disorders in the general prison population (Sacks et al. 2001).
treatment staff. This leads to extreme secre • Lack of a formal process for identifying
cy and fear of self-disclosure based on a clinical sex offenders. The different classifi
legitimate fear for their own safety. cations of those who have committed sex-
• Untrained and inexperienced staff. Most related offenses and those diagnosed with
treatment staff members in prison-based sex-related disorders makes identification
substance abuse programs lack the requisite more difficult for providers. Currently, the
knowledge to work effectively with sex sole criterion for identification is the
offenders. This can be remedied in part by inmate’s criminal record. Because some
recruiting and hiring individuals with individuals are likely to be recommended
advanced degrees or special certification, for highly specialized treatment and may
although it will entail increased treatment not need it, this criterion may result in an
costs associated with compensation to inefficient use of resources.
ensure their longevity. One proposed model is to provide effective
• Institutional policies against disclosure. treatment by differentiating between legal and
Strict prohibitions against disclosing inmate clinical offenders and then offering treatment
offense and conviction information means to clinical sex offenders. Steps in this process
that staff are unable to identify which include identifying those sex offenders suit
inmates are sex offenders. able for treatment, identifying the appropri-
Lifers were accepted as members of the counseling staff because they could provide stability to the pro
gram and ensure its continuity. They are available to program participants 24 hours a day, unlike staff
from outside the prison, and can have a vital role in keeping a community alive and helping to hold its
members responsible for their behavior. Because these are individuals who have considerable respect in
the prison community, they are able to help keep participants in the program safe and out of situations
that can cause them trouble.
The program is selective about who can become a counselor; all counselors have to be graduates of the
program and then complete a 2-year internship. They must be individuals who have the respect of their
peers and demonstrate high levels of motivation. The program also ensures that this group represents
the racial demographics of the prison population.
Programs that are considering using lifers should already have trained staff who are experienced work
ing with this particular subpopulation. The culture of lifers is unique within the prison system, and the
problems they face are also often different. These are individuals whose home, for much (if not all) of
the rest of their lives is the prison. Becoming a counselor enables lifers to make personal restitution for
past acts by helping others, which they may never have the opportunity to do so outside the prison envi
ronment. During followup interviews, many of the successful program participants mentioned that lifers
had been important influences in their recovery (Wexler et al. 1999a).
206 Chapter 9
courtship, marriage, raising children, career, Sanctions and Incentives
education, travel, pursuit of personal talents,
and activities with friends never can be re A hierarchy of specific sanctions (that notes
established” (LaMere et al. 1996, p. 27). The the type and duration of each sanction) can
usual milestones to measure success and adult be used in conjunction with treatment incen
rites of passage are systematically denied the tives and rewards to improve treatment out
aging inmate, thus producing a sense of social comes. TIP 12, Combining Substance Abuse
disconnection. One of the best ways to engage Treatment With Intermediate Sanctions for
elderly inmates is to involve them in helping Adults in the Criminal Justice System (CSAT
other inmates. The program at the R.J. 1994a), gives a more detailed overview of
Donovan Correctional Facility (see previous sanctions and their effective use.
page) is an example of a treatment approach Offenders need to be responsible to their indi
that can be beneficial to both the aging prison vidual treatment plans and held accountable
population and its younger peers. to the treatment program’s rules. They must
know the consequences of noncompliance and
poor progress and understand that treatment
Systems Issues programs have certain unbreakable or “car
dinal” rules (e.g., no violence or intimida
Coerced Treatment tion). The penalties for breaking rules that
In prison, coerced treatment may come as a are intended to guide behavior can include
result of a sentence mandating treatment or dismissal from the program or revocation of
as a result of a prison policy mandating treat privileges. Sanctions should be applied con
ment for inmates identified as having sub sistently for positive drug tests, no-shows for
stance use disorders. Still, prison-based pro treatment, prohibited behavior, or broken
grams generally do not have significant incen program rules. Penalties should be specifical
tives for parolees or probationers who enter ly spelled out, so there is no doubt in the
treatment as a means to avoid prison. client’s mind regarding the consequences of
Research indicates that treatment adherence specific misbehavior. Accountability also
and outcomes are the same among those includes objective measures and monitoring
coerced into treatment and those who entered as a basis for measuring the client’s progress
treatment voluntarily (Miller and Flaherty and determining the need for reassessment.
2000). In terms of prison-based treatment Rule infractions (other than “cardinal rules”)
programs, Wexler and colleagues (1996) are best seen as opportunities to learn more
reported that these programs are often the appropriate and effective behaviors. This
only (emphasis added) treatment opportuni treatment or learning perspective is in con
ties for offenders. Two key issues regarding trast to the traditional correctional view of
treatment of offenders are time spent in treat adjudication and punishment. It is important
ment and engagement in the process. Coerced to provide opportunities for “failed” clients to
treatment can force inmates to begin a treat reapply to the program when possible. Often,
ment episode, but the program must be able a program failure can be a learning experi
to engage them in a meaningful rehabilitation ence that leads to increased motivation and
process. The longer the inmate remains in desire for a “second chance.” Given that
treatment, the greater the likelihood for suc addiction is a chronic, recurring condition,
cess (Hubbard et al. 1988; Simpson 1984; multiple treatment episodes are more the
Wexler 1988). Without treatment, the likeli norm than the exception.
hood of continued drug use and criminality Just as sanctions clearly establish a series of
after release increases considerably (Lipton consequences for designated behaviors, incen
1994). tives should be offered to inmates who adhere
208 Chapter 9
The consensus panel encourages
Advice to the Counselor: treatment providers to under
Heading Off Noncompliance stand the operational responsibili
ties of the justice system, the
• Counselors can take a proactive attitude and alert the
importance of public safety, and
criminal justice representative when noncompliance
the security concerns that are at
occurs before a client is expelled from a program.
the heart of criminal justice.
• The treatment counselor and criminal justice representa Criminal justice personnel should
tive can identify the most likely program dropout points understand the dynamics of sub
to alert case managers to potential problems in the stance abuse treatment and its
system. potential to reduce recidivism and
relapse. Without these training
• Limited treatment resources. There are safeguards in place, the custody
often problems associated with convincing concerns of the correctional facility will often
inmates to engage in treatment. One prob overwhelm the concerns of the treatment pro
lem is the lack of trained staff and available gram (Farabee et al. 1999). Some of the train
modalities. Additionally, treatment pro ing issues include confidentiality, relapse pre
grams often do not offer incentives. In fact, vention, infectious diseases, co-occurring dis
some incentives (e.g., work furloughs) are orders, and cultural competence.
removed, which acts as a disincentive to
Other concerns regarding recruitment and
enter treatment.
training of staff include the difficulty of hir
• Stigma. Many inmates want treatment, but ing qualified staff in the remote areas where
do not necessarily want to be put in pro prisons are built; the lack of experience in
grams that may cause them to have low sta criminal justice settings on the part of most
tus in the inmate culture. counselors; and the perennial concern about
• Mandatory sentences that prohibit early high turnover rates and the lack of experi
release. Increasingly, in an effort to appear enced counselors, especially given the limited
ever tougher on crime, politicians and poli ability to hire individuals in recovery as
cymakers are removing early release oppor counselors (Farabee et al. 1999). In addition,
tunities by legislating mandatory sentences Department of Corrections contracts fre
that require inmates to serve their full quently have restrictions based on criminal
terms, reducing or eliminating good time history that narrow the eligible pool of
credits, or being more stringent in Parole employment applicants.
Board decisions. Without the incentive of
early release, inmates are less likely to vol
untarily enter and remain in prison treat Gender-specific training
ment programs. The panel stresses that training should review
the latest theories and findings on men’s and
Staff Training and women’s issues in treatment. For counselors
working with men, special focus should be on
Cross-Training anger management and relational violence.
Cross-training for both criminal justice and Staff should learn theories of male develop
substance abuse treatment staff can improve ment and explore key issues influencing men’s
the effectiveness of program administration substance abuse—societal gender roles, fami
(Farabee et al. 1999). Treatment providers ly, relationships, rage and violence, abuse
and custody staff often become familiar with and trauma, and educational and vocational
the philosophy, approach, goals, objectives, issues. In addition, staff need to become
language, and boundaries of both systems. familiar with the prison culture specific to the
or deterrence.
family, parenting,
relationships, self-
• Successful programs provide a variety of
personnel should intensive services that use several
sufficiency and life
skills, anxiety and approaches and create a prosocial environ
understand the depression, grief ment.
and loss, abuse and • Nine to 12 months of treatment in a TC is
dynamics of trauma, educational the recommended duration for reducing
and vocational recidivism, although a noticeable improve
substance abuse issues, and societal ment in recidivism is noted after 3 months.
gender roles. • To sustain the gains achieved in in-prison
treatment and its Expertise in these TCs requires supervision in an aftercare
areas will help program in the community.
potential to develop a quality
program focused on • TCs can be adapted to make them more
helping incarcerated appropriate for female inmates.
reduce recidivism
women recover and • Quality assurance models are needed for
successfully re-enter assessing prison treatment.
and relapse.
their communities. • The needs of incarcerated women (and their
children) have to be better understood,
Further information
with an emphasis on reintegrating the fami
on gender training is
ly when appropriate and developing mar
in chapter 6. Two forthcoming TIPs will also
ketable skills.
provide detailed information on gender train
ing, Substance Abuse Treatment and Men’s • As the number of people with co-existing
Issues (CSAT in development f) and substance use and other mental disorders in
Substance Abuse Treatment: Addressing the prisons expands, treatment models that
Specific Needs of Women (CSAT in develop integrate the best mental health and sub
ment g). stance abuse treatment practices need to be
developed and tested.
• The mental health and substance abuse lit
erature on co-occurring disorders has iden
tified the modified TC as a promising treat
ment model.
210 Chapter 9
• Issues of aftercare and continuity of care There is considerable research that shows
are especially relevant to offenders with co- that at least 3 months of community treat
occurring disorders, who are particularly in ment and 9–12 months of prison treatment
need of continuing treatment to stabilize are needed to produce significant improve
their positive gains and to promote integra ment and reductions in recidivism and
tion with the mainstream community. relapse. The critical need for adequate treat
• Restructuring the prison environment to ment duration has been demonstrated. What
address education and employment, partic is not known is whether postprison treatment
ularly for inmates with longer sentences, alone can be effective and how much time in
can dramatically improve prison security, aftercare following prison treatment is need
programming, and outcomes. ed. Currently, in-prison drug treatment pro
grams vary considerably in length: from 4
• Providers should develop innovative after
months to 2 years. Also, given the importance
care programs that incorporate recovery,
of aftercare, can similar outcomes be
employment, and educational best practice.
obtained with a shorter duration in-prison
Continuity of vocational goals should be
treatment program if inmates are mandated
identified early on and followed throughout
to a comprehensive postrelease aftercare pro
the various phases of client reintegration
gram?
from prison to community residential and
aftercare outpatient treatment.
Treatment and aftercare
Further Research research questions
In-prison substance abuse treatment, particu • A clear understanding of the treatment
larly when followed by community-based con “black box” remains elusive; models that
tinuing care, has been credited with reducing describe effective treatment processes need
short-term recidivism and relapse rates to be developed and tested.
among offenders who are involved with illicit
• The organizational and system dimensions
drugs. More recently, the sustained effects on
of treatment need to be studied and under
longer-term outcomes have been documented
stood to foster the implementation and
by studies conducted in California, Delaware,
maintenance of treatment networks within
and Texas. There is a growing credibility of
complex correctional systems.
the idea that “treatment works,” which is
replacing the older belief that “nothing • Researchers should examine the contribu
works” in prison rehabilitation. tion of pharmacotherapy to treatment out
comes among prisoners.
However, the benefits of treatment can vary • Although prison evaluation studies of
greatly depending on the inmate being treated women have shown positive treatment
and the services being provided. The consen effects, more research is needed to study
sus panel believes it is critical that research treatment engagement, process, and costs
now focus on determining which inmates ben versus benefits for this population.
efit the most from the different types of treat
ment programs being offered in prison. For • Consideration needs to be given as to
example, should intensive treatment pro whether aftercare alone is capable of signif
grams such as TCs give admission priority to icantly reducing recidivism and relapse fol
inmates with the most severe problems? Are lowing prison.
better educated inmates best treated with a • Researchers should investigate the effect of
cognitive–behavioral approach? Is it better to shorter term prison treatment with and
develop stand-alone in-prison treatment facil without aftercare.
ities?
212 Chapter 9
10 Treatment for
Offenders Under
Community
Supervision
Overview
In This
Substance abuse treatment for parolees and probationers differs from
Chapter…
treatment for people in jail or prison. Although their freedom is cur
tailed, they have greater access to drugs and alcohol than the incarcer
The Population ated population, and hence more opportunities to relapse. Moreover,
securing basic needs such as food and shelter is often of paramount
Levels of Supervision
importance, especially for parolees attempting to reintegrate into
Treatment Levels and
society.
Treatment Components
Supervision
The offenders discussed in this chapter also are discussed elsewhere in
the TIP. Probationers, for example, are often sentenced through the
Treatment Issues Specific
Recommendations
213
The Population Intensive Supervision
Both parolees and probationers are under com Intensive supervision generally involves fre
munity supervision; nonetheless, they repre quent contact with supervising officers, fre
sent different ends of the criminal justice con quent random drug testing, strict enforce
tinuum. Whereas parolees and mandatory ment of probation or parole conditions, and
releasees are serving a term of conditional community service. The level and type of
supervised release following a prison term, pro supervision that are labeled intensive vary
bationers are under community supervision widely but usually require closer supervision
instead of a prison or jail term. and greater reporting requirements than reg
ular probation. Contacts can range from
Despite their differences, parolees and proba more than five per week to fewer than four
tioners often share a history of drug or alco per month. Conditions usually include having
hol use. Approximately two thirds of proba a job or attending school, and participating in
tioners can be characterized as alcohol- or treatment. Intensive supervision parole has
drug-involved offenders (Mumola and similar requirements and variations for
Bonczar 1998), while almost 74 percent of offenders completing their sentences in the
State prisoners expected to be released community.
between 2000 and 2001 were drug- or alcohol-
involved (Beck 2000c). Parolees and proba
tioners also are alike in that their freedom is Intermediate Supervision
conditional; both groups must meet certain Compared to traditional supervision, inter
conditions in order to avoid incarceration or mediate supervision can include increased
reincarceration. Often, treatment for drug or drug testing, short jail stays, increased
alcohol dependence is one of those conditions. reporting to criminal justice staff, referral to
day reporting centers, attending 12-Step
The number of people under community
meetings, community service requirement,
supervision has increased over the past
curfews, work release centers, electronic
decade. More than 4.8 million individuals
monitoring, and more frequent home visits.
were under community supervision in 2003,
compared to 3.8 million in 1995. The parole
population has been the slowest growing since
1995, with an average annual rate of 1.7 per
Treatment Levels and
cent; however between 2002 and 2003, the Treatment
growth rate nearly doubled to 3.1 percent
(Glaze and Palla 2004).
Components
Chapter 3, Triage and Placement in
Despite the shared experience of individuals Treatment Services, provides detailed infor
under community supervision, as Figure 10-1 mation on selecting an appropriate treatment
indicates, parolees and probationers differ level. This section builds on the material in
considerably. chapter 3 to provide information specific to
offenders under community supervision.
Placement will depend on a number of fac
Levels of Supervision
tors, including the duration and severity of
While both probationers and parolees are the offender’s substance use as well as the
under community supervision, the level of crimes committed. The level of treatment ser
supervision varies according to individual cir vices recommended for the offender should be
cumstances. These differences are described individualized and based on a multidimen
below. sional, diagnostically driven assessment; clini
214 Chapter 10
Figure 10-1
Comparison of Probationers and Parolees
Probationers Parolees
Number (as of December 31, 2003) 4,073,987 774,588
cal judgment; and availability of resources in hour, structured treatment environment. (See
a given community. chapter 9 for a discussion of prison-based
TCs.)
Residential Some programs provide services for 8 or
Residential treatment for those supervised in more hours a day, 5–7 days a week, with clin
the community incorporates several ical staff available days and evenings. Other
approaches involving cooperative living for residential programs are recovery homes for
people receiving treatment. The most used employed offender-clients, with evening and
residential model is the therapeutic communi weekend treatment and limited onsite staff.
ty (TC), which provides a well-controlled, 24 Facilities may include hospitals or hospital-
216 Chapter 10
which is in the community but can be Treatment Components
attached to a jail or other correctional insti
tution. House responsibilities are shared and Substance abuse is a chronic, relapsing disor
rules must be followed. The length of stay der influenced by numerous interacting biologi
may be related to sentence length and depend cal, psychological, and social factors. To pro
on individual progress toward specific goals. vide treatment addressing these factors, the
consensus panel believes that a full range of
services should be available, which might
Day Reporting include components from the following list:
Day reporting centers are facilities to which • Screening and assessments—medical, psy
offenders must report in person or by phone chiatric, and substance abuse (see also
from a job or treatment site as part of their chapter 2, Screening and Assessment)
larger supervision plan. The regular report • Detoxification (see also the forthcoming TIP
ing back to probation or parole officers man Detoxification and Substance Abuse
dated under this intermediate sanction is Treatment [CSAT in development a])
aimed at monitoring offender movements or • Medical assessment—pregnancy tests and
incapacitating them. Reporting must be done treatment for HIV and AIDS, other sexual
at specified times, often throughout the day. ly transmitted diseases, and tuberculosis
Day centers may include assessment for spe (see also chapter 2, Screening and
cial needs and such services as anger manage Assessment)
ment, drug testing, General Equivalency
Exam (GED) preparation, drug and medi • Full-range medical treatment
cal/mental health treatment, violence preven • Treatment planning—medical, psychiatric,
tion, community service, and vocational and substance abuse (see chapter 4,
training. Substance Abuse Treatment Planning)
• Counseling—group, individual, family, cou
Some day centers primarily function as stag
ples (see chapter 5, Major Treatment Issues
ing areas from which offenders are sent out in
and Approaches)
work crews to perform manual labor in the
community: cleaning highways, painting • Residential treatment for substance abuse
schools, etc. Others offer chiefly educational • Substance abuse education—didactic lec
opportunities. In many jurisdictions, day cen tures, interactive groups, videos, reading
ters have become day treatment centers assignments, and journal-writing assign
whose primary mission is to provide outpa ments
tient alcohol and drug abuse treatment of • Relapse prevention services
various intensities. Public or private treat
ment agencies or correctional agency staff • Crisis intervention
may provide the treatment. • Drug testing and monitoring
218 Chapter 10
although there are some substance abuse grams, reporting this information to supervis
treatment programs that also perform this ing authorities, and monitoring court-imposed
function. conditions when requested. It should provide
the following functions for offender-clients:
To supplement the support an offender may
be receiving from family members, the treat • Assessment of the client’s strengths, weak
ment plan should include recreational oppor nesses, needs, and ability to remain crime-
tunities and other outlets to build healthy and drug-free
social relationships. • Planning for treatment services and fulfill
ment of criminal justice obligations, such as
restitution, community service, or regular
Vocational Training and contacts with probation officers or other
Employment criminal justice officials
Although highly important to an offender’s • Brokering treatment and other services and
recovery, vocational training and employment ensuring continuity as the client moves along
can create problems when they are mandated criminal justice and treatment continuums
by the community supervision agency before • Monitoring and
the offender has been engaged in treatment. reporting progress
If the client has not undergone treatment, Attention to
• Providing client
there is a high risk that money earned will be support, such as
spent on drugs or alcohol. Another common identifying prob residential
result of mandating employment before treat lems and advocat
ment is that the offender may lose his or her ing with legal, resources for clients
job because of behavior related to substance social service, and
abuse. Achieving and maintaining abstinence medical systems in should be a critical
depends on structured, phased programming. response to needs
Vocational training should occur before
• Monitoring urinaly- factor in case plan-
employment to enable the offender to retain a
job or obtain a better one. Wexler (2001a) sis, breath analy
suggests beginning vocational training at the sis, or other chemi- ning by
start of treatment rather than introducing it cal testing for sub
at the end. Integrating vocational assessment, stance use corrections
counseling, training, placement, and followup Case management
throughout treatment is a challenge and tests the ability of supervisors.
requires consistent collaboration within and the criminal justice
outside of agencies. However, actuating voca and treatment sys
tional treatment goals can serve as the matrix tems to work collaboratively and is based on
holding all other goals of reintegration into two types of agreement: the agreement
the community. For additional information between the client and the two systems laying
about vocational issues and offenders, see out protocols and consequences of infrac
chapter 8 in TIP 38, Integrating Substance tions, and the agreement between the two
Abuse Treatment and Vocational Services agencies, a memorandum of understanding
(CSAT 2000c). (MOU) that defines how each will manage the
caseload of offender-clients in the jurisdic
Case Management tion. There can be one or two case managers
representing each system. If two case man
Case management is the process of linking the agers are involved, they must coordinate
offender with appropriate resources, tracking efforts, working to encourage a multidisci
his or her progress through required pro plinary response that takes advantage of a
220 Chapter 10
that are common to both
parolees and probationers. This Advice to the Counselor:
section addresses those issues. Recommended Treatment Services for
Treatment issues unique to pro People Under Community Supervision
bationers and parolees are
addressed in separate sections. • Help the client address basic needs, such as housing or
employment.
• A client’s living arrangements are crucial to treatment.
Self-Esteem and Counselors should be aware of residential resources and
Identity collaborate with corrections supervisors and probation
Shame and stigma are tremen and parole officers on finding appropriate housing for
dous obstacles for offenders to clients if needed.
overcome after an arrest or in • A client’s treatment plan should include recreational
making the transition between opportunities and other outlets to help them build
incarceration and the communi healthy social relationships in addition to the support
ty. One effective approach to clients may be receiving from their family.
overcoming this stigma involves • Try to start vocational training for clients at the begin
encouraging offender-clients to ning of substance abuse treatment rather than at the
become active as volunteers in end of treatment.
support of a community activity.
• Case management is an opportunity for the criminal jus
Providing an opportunity for
tice and substance abuse treatment systems to collabo
individuals to make a positive
rate to take advantage of a wide range of treatment
contribution to the community—
and rehabilitation options for clients.
to “give back”—may reduce
feelings of alienation and build • Relapse prevention skills should be part of each offender
self-regard. treatment plan, and personal relapse prevention plans
should be developed for all parolees receiving treat
Stories abound of ex-offenders ment. These plans address how clients can refuse drugs,
who experienced a successful identify triggers, and manage cravings.
recovery from substance use dis • One positive urine test or one drink after a long absti
orders through inspirational nence should not be viewed as a failure but as a signal
interventions and became men for stepped-up treatment and closer monitoring.
tors to young people, playing
key roles in steering them • Graduated sanctions for relapses should be specified in
toward law-abiding lives. the treatment plan because resumption of drug abuse
Successful programs recognize can lead to resumption of criminal activity.
the importance of building the
client’s sense of worthiness. traits and psychopathy. Targeting self-esteem
Program success also depends on the quality without also increasing sense of personal
of the staff, the treatment approach, and responsibility and empathy for others may
individual client motivation. Given the criti only result in a more confident criminal.
cal importance of self-esteem to recovery, the Community service serves to reconnect the
panel recommends that training in developing offender with the community and allows for
client self-esteem be mandatory for communi retribution.
ty corrections personnel.
222 Chapter 10
progress. When the client completes one goal, means that maintaining recovery is a long
the provider should be ready to suggest the term goal.
next. Incentives can be built into the system
as well. For example, the more frequent the
negative drug test results, the less frequent Lifestyle Changes
the mandatory testing. The kinds of changes community corrections
professionals ask drug offenders to undertake
Those who abuse substances often are gifted are extraordinarily challenging and difficult
manipulators with long histories of manipula to contemplate on a personal level. Many
tive behavior in many systems. They may be offenders have had limited experience with
able to simulate motivation but lack any real success and few opportunities to test their
emotional investment in changing behavior. ability to succeed. A drug court or prison
Clear, consistent, and uniform messages pro may be the first setting in which some offend
mote recovery and prevent the two systems ers have a genuine chance to discover the
from being used against one another. If the capacity to change their lifestyles.
word “on the street” is that staff can be
manipulated, treatment providers will face an A counselor who is a role model of courage or
uphill battle with many clients. compassion can often be very effective in per
suading clients to reevaluate their lifestyles.
Motivational interviewing is one of the most On the other hand, counselors should also be
frequently used strategies for enhancing moti prepared for setbacks, lapses, and slow
vation. The technique assumes the client’s progress, as offenders come to terms with the
ambivalence about change and produces cog extent of lifestyle change that is being asked
nitive dissonance by eliciting the negative con of them.
sequences of the addictive behavior.
Motivational interviewing has been effective
in the treatment of alcoholism (Bien et al. Self-Help Groups
1993; Galbraith 1989; Miller and Rollnick Self-help groups frequently are a crucial com
1991) and methadone treatment for opioid ponent in recovery; they can provide peer
abuse (Saunders et al. 1995; Van Bilsen and support and nurture positive change. As
Van Emst 1986). For more on motivational bridges between incarceration and communi
interviewing, see the section on brief treat ty, they can help with crises and personal
ment in chapter 8 and TIP 35 Enhancing growth. Probation and parole officers often
Motivation for Change in Substance Abuse advise clients to attend well-known programs
Treatment (CSAT 1999b). like Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics
Anonymous, saying, “Don’t take my word.
Negative Counselor Attitudes I’m not the expert. Listen to the folks who’ve
been there.” Other self-help groups may be
Treatment is impeded when counselors have a appropriate depending on a client’s beliefs,
negative perception of the client’s desire to needs, and interests, such as Survivors of
change, believe there is a poor prognosis for Incest Anonymous, Secular Organizations for
recovery, or are reluctant to serve offenders Sobriety, church or feminist groups, or veter
in general. Clients easily pick up on a an organizations. Practitioners need to
provider’s negative attitude, which often con remember, however, that although self-help
firms their own feelings about the futility of groups are not a substitute for counseling,
attempts to give up drugs. The cross-training they can be an important adjunct to it.
of professionals helps build an understanding
of offender-clients’ needs and potential, but
professionals in both systems must acknowl
edge that the very nature of substance abuse
224 Chapter 10
be legally obligated to disclose a
criminal past. Advice to the Counselor:
Treatment Issues for People Under
Research indicates that PACT is effective in reducing hospital recidivism and, less consistently, in
improving other client outcomes (Drake et al. 1998a; Wingerson and Ries 1999). Another study com
pared a PACT with a standard case management approach at 3-year followup. The results indicated
that the PACT adapted for clients with co-occurring disorders produced greater improvements on mea
sures of quality of life and clinician ratings of alcohol use and substance abuse (McHugo et al. 1999).
226 Chapter 10
nity are released on parole under conditional counterparts who did not receive aftercare
release (Petersilia 2000). A successful transi services. Inciardi (1996) reported similar
tion from offender to citizen often depends on findings: lower rates of drug use and recidi
successful treatment. Successful treatment vism than those enrolled only in institutional
helps individuals to be more realistic about treatment programs.
their strengths and weaknesses, more skilled Residential aftercare contributes to improved
and willing to endure obstacles encountered postprison outcomes. For optimal results, the
in maintaining a job or obtaining an educa offender should remain in treatment in the
tion, and more confident about meeting fami community. Studies show, for example, that
ly and work responsibilities. the most effective treatment lasts a minimum
of 3–6 months, and outcomes improve with
Continuum of Care additional time in treatment. This is true for
Because substance use disorders are long all treatment modalities and particularly for
term, relapsing illnesses, a crucial aspect for treatment of offenders (Hubbard et al. 1988;
reentry is to develop and sustain an integrat Simpson 1984; Wexler 1988).
ed continuum of care between substance
abuse treatment providers, the parole officer, Case Management
and social service agencies that can assist the
inmate’s reintegration into the community. Case management is the crucial function that
Ideally, cross-system integration for offender links the offender with appropriate resources,
transitional services contributes to cost bene tracks progress, reports information to super
fits as a result of reduced recidivism (Inciardi visors, and monitors conditions imposed by
1996; National Institute of Justice 1995; the supervising agency. These activities take
Swartz et al. 1996). However, the parolee place within the context of an ongoing rela
does not exist in a discrete, well-coordinated tionship with the client. The goal of case man
system, but rather in a cluster of independent agement is continuity of treatment, which, for
agencies and entities with separate justice the offender in transition, can be defined as
responsibilities. Some entities collaborate the ongoing assessment and identification of
closely; others do not. Most operate under needs and the provision of treatment without
separate funding streams, with differing orga gaps in services or supervision. Account
nizational missions that may or may not share ability is an important element of a transition
philosophical orientations toward public safe plan, and case management includes coordi
ty and offender rehabilitation. Boundary nating the use of sanctions and incentives
spanners and case managers can sometimes among the criminal justice, substance abuse
help maintain continuity. TIP 30, Continuity treatment, and possibly other systems.
of Offender Treatment for Substance Use Ideally, case management activities should
Disorders From Institution to Community begin in the institution before release and
(CSAT 1998b), discusses this topic in depth. continue without interruption throughout the
transition period and into the community.
Aftercare and Continuing Care Reassessments should be conducted at vari
ous stages throughout the incarceration and
Several studies have supported the long-term community release process. These periodic
efficacy of postprison aftercare and treatment assessments should form the basis for ongoing
services in the reduction of recidivism and case management and service delivery.
relapse. For example, Wexler (1995) found
that those who participated in prison- and Ancillary services are needed before and after
community-based therapeutic community release to prepare the offender for the return
treatment committed fewer crimes than their to family, employment, and the community.
• Phase 1—Protect and Prepare. Institution-based programs will provide services to prepare the
offender for reentry, including education, mental health and substance abuse treatment, job training
mentoring, and diagnostic and risk assessment.
• Phase 2—Control and Restore. These community-based transition programs will assist offenders prior
to and immediately following their release by providing education, monitoring, mentoring, life skills
training, assessment, job skills development, and mental health and substance abuse treatment.
• Phase 3—Sustain and Support. In this phase, community-based, long-term support programs help
offenders who have successfully completed their criminal justice supervision to connect with social ser
vices agencies and community-based organizations that provide ongoing services.
Further information on the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative is available at the Office
of Justice Programs Web site: http://www.crimesolutions.gov/ProgramDetails.aspx?ID=167
228 Chapter 10
Treatment Advice to the Counselor:
Issues Specific Treatment Issues for People on Parole
to Probationers • Counselors can collaborate with parole officers and social
service agencies to assist a client’s reintegration into the
Compared to parolees, proba
community and help maintain the continuity of services.
tioners are less likely to have
spent extended time in a correc • Counselors can help clients with securing postprison
tional facility, and their ties to aftercare and treatment services, which have been
the community are relatively shown to reduce recidivism and relapse.
intact. The latter is both a ben • Ancillary services (e.g., drug-free housing, employment,
efit and a detriment in terms of family support, transportation, education, health care)
substance abuse. On the one are needed before and after release from prison to pre
hand, offenders on probation pare the client for return to the community.
may have the support of their
families and their communities.
nated response. Figure 10-2 (next page) pro
They may be able to maintain some consisten
vides an example of how the goals of the
cy in their employment, their residence, and
treatment and criminal justice systems can be
their family lives. On the other hand, proba
viewed as similar, although on the surface
tioners face a more immediate return to the
they appear disparate.
surroundings and influences associated with
their drug or alcohol use. For example, the
offender with alcohol dependence is likely to Memorandum of
return to the same neighborhood with the
Understanding
same bars, liquor stores, and friends.
When a substance abuse treatment program
As with parolees, in order to be effective and a criminal justice agency collaborate, an
treatment must necessarily focus on changing MOU will outline the objectives of each part
ingrained patterns of behavior and thinking ner, the expectations each partner has about
and avoiding the people, places, and things the obligations of the other, and communica
that the offender associates with drug or alco tions between the program and the criminal
hol use. Unlike people on parole, however, justice agency. For programs treating offend
the issue is not so much to reintegrate into ers, it is crucial to identify who will make cer
society, but rather to learn new ways to live tain decisions and what kinds of information
in that society. Much of the information pre will be reported. For example, will the pro
sented in chapter 7 is also applicable to pro gram or the criminal justice agency decide
bationers, since many probationers have been when an offender’s relapse into alcohol or
sentenced through drug courts. drug use will be handled as a violation of the
conditions of probation? How detailed are the
program’s reports to the criminal justice
Strategies for agency? Matters such as these can be resolved
Improving System upfront between the program and criminal
justice agency. An MOU or letter of agree
Collaboration ment makes explicit the responsibilities
Initiatives such as cross-training, coordinated agreed upon by each system.
and comprehensive planning, and followup
interdisciplinary meetings can help justice
and treatment system partners to develop a
shared, client-centered mission and a coordi
230 Chapter 10
abuse treatment systems and should integrate Special presentations can be made to policy
personnel from both. The curriculum should makers (e.g., State and local legislators or advi
cover needs and approaches to specific popu sors to the State or county) that focus more on
lations in the jurisdiction, such as women, systems and legislative issues. For more on
minorities, those with co-occurring mental training on screening and assessment, see chap
disorders, and clients with special needs, and ter 2. For general information on treating
incorporate input from each of these groups offenders, see chapter 5.
to ensure the training’s relevance, accuracy,
and sensitivity. General topics to consider
include Sample Programs
• A broad overview of how each system works
• Common ground shared by substance abuse Treatment Accountability for
treatment and criminal justice systems Safer Communities
• Education on the language and jargon of the For a description of TASC, see chapter 7.
systems so that providers understand each
other’s language
• Clarification of system roles and personnel
The Amity Project
roles within each system The Amity Project was a collaboration
• Ways in which the two systems can communi between Amity, Inc., and the Pima County,
cate, work together, and manage conflicts Arizona, Department of Probation and fund
ed by The Center for Substance Abuse
• Cultural competence issues Treatment, U.S. Department of Health and
• Confidentiality requirements Human Services, in 1990. The program tar
• Effective case management for the offender- geted offenders who were at high risk of hav
client ing their probation revoked because of their
substance abuse. By incorporating the key
• Rationales for intermediate sanctions pro
elements of a therapeutic community into a
grams for drug offenders
day and evening program, the unique struc
• Eligibility requirements for intermediate ture escalated sanctions, including urine
sanctions programs and how they can be screens and varying supervision levels, case
applied to individual cases management, educational and vocational
• Reporting requirements and agreements training, family support and counseling, coor
• Pharmacotherapy dination of medical services, and intensive
aftercare. After 2 years, drug use relapses
Participants in training for this type of commu among probationers declined, positive urine
nity supervision program should include screens decreased by more than 50 percent in
• Judges the first year, and job placement increased.
Because of the success of the employment
• Prosecutors component, the project had to extend its
• Probation and parole officers activities to nights and weekends to accommo
• Treatment program administrators date the employed offenders. The program
ended when funding was not renewed, despite
• Counselors
its promising start (Healey 1999).
• Public treatment-funding agencies
• Defense attorneys
• Ancillary program staff
232 Chapter 10
Conclusions and • Probationers who have avoided incarcera
tion should receive education on the reali
Recommendations ties of incarceration and the impact of being
Based on their knowledge and experience, a felon on the offenders’ lives.
consensus panel members offer the following • Ideally, case management activities for
conclusions and recommendations regarding parolees should begin in the institution
treatment for probationers and parolees: before release and continue throughout the
• Offenders can be effectively controlled and transition period for a minimum of 3
managed by a combination of treatment and months of treatment after release.
surveillance while on probation at a far • Reassessment should be conducted through
lower cost than if they are in jail or prison. out the period of community supervision.
• Offenders under community supervision • All residential treatment should be followed
who have substance use disorders need ser by continued care in an outpatient setting.
vices from multiple systems. Services should • Optimally, probation and parole officers
be accessible on an as-needed basis to should visit and assess the client’s residence
ensure positive outcomes and smooth tran and place of employment periodically in the
sitions. course of community supervision.
• Cross-training of probation and parole offi • Vocational programming should be ongoing
cers, case managers, and substance abuse and integrated with substance abuse treat
counselors is vital for the delivery of coor ment.
dinated services.
• Community supervision staff should be
• Community supervision should be based on involved in treatment planning and treat
the recognition that relapses are unavoid ment team activities whenever possible,
able and not necessarily indicative of fail particularly when issues of sanctions and
ure. Intensification in the level of supervi placement in community treatment are
sion should be matched by an intensifica reviewed.
tion of the level of treatment. Likewise, the
intensity of supervision should decrease
over time as the individual meets treatment
goals.
To Program
Development
Overview
In This
An important thread running throughout this TIP is the interdepen
Chapter…
dence of criminal justice and substance abuse treatment systems,
which influences what program activities are undertaken and how
Reconciling Public Safety
they are implemented. The members of the TIP consensus panel feel
and Public Health
strongly that effective collaboration between the criminal justice and
Interests
substance abuse treatment systems can result in better treatment for
offenders and, ultimately, a reduction in crime. When available and
Interdependence of
235
ties designed to isolate, and supervise individ tant to both systems—is the reduction of
uals who threaten the lives and well-being of crime. The remainder of this chapter
others (Office of the Federal Register 2004). addresses ways to build on that common
The substance abuse treatment system’s focus ground to create systems that habilitate
is on restoring individuals to productive lives offenders, prevent crime, and protect the
and minimizing the consequences of alcohol public.
and drug dependence on people with sub
stance use disorders, their families, and com “Good treatment is good public safety.”
munities. —Claire McKaskill, former
Because of these differences in focus, the two county prosecutor in Missouri
systems sometimes operate at cross-purposes.
The perceived need to “get tough” on crime
and the rehabilitation of the offender have Interdependence of
ued debate.
Offenders are Treatment Systems
The missions of sometimes viewed The criminal justice and substance abuse
as less deserving treatment systems can work together to
public health competitors for improve the results of both systems. The
scarce substance Criminal Justice Treatment Planning Chart
departments and abuse treatment prepared by the Center for Substance Abuse
services compared Treatment (CSAT) might serve as a frame of
correctional to nonoffending cit- reference (CSAT 1994b). In the chart (Figure
izens. For some, 11-1, pp. 238–239), specific connections
agencies are punishment is the between the criminal justice and substance
primary goal; treat abuse treatment systems are targeted.
ment—if available
complementary. at all—is sec It is vitally important that these two systems,
ondary. and the people who work within them, agree
that treatment must be tailored to the partic
At the same time, ular criminal justice setting and to the client’s
security and public safety issues may not be a stage in the recovery process. Steps to pro
primary consideration for substance abuse mote integration between the criminal justice
treatment professionals. Counselors may for and the substance abuse treatment systems
get that offenders are there because they have are discussed below.
committed crimes, sometimes violent ones,
and that not all offenders will become law-
abiding citizens, even if they are not under Effective Collaboration
the influence of drugs or alcohol. Moreover, Between Criminal Justice and
some treatment programs may not address Treatment Systems
the additional needs of criminal justice
clients, such as issues underlying criminal Several conditions must exist for effective rela
activity (e.g., criminal belief systems and tionships between different groups or systems
criminal peer groups). (Argyris 1970), such as the treatment and crim
inal justice systems. These conditions include
Despite these differences, the missions of pub • Investment in the system’s effectiveness
lic health departments and correctional agen
• Confidence in their own system
cies are complementary. An important com
mon ground—a goal that is critically impor • Belief in the interdependent nature of the
systems
236 Chapter 11
• Willingness to accept or develop common in the criminal justice and substance abuse
goals to link the systems treatment systems. Whoever commissions the
• Willingness to work collaboratively with other collaborative project activities must be kept
systems on joint projects informed about progress and goals at every
stage, preferably in an informal, uncompli
The consensus panel recommends the following cated way. A systems audit may be an effec
basic principles, which are used to promote tive way to measure the starting point and
change in different organizations and systems level of collaboration. This may be conducted
but can be applied to the criminal justice and internally by project staff or by external eval
substance abuse treatment systems: uators.
• Development of leadership and goals
• Endorsement from system leaders Establishment of common
• Establishment of common goals and objec goals and objectives
tives
For systems collaboration to be effective, a
• Identification of stakeholders unifying goal must be identified and pursued.
The following section describes how these rec The planning group should set a unifying goal
ommended principles can be used to strengthen that encompasses the needs of both the sub
coordination between criminal justice and sub stance abuse treatment and criminal justice
stance abuse treatment systems. systems. For example, a goal to reallocate
money from current treatment programs in
order to treat other groups of offenders may
Development of leadership be divisive rather than unifying. However, a
and goals goal of finding new funding for offender treat
ment that focuses on the most dangerous
Small groups of individuals who have endorse offenders is an example of a superordinate or
ment of leadership within the criminal justice unifying goal. The process of articulating
and substance abuse treatment systems can goals will help to clarify and resolve differ
help develop an agenda for action. Preliminary ences among group members and to expedite
goals that link the two systems can then be project development. As soon as the goals
established. It is important that preliminary have been determined, objectives should be
goals identified are specific and attainable. described. A series of concrete objectives
Building on small successes at the beginning of should be accompanied by an action plan to
the process is important. achieve the goals. The objectives should then
be assigned to individual group members for
followup.
Endorsement from system
leaders
Formal endorsement should be obtained for
Identification of
collaborative projects from both systems’ stakeholders
leaders. Endorsement may be implicit if lead Everyone has a vested interest in preventing
ers are part of the group or may be obtained and addressing crime related to substance
from a more formalized process if they are abuse. As the example of Portland’s Regional
not. This endorsement can take the form of Drug Initiative (see text box on page 240)
an executive order from the governor, mayor, demonstrates, when systems and individuals
or commissioner; a legislative declaration for work together the results can be impressive.
the group’s work; or simply a memorandum
of understanding from those who hold power
The Drug Impact Index was an annual compilation of indicators that highlighted the severity of the drug
problem in Oregon and Multnomah County. The last volume of the Index (2001) showed that approxi
mately one fifth of those needing substance abuse treatment in Oregon received it in any one year.
The Index also showed that that when stakeholders cooperate, treatment can work. For example, every
dollar invested in public substance abuse treatment returned over $5 in direct costs to taxpayers. Other
significant findings from the report included:
• In the Multnomah County, Oregon STOP (Sanction Treatment Opportunity Progress) program, which
provided court-monitored outpatient treatment, graduates averaged 0.4 re-arrests 2 years following com
pletion of the program, versus 1.5 re-arrests for people who were eligible to participate in the program
but did not.
• Due to court-mandated treatment, for every dollar spent, $2.50 was saved in direct State and local
government costs. Total savings including theft and costs to victims amounted to $10 per dollar spent.
• Positive drug tests in the workplace had increased since 1997, after they had decreased by almost half
from 1993 to 1997.
• The percentage of adult arrestees testing positive for drugs was 67 percent in 2000. The percentage
testing positive for drugs was similar across a wide variety of offenses.
• Alcohol-involved traffic deaths declined 28 percent statewide and 43 percent in Multnomah County
between 1998 and 1999. Alcohol-related deaths are at their lowest level in over 20 years.
• Drug-related deaths dropped in 2000, both statewide (by 15 percent) and countywide (by 35 percent).
Eighty percent of drug-related deaths in Multnomah County were heroin related.
Source: Regional Drug Initiative 2001.
The following groups can be targeted to gar relevant issues. For example, officials might
ner support for initiatives designed to provide consider releasing an annual community
substance abuse treatment for offenders. progress report, similar to a corporate annual
report that includes facts such as the number
The public. As taxpayers, voters, and resi of people who have successfully completed a
dents, the public can influence what happens treatment program. When members of the
at every point along the criminal justice treat public participate in planning, an ongoing
ment continuum. As such, they are primary educative process is initiated. Public involve
stakeholders who should be kept informed of ment also can address fears associated with
240 Chapter 11
proximity to offenders who use drugs and ment systems must be kept open. Continual
help the public recognize the benefits of treat efforts should be made to communicate to the
ment programs (e.g., jobs in the community, media a full picture of the multifaceted issues
reduced crime, etc.). surrounding crime, substance use disorders,
and substance abuse treatment. When media
Victims. Those victimized by a crime include representatives are involved in planning, they
the crime victim and family members—espe may begin to see the positive side of joint
cially children and significant others. Several efforts of the criminal justice and substance
States have passed constitutional amendments abuse treatment systems.
that protect the rights of victims and that
usually provide an opportunity for the victim Legislators. Legislators should be consulted
to take part in the criminal justice process. and provided up-to-date information about
Additionally, community-based victims’ rights offenders who use substances and are
groups have been established in many com involved with the criminal justice system. It is
munities, and some prosecutors’ offices important that they also become aware of
employ victim advocates. “success” stories, so that the influence of
failed cases does not dominate their policy
Victims have a variety of interests, depending decisions. The political stance of being “tough
on the circumstances of their cases. Most vic on crime” and “waging war on drugs” has
tims want to see a combination of punish resulted in legislation requiring mandatory
ment, restitution, and protection, while oth sentences for drug offenses, which must be
ers may be interested in having the offender’s tempered with information regarding positive
substance abuse problem addressed. There treatment outcomes, the availability of effec
are a number of “indirect” victims of drug- tive alternatives to incarceration, and the
related crime who are not readily identified consequences of punitive approaches for drug
by law enforcement or the courts, such as offenders. Tough crime bills (e.g., “three
individuals who live near “crack” houses and strikes” laws) have resulted in high criminal
whose main goal is to close them down. As justice expenses that often shift limited funds
stakeholders, these victims should have the from social services and education to con
opportunity to represent their own interests. struction and operation of correctional facili
Recovering criminal justice clients. Offenders ties—actions that tend to exacerbate the
in recovery are the “consumers” of treatment crime problem and reduce the availability of
services. Although their criminal behavior needed services for citizens. In some cases,
creates public safety problems, often they are this type of punitive sentencing reform has
also the victims of abuse and other crimes. It been developed in reaction to a particularly
is important to include criminal justice clients heinous crime, with inadequate consideration
who are in recovery as stakeholders, since provided to the public policy consequences.
they are well informed about issues related to Community organizations. Community groups
coordination between the justice and treat include local boards, recreational programs,
ment systems. It is also important to refer church groups, neighborhood watches, and
ence the statements, writings, achievements, other community associations that address,
and testimonials of recovering criminal justice either directly or indirectly, the issues of sub
clients. stance abuse and criminal behavior. These
Media. The media play a major role in shap groups can play a role in prevention, treat
ing public attitudes toward the criminal jus ment, and referral. Advocacy groups such as
tice system, especially attitudes about how to Mothers Against Drunk Driving and other
handle substance-involved offenders. Avenues special interest groups also can work effec
of communication between the media and the tively at the community level to address pre
criminal justice and substance abuse treat vention issues. Their agendas often are con-
242 Chapter 11
Figure 11-2
Barriers to Effective Treatment
Problem Area Description of Problem Solution(s)
Assessment Assessment uses broad defini Expand treatment options by
tions of drug abuse and applies establishing larger numbers of
criteria unrelated to addiction. carefully targeted programs at
As a result, inmates are not more institutions.
always matched with the appro
priate level of services, and some
inmates who do not have sub
stance abuse problems are placed
in treatment.
Staff training Many newer prisons have been Offer better wages; recruit and
constructed in rural areas where train offenders who are serving
local communities have a smaller life sentences; and orient and
pool of treatment professionals train treatment staff and correc
and fewer people in recovery as tional staff together.
potential staff members.
Staff redeployment Effective correctional officers Change rotation policies; certify
and treatment counselors often and reward officers who wish to
move “up and out.” work in jail- or prison-based
treatment programs.
Overreliance on institutional In successful treatment pro Treatment and correctional staffs
sanctions grams, noncompliant partici cooperate to determine condi
pants face peer pressure and tions for imposing both therapeu
eventually develop internal con tic and institutional sanctions.
trols. Often, however, institution
al sanctions are imposed before
peers can have a positive impact.
Aftercare Many participants drop out of Establish treatment programs in
treatment as soon as they can; the community that cater to or
many providers in the communi willingly accept parolees, proba
ty hesitate to work with ex-pris tioners, and others under com
oners, especially those sentenced munity supervision.
for violent or sexual offenses.
Coercion Often inmates do not volunteer Focus on rewarding good behav
for treatment because peers ior. Remove disincentives and
attach stigma to it, programs add such inducements as early
demand more rules and struc release, better living quarters,
ture, and participants often lose and better job opportunities.
seniority and job opportunities in
the facility.
Source: Farabee et al. 1999.
All jail admissions are electronically routed to the management information system (MIS) operated by
the public mental health system, with the MIS automatically matching clients based on demographic and
other identifying information. Clients identified as matches with the mental health system are immedi
ately “flagged” for the jail diversion program—an initiative funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) to provide triage, case management, and treatment services
for nonviolent inmates who have co-occurring substance use and mental disorders. The jail diversion
team then evaluates potential candidates for its program, based on public safety risk factors, current
mental status, availability of community mental health and treatment resources for those with co-occur
ring disorders, and prior history in treatment services. Clients accepted into the jail diversion program
may be released from jail under pretrial or deferred prosecution arrangements to participate in treat
ment as a condition of community supervision. The Data Link Project has enabled the jail to increase
the number of inmates identified for diversion and treatment involvement by approximately 100 percent
within the first year of operation.
244 Chapter 11
example, substance abuse treatment signifi grams with this type of atmosphere are not
cantly enhances offenders’ accountability typically successful in engaging offenders in
through additional monitoring and communi treatment recovery.
cation with the courts, community supervi
sion, and other criminal justice staff. Justice system programs flourish when all
Accountability also is provided by drug test staff contribute to both the supportive envi
ing and by behavioral and skills-oriented ronment and accountability of the clients.
interventions that are provided by treatment. Keys to success include staff appreciation of
the need to set limits supportively and to
The consensus panel believes that the follow establish clear personal boundaries with
ing conceptual model is helpful in under clients. A final point for all staff who are inte
standing how the justice system is strength grating the work of criminal justice staff and
ened by substance abuse treatment involve treatment staff is that good treatment is good
ment. public safety. Treatment staff should demon
strate to justice system staff how their pro
gram might enhance safety and security.
Supportive environment with Substance abuse treatment programs can
accountability quickly demonstrate their worth by effective
A key issue for criminal justice programs is ly managing clients’ difficult behavior, sup
how treatment and justice system staff can porting the work of criminal justice staff, and
work together to maintain a positive atmo holding themselves and criminal justice staff
sphere that supports offenders’ recovery accountable for following through with their
efforts while confronting and managing respective commitments to the program.
offender “games” and manipulative coping
strategies. Programs that focus exclusively on Personnel needs
either supportive or confrontational
approaches generally are not effective within Training and professional and workforce
the criminal justice system. Criminal justice development issues are of paramount concern
treatment programs run smoothly and suc in implementation of treatment programs with
cessfully only when staff employ both sup the criminal justice system. Because the crim
portive and accountability procedures. inal justice system affects the environment in
“Confrontation” as used here does not mean which treatment occurs and provides the
a hard and aggressive verbal interchange, but structure to which the client must respond,
rather assertively pointing out misbehavior substance abuse treatment counselors need to
and discrepancies between goals and behav become familiar with the criminal justice sys
ior. tem, its unique terminology, and methods of
balancing client treatment needs with safety
Some programs are successful in implement issues. Treatment professionals working with
ing only half of this formula. Supportiveness criminal justice clients should be knowledge
without accountability leads to the appear able about criminogenic risk factors, the most
ance that staff are trying to be “friends” with effective strategies and approaches for use
clients, leaving staff vulnerable to offender with offender populations, and the need for
manipulation. The staff relationship with the professional boundaries.
client is better represented as that of a teach
er and student, with staff modeling adaptive By the same token, criminal justice staff
skills, behaviors, and attitudes. Conversely, should understand the goals of substance
accountability procedures that are developed abuse treatment, the effects of frequently
in a nonsupportive environment often lead to abused drugs, and the types of treatment that
an atmosphere characterized by hostility and are available. Treatment knowledge is partic
punitiveness. Criminal justice system pro ularly important for criminal justice staff,
246 Chapter 11
Research and education interventions that are less intensive
and less likely to produce long-term effects.
Evaluation
Research and evaluation is a critical dimen Implementation Evaluation
sion of substance abuse treatment programs
in the criminal justice system. Evaluations While programs often look promising in the
are needed for program monitoring and for proposal stage, many fail to materialize as
decisionmaking by program staff, prison planned in the security-oriented correctional
administrators, and policymakers. environment. Other
Evaluations provide accountability, identify programs are rigidly
strengths and weaknesses, and provide a implemented as
planned and without Research and
basis for program revision. In addition, eval
uation reports are useful learning tools for adjustments for the
realities of prison, evaluation is a
others who are interested in developing effec
tive programs. Many treatment programs in often rendering
the criminal justice system have operated them less effective. critical dimension
without evaluations for many years, only to Implementation
find out later that key outcome data are need evaluations are of substance abuse
ed to justify program continuation. aimed at identifying
problems and treatment
Conducting an adequate evaluation requires accomplishments
one to clearly formulate the treatment model during the early programs in the
and reasonable program goals and specific phases of program
objectives related to client needs. General development for
goals must be translated into measurable out feedback to clinical
criminal
comes. The evaluator generally works closely and administrative
with program administrators to translate staff. Such evalua justice system.
their evaluation guidelines into operational tions involve infor
components. For example, general goals of mal and formal
helping program participants become drug interviews with correctional administrators,
and crime free can be operationalized into officers, and inmates to ascertain their degree
intermediate goals of changing behavior (e.g., of satisfaction with the program and their
reductions in rule infractions and fewer posi perceptions of problems.
tive drug test results) while in a program.
In order to initiate an evaluation, in addition
There are three basic types of evaluations: to having a clear, detailed proposal that
1. Implementation describes the planned program, evaluators
will need to know
2. Process
• The model or theory the program is based on
3. Outcome
• Criteria for participation
While implementation and process evalua • Program components
tions can begin when the program is initiated,
outcome evaluation should not begin until the • Planned treatment duration
program has been fully implemented. • Staff qualifications
Outcome evaluations are generally more cost • Plans for staff orientation and training
ly than other types of evaluation and are war • The schedule for implementation
ranted for programs of longer duration that
are aimed at modifying lifestyles (such as These elements provide the basis for assess
therapeutic communities), rather than drug ment. Periodic implementation feedback
248 Chapter 11
Followup data (e.g., drug relapse, recidivism, the program group being monitored and the
employment status) are the heart of outcome comparison groups.
evaluation. Followup data can be collected
from criminal justice and substance abuse The defining characteristic of a pure research
treatment agency records or from face-to-face design is random assignment of inmates to
interviews with individuals who participated treatment and control groups. Random
in prison programs. Studies that use agency assignment may be done by using a lottery
records are less expensive than locating for type procedure that ensures that there are no
mer inmates and conducting followup inter systematic pretreatment differences between
views. Outcome evaluations can include cost- the groups (such as motivation or background
effectiveness and cost-benefit information characteristics). The concern is that any
that is important to policymakers. important preprogram difference in program
and control groups may bias the results and
Because outcome research usually involves a compromise any claims for program effective
relatively large investment of time and money, ness. Random assignment is difficult to imple
as well as the cooperation of a variety of peo ment in prisons because of ethical and legal
ple and agencies, it must be carefully implications of denying inmates treatment. If
planned. A research design may be very sim a program has a substantial waiting list it may
ple and easy to implement or it may be more be feasible to implement a lottery procedure
complex. In the case of more complex studies as a fair method to control program admis
it is usually advisable to enlist the assistance sion, thus creating a random assignment situ
of an experienced researcher. The kinds of ation.
outcome information that might be collected
are summarized in Figure 11-3 (next page). Nonrandom assignment is an attempt to
approximate the power of the pure experi
There is a hierarchy of evaluation approaches mental design. A popular quasi-experimental
ranging from simple outcome monitoring to design uses a comparison group that is
nonrandom or quasi-experimental designs to matched to the program group on as many
experimental research studies that use ran pretreatment factors as possible. Often, sta
dom assignment. The selection of a research tistical methods are employed to control pre
design depends on available funding and treatment group differences that might influ
available comparison groups. ence outcomes.
Any claims to a program’s effectiveness rest Locating criminal justice clients for outcome
on comparisons that demonstrate it is superi studies is a very difficult and expensive
or to nontreatment groups or to groups that undertaking. Collection of extensive locator
have received another type of treatment. The information at program intake will assist
power of a research design is related to how interviewers in the locating task. Examples of
defensible study results are against potential useful locator information include social secu
criticisms. Although simple outcome monitor rity number, driver’s license number, moth
ing studies are relatively economical to con er’s maiden name, aliases, names and loca
duct, they lack the comparison groups needed tions of family members and friends, and
to show the specific effects of a program. locations of favorite hangouts.
While specific program outcomes can be com
pared with national and State norms or with Large samples are needed in outcome studies
published outcomes of another program, such to demonstrate significant results and to
comparisons are limited because of the many study the effects of multiple variables. For
uncontrolled potential differences between example, an analysis of the role of ethnicity
(African American, Caucasian, and
Hispanic/Latino) reduces group size by a The consensus panel provided several recom
third. When reporting results it is generally mendations for improving evaluation efforts
best to use less complex statistics such as per within criminal justice programs:
centages and averages so that they are clear • Management information systems should be
and understandable to nonstatisticians. coordinated for use by substance abuse treat
Often, showing results in figures and charts is ment and justice system professionals. This
helpful. It is advisable to keep reports concise can lead to greater sharing of information
and clear for policymakers who may have lit and ensure that information is available for
tle time or patience to study complex materi evaluation purposes.
al. Finally, the credibility of outcome studies
• Quality assurance and quality improvement
is often enhanced when conducted by outside
measures should be applied across all crimi
researchers who have fewer vested interests
nal justice program settings.
in the outcomes.
250 Chapter 11
• Monitoring and evaluation should be part of • Total monthly or annual cost per offender
all major treatment initiatives established
within the criminal justice system. The major types of cost analyses include
“cost,” “cost-effectiveness,” and “cost benefit,”
and are described below in Figure 11-4.
Cost Issues
Some treatment program evaluations measure
Another critical area in program development
direct monetary outcomes, such as a reduc
is that of program costs, including cost sav
tion in the use of health services. Other treat
ings and cost-benefit/cost-offset information.
ment program evaluations can measure indi
Program administrators are routinely
rect costs, such as reduction in crime-related
required to provide evidence that monies are
costs, reduced recidivism, and the costs of
spent effectively. The literature indicates that
incarcerating offenders.
treatment has cost benefits in certain settings.
Positive cost-offset results (savings down the Other ways to report the relationship between
road) have been demonstrated from treat costs and benefits include
ment through specific approaches, such as
• The net benefit of a program can be shown
drug courts (Belenko 2001). Similar results
by subtracting the costs of a program from
have been shown for treatment in prison set
its benefits.
tings (McCollister and French 2001).
• The ratio of benefits to costs is found by
Cost analyses (see Figure 11-4 below for defi dividing total program benefits by total pro
nition) are important in determining how to gram costs.
allocate funds within a program and for • The time to return on investment is the time
understanding the relationship between costs it takes for program benefits to equal pro
and outcomes. Examining costs for the pro gram costs.
gram as a whole (or for parts of it) is a basic
form of cost analysis. Cost analyses can be • The present value of benefits takes into
provided as a monthly or quarterly report account the decreasing value of benefits
and costs generally vary over time. Costs pro attained in the distant future.
vided at several levels include: • Because neither net benefits nor cost-benefit
• Total cost of the program for the average ratios indicate the size of the cost (initial
treatment investment) required for treatment to yield
the observed benefits, it is important to
• Cost of each part of the program each day report this as well.
Figure 11-4
Definition of Terms
Name Definition
Cost analysis A thorough description of the type and amount of all resources
used to produce substance abuse treatment services.
Cost-effectiveness analysis The relationship between program costs and program effective
ness, that is, patient outcome.
Cost benefit analysis The measurement of both costs and outcomes in monetary terms.
Source: Yates 1999.
Under the SACPA initiative, offenders who are convicted of nonviolent drug-related offenses are eligible
for diversion to community treatment programs. Diversionary program eligibility is also provided for an
estimated 9,500 parole violators annually. Offenders may apply to have their charges dismissed after
successful completion of probation and treatment. Proponents of this law suggest that treatment saves
money and enhances public safety and public health by reducing crime and substance abuse. Opponents
countered that the proposition offers a quick fix that lacks safeguards, compromises public safety, and
invites ineffective treatment. The law became effective July 1, 2001. In its second year (July 2002 to
June 2003), about 50,000 offenders were referred for substance abuse treatment. Of those, about 71
percent (35,947) went on to enter treatment (Longshore et al. 2004).
252 Chapter 11
• It is vitally important that these two systems trained in substance abuse issues. Cross-
recognize that treatment must be tailored to training activities can encourage employees’
the particular criminal justice setting and to willingness to work with each other more and
the client’s stage in the recovery process. can help personnel manage the wide variety
• The following basic principles can be used to of “special needs” populations under crimi
promote change in the criminal justice and nal justice supervision as well as the impact
treatment systems: developing leadership, of managed care systems and tiered place
obtaining endorsement from systems leaders, ment criteria.
establishing common goals and objectives, • Research and evaluation are a critical dimen
identifying stakeholders, and encouraging sion of substance abuse treatment programs
collaboration among stakeholders. in the criminal justice system. Evaluations
• Good treatment programs contribute to provide feedback related to key issues and
enhancing safety and security, as program also can identify major problems related to
participants usually present the fewest safety program implementation.
and security-related problems. • Program costs are another critical area. Cost
• Substance abuse treatment professionals analyses can help a program determine how
should be trained in criminal justice issues, to allocate funds and understand the rela
and criminal justice personnel should be tionship between costs and outcomes.
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290 Appendix A
Appendix B:
Glossary
Acquittal
Judicial deliverance from a criminal charge on a verdict or finding of
not guilty.
ADAM
Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program; a program sponsored by
the National Institute of Justice that periodically administers drug
tests and short research interviews to samples of new arrestees in
selected cities.
Addiction
Drug craving accompanied by physical dependence that motivates
continuing use, resulting in a tolerance to the drug’s effects and a syn
drome of identifiable symptoms.
Adult offender
In most States people 18 or older are considered adult offenders and
processed through the adult criminal justice system, but in three
States people 16 or older are processed as adults and in some other
States it is 17 or older.
Aftercare
Treatment that occurs after completion of inpatient or residential
treatment.
291
Alcoholics Anonymous Booking facility
The best known of self-help support A secure lockup usually operated by the
groups, which serves as an important local police or sheriff’s department. New
adjunct to treatment. arrestees are taken to and held in booking
facilities for paper processing, fingerprint
Ancillary treatment services ing, criminal records, and warrant checks,
These include education about substance pending the initial appearance before a
abuse, self-help groups (Alcoholics judge.
Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous), and
skills training. Boot camp
Typically, a sentence to a boot camp (also
Arrest called shock incarceration) is for a relative
The physical taking of a person into cus ly short time (3–6 months). These camps
tody on the grounds that there is probable are characterized by intense regimentation,
cause to believe he or she has committed a physical conditioning, manual labor, drill
criminal offense. An arrest may follow an and ceremony, and military-style obedi
investigation by law enforcement and is ence.
authorized by a warrant issued by a court.
Boundary-spanner
Assessment An individual with knowledge of both sub
Evaluation or appraisal of a candidate’s stance abuse treatment and criminal justice
suitability for substance abuse treatment systems who can facilitate the interaction of
and placement in a specific treatment the two for the purpose of obtaining sub
modality/setting. This evaluation includes stance abuse treatment for offenders under
information on current and past use/abuse criminal justice supervision.
of drugs; justice system involvement; medi
cal, familial, social, educational, military, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment
employment, and treatment histories; and CSAT is a Federal agency within the
risk for infectious diseases (e.g., sexually Substance Abuse and Mental Health
transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, Services Administration (SAMHSA).
HIV/AIDS, and hepatitis). (See also SAMHSA is part of the Public Health
Screening.) Service, under the Cabinet-level
Department of Health and Human
Bail Services.
Security (usually financial) provided as a
guarantee that an arrested person will Changing the Conversation
appear for trial; release from imprisonment CSAT’s National Treatment Plan Initiative,
based on that security. (See also Financial published November 2000, which is a con
bail and Nonfinancial conditions.) sensus document on how to improve sub
stance abuse treatment and how those
Behavior contracts changes can be accomplished.
An agreement between counselor and client
about the sanctions and incentives that are Classification
to be applied when specified when the The process by which a jail, prison, proba
client performs specified behaviors. tion office, parole, or other criminal justice
agency assesses the security risk of an indi
Bond hearing vidual offender and the individual’s need
Proceeding before a judge to determine for social services.
what (if any) conditions to set for a
detainee’s release pending trial.
292 Appendix B
Clinical formulation Community treatment
The process of integrating information This is a program outside the formal crimi
obtained through assessment into larger nal justice setting. It may be run by public
patterns or processes. or private organizations (nonprofit or
profit-making). Treatment may take place
Clinicians in a residential group (e.g., a halfway
(See Counselors and clinicians.) house) or a nonresidential activity (e.g.,
Coercion required attendance at Alcoholics
The use of incentives and sanctions to Anonymous meetings). Treatment methods
encourage participation in substance abuse may vary. Both community treatment and
treatment. community supervision are usually man
dated by a court. An active partnership
Cognitive–behavioral therapy between these two should be built into
Treatment that focuses on learning and planning activities for both.
practicing coping skills, some of which are
cognitive in nature. Conditional release
Release from custody under specified con
Community corrections ditions.
A model of corrections that has a primary
goal of reintegrating the offender into the Confidentiality
community. Typically will consist of judi The right of privacy for a client’s/offend
cial dispositions that involve alternatives to er’s personal information, except in certain
incarceration, such as diversion program, law-enforcement situations.
house arrest, electronic monitoring, proba Continual interagency communication
tion, and parole. The ongoing cooperative effort among
Community notification laws treatment/criminal justice/public health
Laws that allow law enforcement to inform personnel needed to successfully treat and
the public of the whereabouts (in some supervise offenders involved with drugs.
jurisdictions the specific home address) of Communication among these systems facili
offenders. The laws generally apply to sex tates a united approach.
offenders and typically include the “risk” Co-occurring disorders
level of the offender. Community notifica TIP 42, Substance Abuse Treatment for
tion laws are in effect in 50 States and the People With Co-Occurring Disorders, uses
District of Columbia. the term to specify the co-occurrence of a
Community reintegration planning mental disorder and a substance use disor
Preparation and strategy for each prison der. Other uses of the term include sub
er’s release from custody. The plan pre stance abuse accompanied by one or more
pares for the prisoner’s return to the com physical or psychological conditions.
munity in a law-abiding role after release. Sometimes referred to as dual disorders.
Glossary 293
Court-mandated treatment Determinate sentence
A court order to participate in treatment as A sentence in which the length of incarcer
part of a sentence or in lieu of some aspect ation is fixed by the court.
of the judicial process.
Deterrence
Cultural competence Being deterred from criminal activity
A set of academic and interpersonal skills because of fear of involvement in the crimi
that helps individuals increase their under nal justice system or other punishment.
standing and appreciation of cultural differ
ences and similarities within, among, and Detoxification
between groups. It requires a willingness A structured medical or social milieu in
and ability to draw on community-based which an individual is monitored for with
values, traditions, and customs and to work drawal from the acute physical and psycho
with knowledgeable people from the commu logical effects of addiction.
nity in developing focused interventions, Developmental interagency
communication, and support. (See TIP 12, coordination
appendix C, for more on this topic, such as Collaboration among personnel from crimi
the “Continuum of Competence.”) nal justice, treatment, and public health to
Curfew form expert justice/treatment/public health
In the criminal justice context, a rule or systems. For example, developmental inter-
condition applied to individuals on proba agency coordination is essential in the
tion or parole, requiring them to be in their assessment of the drug-involved offender
residence and remain there by a specific and in the development of referral proce
time. An individual sentenced to house dures and reporting policies, as well as in
arrest will have a curfew. understanding each system’s definition of
success and failure.
Day reporting center
An intermediate sanction, this is a place Disposition
where offenders on probation or parole The final resolution of a criminal case (e.g.,
must report to receive supervision for a in a case in which an individual is found
certain number of hours each day. These not guilty, the disposition is an acquittal
centers may include educational services, and release).
vocational or skills training, and other ser Diversion
vice delivery. Offenders may also report by The process whereby a defendant’s prose
phone from a job or treatment site during cution is deferred or dropped if certain
the day. conditions are met. Diversion also is the
Denial breaking judicial option to refer prison-bound cases
An intervention strategy designed to con to a review board, which in turn may rec
front thought processes that prevent the ommend that the original sentence be modi
individual from acknowledging problems fied or suspended and that the offender be
related to his or her use of alcohol or illicit placed in a residential or nonresidential
substances. program.
294 Appendix B
support services. They often operate with Habilitation
probation supervision and services. Training in social problemsolving skills for
people with mental illness requiring the
Drug testing client to: (1) define the problem; (2) gener
Technical examination of urine samples to ate alternative solutions; (3) choose the best
determine the presence or absence of speci solution, (4) make a plan, and execute it;
fied drugs or their metabolized traces. and (5) evaluate the outcome.
Drug use forecasting Halfway house
Arrestee urinalysis data based on studies A transitional facility where a client is
conducted under the Drug Use Forecasting involved in school, work, training, etc. The
(DUF) System of the National Institute of client lives onsite while either stabilizing or
Justice. reentering society drug free. The client
DSM-IV usually receives individual counseling, as
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edi well as group/family/marital therapy. He or
tion, published by the American she may leave the site only for work,
Psychiatric Association, a standard manual school, or treatment. This facility can be in
used to categorize psychological or psychi the community or attached to a jail or simi
atric conditions. lar institution. (See also Work release.)
Glossary 295
substance use disorders who are assessed or so cells to urban settings with thousands
as at high risk for such diseases. Those of cells. Jails usually are operated by cities
with substance use disorders who are or counties.
assessed as at low risk should be reassessed
intermittently. Thus, collaboration between Linkages
criminal justice personnel, treatment per The provider establishes working relation
sonnel, and public health personnel must ships with various agencies and facilities in
be developed in order to ensure interagen order to refer clients with multiple life
cy coordination in the assessment and problems to accessible, appropriate voca
treatment of the drug-involved offender at tional training, medical, assisted living, and
various stages throughout the criminal jus legal assistance services.
tice continuum and in the development of Management Information System (MIS)
referral procedures and reporting policies, A computer system that assists in organiz
as well as in understanding each system’s ing information for the purposes of plan
definitions of success and failure. ning and maintaining a business or other
Intermediate sanctions organization.
Community-based programs providing Mandatory release
increased surveillance, tighter controls on Required release of an inmate from incar
movement, more intense treatment for a ceration upon the expiration of a certain
wider assortment of maladies or deficien period, as stipulated by a determinate sen
cies, increased offender accountability, and tencing law or by parole guidelines.
greater emphasis on payments to victims
and/or corrections authorities. Inter Memorandum of understanding (MOU)
mediate sanctions are less punitive than A written but noncontractual agreement
incarceration but more punitive than sim between two or more agencies or other par
ple probation. (See also Sanctions.) ties to take a certain course of action.
Interpersonal issues Methadone treatment
Those between the client and counselor in Medically supervised outpatient treatment
the therapeutic relationship. Includes that provides counseling while maintaining
boundaries, training, the need for peer role a client on the drug methadone (used main
models and cultural sensitivity, respect for ly for heroin or other opioid addiction).
confidentiality and privacy, and the coun
selor’s duty to report certain client crimes. Monitoring for compliance
Surveillance of an offender to ensure that
Intrapersonal issues the conditions imposed on an individual
Those stemming from an individual’s psy are being adhered to.
chological makeup and/or physical condi
tions (including co-occurring disorders), as Narcotics Anonymous
well as one’s social skills, educational sta A self-help and support group similar to
tus, and personal support system. Alcoholics Anonymous.
296 Appendix B
having substance abuse problems, com Peer staff
pared to the total number not having sub Individuals in recovery from substance
stance abuse problems. abuse disorders who have been trained for
work in the treatment or criminal justice
Nonfinancial conditions areas.
Release requirements set by a judge that do
not include monetary payment (e.g., Personal bond
required participation in supporting ser Release from court on one’s own promise to
vices, such as substance abuse treatment). appear in court, without financial condi
(See also Bail and Financial bail.) tions. Similar to release on recognizance.
Nonresidential treatment of Pharmacotherapies
incarcerated people Treatment of disease with drugs. In sub
In this form of treatment, prisoners receive stance abuse treatment, these include
treatment either through day care pro methadone, naltrexone, and buprenor
grams, regularly scheduled therapeutic phine.
groups, or other nonresidential programs.
Placement
“No Wrong Door” Assigning substance abuse treatment pro
This key component of CSAT’s National gram participants with appropriate com
Treatment Initiative indicates that no mat munity substance abuse treatment facilities
ter where they enter the health or social when such individuals leave the correction
service system, people should be able to get al facility at the end of a sentence or on
treatment for substance abuse, either parole.
directly or through appropriate referral.
Plea bargain
Offender Profile Index An agreement by a defendant to plead
A standardized assessment tool used to guilty to a criminal charge with the expec
conduct a comprehensive drug evaluation tation of receiving some consideration from
and to match offenders’ drug problems the prosecution for doing so. Typically the
with treatment approaches. (See also consideration is a reduction of the charge.
Addiction Severity Index.) The defendant’s goal is a penalty lighter
than the one warranted by the charged
On recognizance offense.
Release on one’s own responsibility (e.g.,
with an obligation to appear in court, but Positive predictive value
the release is not secured by financial bail). The proportion of offenders identified by a
screening or assessment instrument as hav
Overall accuracy ing substance abuse problems, compared to
The extent to which a screening or assess the total number having substance abuse
ment instrument classifies respondents cor problems.
rectly.
Preliminary hearing
Parole A court hearing in which initial informa
The conditional release of an inmate from tion about the case is presented. This hear
prison under supervision after part of a ing usually is used to determine if there is
sentence has been served. The inmate is sufficient evidence of guilt to continue the
subject to specific terms and conditions case, resolve evidentiary issues, or make
which are monitored by an officer/agent. initial case decisions.
Glossary 297
Prerelease assessment Probation
This information on an individual’s situa A sentence in which the offender is allowed
tion/condition, as provided by treatment to remain in the community in lieu of
professionals, should be available to the incarceration. The individual is supervised
judge, prosecutor, and other participants and is ordered to comply with specific
at the time of a presentence hearing or terms and conditions.
trial/sentencing. If an individual is paroled,
the information should be conveyed to the Problem-solving courts
parole officer for followup and evaluation. These specialized court settings include
Recommendations for referral for treat drug courts, family courts, jail courts, and
ment can be made at this time. mental health courts.
298 Appendix B
Restoration Sentencing
Sometimes referred to as reparation, its The disposition of a case where penalties
aim is to restore the community to its state are imposed.
before a crime was committed. It does this
in part by preventing the offender from Skills training
reoffending through rehabilitation, inca This includes job and vocational skills, life
pacitation, or deterrence. skills (budgeting, leisure, etc.), literacy and
GED classes, anger management, general
Restitution coping skills, communication skills, parent
Payment by an offender of the costs of a ing classes, building families and relation
victim’s losses or injuries and/or damages ships, and social skills.
to the victim. Payment can be made to a
general victim compensation fund or to the Sobering station
community as a whole (with the payment A 24-hour facility where individuals can be
going to the municipal or State treasury). housed and monitored while under the
influence of mood-altering substances.
Risk/needs assessment
A comprehensive report that includes a Sobriety maintenance
client’s social, criminal, and other history. The last step in recovery when the client
The report usually includes a recommenda has achieved stable sobriety and efforts are
tion for sentencing if the client is found directed toward maintaining that stability.
guilty. Special-needs probation programs or
Sanctions caseloads
Legally binding orders of a court or parol In these approaches to intermediate sanc
ing authority that deprive or restrict tions, officers with special training carry a
offender liberty or property. An intermedi restricted caseload. Typically, these
ate sanction (see p. 296) is more rigorous approaches are used with offenders who
than traditional probation but less so than have committed certain categories of
total incarceration. domestic violence, sex offenses, and DUI,
and with offenders who are mentally ill,
Screening developmentally disabled, or abuse sub
Gathering and sorting of information used stances. This situation can mean more
to determine if an individual has a problem intensive or intrusive supervision than in
with substance abuse and, if so, whether a routine caseloads; enhanced social and psy
detailed clinical assessment is appropriate. chological services; and/or specific training
(See also Assessment.) or group activities, such as anger manage
ment classes.
Security classification (in criminal
justice) Specific populations
The process of assigning an inmate to a cat These include a wide range of people facing
egory based on the perceived likelihood of a wide range of issues—for example,
an offender’s attempt at escape, propensity racial/ethnic/sexual minorities and women,
for violence, or management concerns. people with disabilities, older people, and
those who are underserved or underrepre
Sensitivity sented in treatment. This term can also
The extent to which a screening or assess include violent offenders, sexual offenders,
ment instrument accurately identifies those victims or perpetrators of domestic abuse,
with substance use disorders (true posi psychopaths, and offenders with life sen
tives). tences.
Glossary 299
Specificity Treatment matching
The extent to which a screening or assess Pairing clients with treatments and services
ment instrument accurately identifies those that reflect their particular traits and
without substance use disorders (true nega needs in order to enhance the potential for
tives). better outcomes.
Split sentence Treatment planning
A sentence involving a short period of The process of planning a client’s total
incarceration followed by probation or course of treatment, based on the findings
some other form of community supervision. of assessment procedures.
Stakeholders Treatment progress assessment
Those who have a key interest/investment A process that determines the value of the
in an issue or activity—includes clients, chosen course of treatment, its suitability
treatment and criminal justice personnel, for the client, and how it should be extend
and policymakers. ed or adjusted if necessary.
Test-retest reliability Triage
This quality of a screening or assessment A process for sorting injured people into
instrument, expressed as a coefficient, is groups based on their need for medical
“obtained by administering the same test a treatment—in short, immediate attention
second time to the same group after a time and first-stage treatment for people with
interval and correlating the two sets of substance abuse disorders and others.
scores” (American Educational Research
Association 1999, p. 183). Trial
A court hearing at which a prosecutor pre
Therapeutic community sents a case against a defendant to show
Traditionally, this is a long-term (up to 24 that he or she is guilty of a crime. The
months) rehabilitative model that relies defendant presents information to support
mainly on peer staff and on work as educa the plea that he or she is not guilty. The
tion and therapy. Other staff include treat judge or jury decides the verdict.
ment and mental health professionals and
vocational and educational counselors. The Unbroken contact
aim here is a global change in a person’s Early, thorough, and substantial substance
lifestyle, focused on developing vocational, abuse treatment delivered in an unbroken
educational, and social skills. Most resi manner throughout the entire criminal
dents have been involved with the criminal case-handling process, from arrest through
justice system. the completion of the sentence. The compo
nents of the system must transfer not only
Treatment the offender but also the cumulative record
Refers to the broad range of primary and of what the system has learned and what it
supportive services—including identifica has done.
tion, brief intervention, assessment, diag
nosis, counseling, medical services, psycho Urinalysis
logical services, and followup—provided The testing of a urine sample for the pres
for people with alcohol and illicit drug ence of drugs.
problems. The overall goal of treatment is
to eliminate the use of alcohol and illicit
drugs as a contributing factor to physical,
psychological, and social dysfunction and
to arrest, retard, or reverse progress of
associated problems.
Glossary 301
Waiver
A court action in which the defendant
agrees to forgo certain legal rights, such as
the right to a grand jury hearing or the
right to a speedy trial. The term is also
used to indicate the transfer of a juvenile
offender to the adult criminal justice sys
tem when he or she has been accused of
committing certain serious crimes.
Work release
An alternative to total incarceration,
whereby inmates are permitted to work for
pay in the free community but must return
to a secure facility during their nonworking
hours. (See also Halfway House.)
300 Appendix B
Appendix C:
Screening and
Assessment
Instruments
Clinical utility: The ASI has been used extensively for treatment planning
and outcome evaluation. Outcome evaluation packages for individual pro
grams or for treatment systems are available.
Groups with whom this instrument has been used: Designed for adults
of both sexes who are not intoxicated (drugs or alcohol) when interviewed.
Also available in Spanish.
Norms: The ASI has been used with males and females with drug and
Fee for use: No cost; minimal charges for photocopying and mailing may
apply.
303
The Alcohol Use Beck Depression
Disorders Identification Inventory–II (BDI–II)
Test (AUDIT) Purpose: Used to screen for the presence and
rate the severity of depression symptoms.
Purpose: The purpose of the AUDIT is to iden
tify persons whose alcohol consumption has Clinical utility: Like its predecessor, the
become hazardous or harmful to their health. BDI–II consists of 21 items to assess the intensi
ty of depression. The BDI-II can also be used
Clinical utility: The AUDIT screening proce
as a screening device to determine the need for
dure is linked to a decision process that
a referral for further evaluation. Each item is a
includes brief intervention with heavy drinkers
list of four statements arranged in increasing
or referral to specialized treatment for patients
severity about a particular symptom of depres
who show evidence of more serious alcohol
sion. These new items bring the BDI–II into
involvement.
alignment with Diagnostic and Statistical
Groups with whom this instrument has been Manual for Mental Disorders, 4th edition
used: Adults, particularly primary care, emer (DSM-IV) criteria.
gency room, surgery, and psychiatric patients;
Items on the new scale replace items that dealt
DWI offenders, criminals in court, jail, and
with symptoms of weight loss, changes in body
prison; enlisted men in the armed forces; work
image, and somatic preoccupation. Another
ers in employee assistance programs and indus
item on the BDI that tapped work difficulty
trial settings.
was revised to examine loss of energy. Also,
Norms: Yes, heavy drinkers and people with sleep loss and appetite loss items were revised
alcohol use disorders. to assess both increases and decreases in sleep
and appetite. The BDI-II shows improved clini
Format: A 10-item screening questionnaire cal sensitivity and higher reliability than the
with 3 questions on the amount and frequency BDI.
of drinking, 3 questions on alcohol depen
dence, and 4 questions on problems caused by Groups with whom this instrument has been
alcohol. used: All clients aged 13 through 80 who can
read and understand the instructions and
Administration time: 2 minutes. clients who cannot read (requires reading the
statements to them).
Scoring time: 1 minute.
Norms: The BDI has been used with people
Computer scoring? No. with substance use disorders, psychiatric
Administrator training and qualifications: The patients, medical inpatients, and many other
AUDIT is administered by a health profession populations.
al or paraprofessional. Training is required for Format: Paper-and-pencil self-administered
administration. A detailed user’s manual and a test.
videotape training module explain proper
administration, procedures, scoring, interpre Administration time: 5 minutes, either self-
tation, and clinical management. administered or administered verbally by a
trained administrator.
Fee for use: No.
Scoring time: N/A.
Available from: Can be downloaded
from Project Cork Computer scoring? No. Any staff member can
Web site: perform the simple scoring.
http://www.projectcork.org
304 Appendix C
Administrator training and qualifications:
Doctoral-level training or master’s-level train
Circumstances,
ing with supervision by a doctoral-level clini Motivation, and
cian are required to interpret test results.
Readiness Scales (CMR
Fee for use: $66 for manual and package of 25
record forms.
Scales)
Purpose: The instrument is designed to predict
Available from: The Psychological retention in treatment and is applicable to both
Corporation residential and outpatient treatment modalities.
19500 Bulderve
San Antonio, TX 78259 Clinical utility: The instrument consists of four
Ph: (800) 872-1726 derived scales measuring external pressure to
enter treatment, external pressure to leave
treatment, motivation to change, and readiness
for treatment. Items were developed from focus
CAGE Questionnaire
groups of recovering staff and clients and
retain much of the original language. Clients
Purpose: The purpose of the CAGE entering substance abuse treatment perceive
Questionnaire is to detect alcoholism. the items as relevant to their experience.
Clinical utility: The CAGE Questionnaire is a Groups with whom this instrument has been
very useful bedside, clinical desk instrument used: Adults.
and has become the favorite of many family
practice and general internists—also very pop Norms: Norms are available from a large sec
ular in nursing. ondary analysis of more than 10,000 clients in
referral agencies, methadone maintenance,
Groups with whom this instrument has been drug-free outpatient and residential treatment.
used: Adults, adolescents (over 16 years). Norms are also available for specific popula
tions, such as clients with COD, prison-based
Norms: Yes.
programs, and women’s programs.
Format: Very brief, relatively nonconfronta
Format: 18 items at approximately a third-
tional questionnaire for detection of alco
grade reading level. Responses to the items
holism, usually beginning “have you ever” but
consist of a 5-point Likert scale on which the
which can be phrased to refer to past month or
individual rates each item on a scale from
current behavior.
Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. Versions
Administration time: Less than 1 minute. are also available in Spanish and Norwegian.
level of treatment and treatment/goal planning. Purpose: Used to screen for alcoholism with a
variety of populations.
Groups with whom this instrument has been
used: Individuals with at least a sixth grade Clinical utility: A 25-item questionnaire
reading level. designed to provide a rapid and effective
screen for lifetime alcohol-related problems
Norms: Yes. A normative sample consisting of and alcoholism.
501 patients, representative of those applying
for treatment in Toronto, Canada. Groups with whom this instrument has been
used: Adults.
306 Appendix C
Available from: Melvin L. Selzer, M.D.
6967 Paseo Laredo
University of Rhode
La Jolla, CA 92037-6425 Island Change
Assessment (URICA)
Structured Clinical Purpose: The URICA operationally defines
four theoretical stages of change—precontem
Interview for DSM-IV plation, contemplation, action, and mainte
Disorders (SCID) nance—relevant to change of a “problem”
determined by the subjects, each assessed by
Purpose: Obtains Axis I and II diagnoses using eight items. For an alcohol problem popula
the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for enabling the tion, a 28-item version with 7 items per sub
interviewer to either rule out or to establish a scale is available.
diagnosis of “drug abuse” or “drug depen
dence” and/or “alcohol abuse” or “alcohol Clinical utility: Assessment of stages of
dependence.” change/readiness construct can be used as a
predictor of treatment and outcome variables.
Clinical utility: A psychiatric interview.
Groups with whom this instrument has been
Groups with whom this instrument has been used: Both inpatient and outpatient adults.
used: Psychiatric, medical, or community-
based normal adults. Norms: Yes, for outpatient alcoholism treat
ment population.
Norms: No.
Format: The URICA is a 32-item inventory
Format: A psychiatric interview form in which designed to assess an individual’s stage of
diagnosis can be made by the examiner asking a change, located along a continuum of change,
series of approximately 10 questions of a client. in people who abuse alcohol or drugs.
Administration time: Administration of Axis I Administration time: 5 to 10 minutes to com
and Axis II batteries may require more than 2 plete.
hours each for patients with multiple diag
noses. The Psychoactive Substance Use Scoring time: 4 to 5 minutes.
Disorders module may be administered by itself
in 30 to 60 minutes. Computer scoring? Yes, computer-scannable
forms.
Scoring time: Approximately 10 minutes.
Administrator training and qualifications: N/A
Computer scoring? No.
Fee for use: No; instrument is in the public
Administrator training and qualifications: domain. Available from author.
Designed for use by a trained clinical evaluator
at the master’s or doctoral level, although in Available from: Carlo C. DiClemente
research settings it has been used by bachelor’s University of Maryland
level technicians with extensive training. Psychology Department
1000 Hilltop Circle
Fee for use: Yes. Baltimore, MD 21250
Ph: (410) 455-2415
Available from: American Psychiatric
Publishing, Inc.
1400 K Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20005
http://www.appi.org/
Patrick Coleman
Deputy Director
Bureau of Justice Assistance
Washington, DC
Gloria Danzinger
Staff Director
Standing Committee on Substance Abuse
American Bar Association
Washington, DC
309
Jennifer Kay Edwards, M.A. Stacia Murphy
Assistant to the Deputy Director President
Corrections Program Office National Council on Alcoholism and Drug
U.S. Department of Justice Dependence
Washington, DC New York, New York
310 Appendix D
Jennifer Taussig, M.P.H. Beth A. Weinman, M.A.
Health Scientist National Drug Abuse Treatment
Centers for Disease Control and Coordinator
Prevention Federal Bureau of Prisons
Atlanta, Georgia Department of Justice
Washington, DC
Vicky Verdeyen
Psychology Administrator Steve Wing
Bureau of Prisons Senior Advisor for Drug Policy
Department of Justice Office of Policy and Program
Washington, DC Coordination
Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration
Rockville, Maryland
Deion Cash
Executive Director
Community Treatment & Correction
Center, Inc.
Canton, Ohio
African American Workgroup
313
Appendix F:
Special Consultants
Note: The information given indicates each participant's affiliation during
the time the panel was convened and may no longer reflect the individual's
current affiliation.
315
Appendix G:
Field Reviewers
Note: The information given indicates each participant's affiliation during
the time the panel was convened and may no longer reflect the individual's
current affiliation.
Sonya Brown
State TASC Director
Division of Mental Health
Developmental Disabilities and
Substance Abuse Services, HHS
Raleigh, North Carolina
317
Laura Choate Hendree E. Jones, Ph.D.
Manager Assistant Professor
Office of Drug Court Programs CAP Research Director
California Department of Alcohol Department of Psychiatry and
and Drug Programs
Behavioral Sciences
Sacramento, California
Johns Hopkins University Center
Baltimore, Maryland
Richard Craig, Ph.D.
Director of Research Margaret Williams Kherlopian
Patuxent Institution Coordinator of Criminal Justice
Jessup, Maryland Programs
South Carolina Department of Alcohol
George De Leon, Ph.D. and Other Drug Abuse Services
Director Columbia, South Carolina
Center for Therapeutic Community
Research Kevin Knight, Ph.D.
National Development and Research Research Scientist
Institutes, Inc. Texas Christian University
New York, New York Fort Worth, Texas
Cleveland, Ohio
Ethan Nebelkopf, Ph.D., MFCC
Jerry P. Flanzer, D.S.W., LCSW, CAC Clinic Director
Chief Family and Child Guidance Center
Services Research Branch Native American Health Center
National Institute on Drug Abuse Oakland, California
Bethesda, Maryland
Michael L. Prendergast, Ph.D.
Richard S. Gebelein Director
Judge Criminal Justice Research Group
Superior Court of Delaware UCLA Integrated Substance Abuse
Wilmington, Delaware Programs
318 Appendix G
Robert Philip Schwartz, M.D. Angel Velez, CASAC
Medical Director Addiction Program Specialist-II
Friends Research Institute New York State Office of Alcohol and
Baltimore, Maryland Substance Abuse Services
New York, New York
Elizabeth Simoni, J.P.
Executive Director Pogos H. Voskanian, M.D.
Maine Pretrial Services, Inc. Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania
Portland, Maine
Robert Walker, M.S.W., LCSW
Elizabeth Stanley-Salazar Assistant Professor
Vice President Center on Drug and Alcohol Research
Director of Public Policy University of Kentucky
Phoenix Houses of California Lexington, Kentucky
Lake View Terrace, California
Suzanne L. Wenzel, Ph.D.
Richard E. Steinberg, M.S. Behavioral Scientist
President/Chief Executive Officer RAND
WestCare Foundation, Inc. Santa Monica, California
Las Vegas, Nevada
Karen M. Wheeler
Pamela D. Stokes, M.S.M. Program and Policy Development
Program Analyst Specialist
National Association of State Office of Mental Health and Addiction
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Directors, Inc. Services
Washington, DC Salem, Oregon
Numerous people contributed to the development of this TIP, including the TIP Consensus Panel
(see page xi), the Knowledge Application Program (KAP) Expert Panel and Federal Government
Participants (see page xiii), the SAMHSA Resource Panel Meeting attendees, (see Appendix D),
the KAP Cultural Competency and Diversity Network participants (see Appendix E), Special
Consultants (see Appendix F), and TIP Field Reviewers (see Appendix G).
This publication was produced under KAP, a Joint Venture of The CDM Group, Inc. (CDM), and
JBS International, Inc. (JBS), for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.
CDM KAP personnel included Rose M. Urban, M.S.W., J.D., LCSW, LCAS, KAP Executive
Deputy Project Director; Susan Kimner, Managing Project Co-Director; Elizabeth Marsh, former
KAP Deputy Project Director; Sheldon Weinberg, KAP Senior research/Applied Psychologist;
Raquel Witkin, former Deputy Project Manager; Deborah Steinbach, former Editor/Writer ;
Janet Humphrey, former Editor/Writer; Michelle Myers, former Quality Assurance Editor;
Elizabeth Plevyak, former Editorial Assistant; and Virgie D. Paul, M.L.S., Librarian.
320
Index
abuse treatment for adults in the criminal justice parent training, 100
system, the use of these terms as entry points has parole, 229
been minimized in this index. Commonly known pretrial setting, operating in, 143
acronyms are listed as main headings. Page refer prison treatment approaches, 198
rescreening, 16
history of, 27
trauma, screening for, 29
programs, 245
in community supervision settings, 227
acculturative stress, 94
in jail settings, 185
about, 3
Amity
coercion, 80
Project, 231
credibility, counselor, 83
management, 103, 173, 195
criminal thinking, 74
antisocial personality disorder
cross-training, 179
definition, 112
family involvement, 78
anxiety disorders, 116
female offenders, 97
arraignment, 128–129
homelessness, 73
Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program, 1,
321
and continuity of information, 14
Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2
definition, 8
domains, 18
C
as equated with suitability, 8
California Drug and Alcohol Treatment Assessment
guidelines for, 10, 34
study, 2
inadequate, as barrier, 47
Case Management Classification system, 55
protocols, 39–40
child custody. See parenting
purpose of, 13
Client’s Recovery Plan, 67, 68–69
recommendations, 40–42
coerced treatment, 22, 79–80, 86–87
timing of, 17
in prison settings, 207
collaboration, 230
222
community issues
treating, 114–115
probation before judgment, 130
definition, 137
residential treatment, 215–216
brief treatment
and therapeutic alliances, 82
definition, 167
treatment issues, parole-specific, 226–228
322 Index
in presentencing, 131
Crime and Drugs Solution Work Group (Baltimore),
constitutional issues
arrests, 126
settings, 227
women, 95
in jails, 162
Criminal Justice/Substance Abuse Cross Training:
level of, 52
Working Together for Change, 246
prevalence, 22
jail issues, 165
226
criminal thinking, 74, 75
38–39, 60
in pretrial and diversion settings, 150
of instruments, 35
D
and program development, 251
DATOS, 44
counselor issues
day fines, 141
credibility, 82–83
example in Chicago, 140
leverage, 146
day treatment, 45
230–231, 245–246
antisocial personality disorder, 112
(TAP 19), 88
assessment, 8
Index 323
coercion, 85
Project (American University), 132
detainees, 157
drug courts, 2, 40, 131–133
detoxification, 139
components of, 133
offender, 5
and jails, 181–182
personality disorders, 30
“mental health court” for people with co-
presentencing, 130
occurring disorders, 137
psychopathy, 113
phases of, 133
screening, 7–8
substance abuse treatment planning chart,
substance abuse, 4
134–135
substance dependence, 4
drug testing, 17–18
test-retest reliability, 18
pretrial, 150–151
treatment, 4
DUI/Drug Court Advisory Panel, 138
trial, 130
denial, 79
E
Denver Women’s Correctional Facility program for
early intervention, 44
depression, 61
about psychotropic drug, 170
treating, 115
infectious diseases, 118
detoxification, 20
staff, 179
definition, 139
Edward Byrne Memorial State and Local Law
symptoms, 72
eligibility
diagnosis, formal, 17
for admission to substance abuse treatment, 29
models, 153
evaluation
137
process, 248
Communities, 133–136
fathering, 101
324 Index
financial concerns
prevalence data, 116
54–55
as barrier to treatment, 47
formal diagnosis, 17
in jail settings, 178–179
FRAMES, 138
Maricopa County Data Link Project (Arizona),
G systemwide, 14
in jails, 164–165
Breaking the Cycle (ONDCP), 232
group home, 47
instruments
guilt
assessment, 20, 303–307
as a treatment issue, 80
cost, 35
history
32–33, 51
of abuse, 27
readiness for treatment, 23
substance abuse, 18
screening, 18, 19, 86, 303–307
HIV/AIDS
for screening and assessing abuse and trauma
model), 117
selection and implementation of, 33–34
homelessness, 73
sex offenders, 120
I
time to administer, 34–35
incentives, 85
parole, 142
to improve retention, 87
intensive treatment
infectious diseases
residential, 45–46
Index 325
(Oregon), 145
institutional and procedural, 14
jails
long-term treatment
linkages, 181
Marshall, Thurgood, 1
178
Medicaid, 169
recommendations, 185
medically managed intensive inpatient treatment, 46
stressors, 165
Megargee and Case Management Classification
K disorders
(Washington), 183
screening and assessment of, 38–39
language
methadone treatment, 45
“people first”, 17
Montgomery County pre- and post-booking and
life skills, 73
in community supervision settings, 222–223
linkages, 170
enhancing, 85
aftercare, 185
guilt and shame as motivating factors, 80
326 Index
in jails, 168–169 services, 44–45
and treatment planning, 65–67 pretrial settings
multilevel agreements, 14–16 components of, 140
Multnomah County Sheriff’s Office In-Jail counselor leverage, 146
Intervention Program (Oregon), 183 developing treatment services, 146–147
mutual self-help programs. See self-help groups diversion, 129
drug testing, 150–151
N existing services, maintaining, 144
National Association of Drug Court Professionals, immediate needs, client, 144
153 intervention strategies, 138–139
National Drug Control Strategy (ONDCP), 2 memorandum of understanding, 149
negative predictive value, 34 offender issues, 150–151
nonintensive outpatient treatment, 45 plea bargaining, 129–130
O population description, 126–127
Oakland Men’s Project (violence prevention presumption of innocence, 145
program), 103 recommendations, 154–155
offender rights of clients, 145
definition, 5 sanctions, use of, 140–142
issues, 150–151, 241 screening, 143–144
Ohio Violence Prevention Process, 103 treatment issues, 125–126, 143
older adults, 107 treatment modalities, 139–140
in prison settings, 206–207 treatment services, 127–128, 138, 146–151
Oregon STOP program, 240 prevalence data
Orientation to Therapeutic Community (training), antisocial personality disorder, 112–113
246 community supervision, 214, 225
outcome evaluation, 248–250 co-occurring disorders, 105–106, 108–109
outcome information, 250 criminal activity and substance abuse, 1–3
outpatient treatment, 45, 141, 216 disability, 105–106
Oxford House, 47 infectious diseases, 116–117
rural clients, 107–108
P sex offenders, 119
parenting. See also family issues substance abuse and violence, 102
child custody, 38, 85, 98–99, 165, 226 violence, 102
fathering, 101–102 primary prevention, 44
groups, 196 prisons
prevalence data, 98–99 counseling, 194–197
and women in criminal justice settings, 98–99 and criminal identity, 192–193
parole. See community supervision disincentives, 208–209
partial hospitalization. See day treatment educational and vocational training, 197
patient issues, readiness for treatment, 21 further research, 211–212
peer support, 88 and gender, 188, 193–194
“people first” language, 17 and men’s issues, 193–194
personality disorders, definition, 30 mental disorders in, 204
pharmacotherapy, in jail settings, 179, 180 older inmates, 206
Philadelphia Prison System OPTIONS Program and people with co-occurring disorders, 204
(Pennsylvania), 183 population description, 187–190
plea bargaining, 129–130 race and ethnicity, 188
positive predictive value, 34 recommendations, 210–211
posttraumatic stress disorder. See PTSD sample therapeutic communities, 201–204, 205
predictors of treatment outcomes, in jail settings, sanctions in, 207–208
185 and self-help groups, 196–197
presentencing period, 130 sex offenders, 204–206
pretreatment and substance abuse, 188–189
phase, 22 systems issues, 207–210
Index 327
therapeutic communities, 199–201
R
therapeutic techniques in, 198–199
racial and ethnic minorities
training, 209–210
in criminal justice populations, 93–94
program components, 84
in community supervision settings, 228
phasing, 88
risk factors for, 29, 31, 51
program development
and substance abuse treatment, 2
evaluation, 248–251
records, sealed, 81
training, 246–247
in community supervision settings, 220, 224
117
and sex offenders, 120–122
Employment, 101
relationship between substance abuse and criminal
Project RECOVERY, 2
rescreening, 16. See also screening
Project REFORM, 2
research and evaluation, 247–250
prosocial activity, 88
Prisoners Formula Grant Program, 2
definition, 113
restitution, 141
PTSD, 61
role playing, in prison settings, 198
assessment of, 28
rural clients, 107–108
prevalence, 27, 96
S
in prison settings, 191
safety, of women in the criminal justice system, 96
328 Index
examples used in diversion, 141
sentencing, 131
to improve retention, 87
2–3, 228
written, 150
SHARPER FUTURE, 121
screening
sexual orientation, 104–105. See also gender
and accuracy of information, 13–14
while incarcerated, 104–105
addressing abuse issues, 27
shame, 80. See also guilt; stigma
computerization, 36
SHARPER FUTURE, 121
definition, 7–8
anger management, 173
and detoxification, 20
cognitive skills training, 172
domains, 11–12, 18
communication skills, 172–173
inadequate, as barrier, 47
self-help groups, 172
language of instruments, 36
treatment components, 168
for literacy, 36
sobering stations, 139
protocols, 39–40
specialty courts. See drug courts
for psychopathy, 30
specificity, 34
purpose of, 7, 10
spiritual approaches, 89–90
recommendations, 40–42
behavior modeling, 88
rescreening, 16
counselor credibility, 82–83
timing of, 17
education, 179
of women, 37–38
resources in pretrial, 147
sealed records, 81
training, 147–148, 179, 205, 209, 230–231,
self-esteem
stages of change, 53–54
and women, 98
strategies for working with offenders, 84
self-help groups, 90
and treatment planning, 83
sensitivity, 34
and co-occurring disorders, 109
Index 329
and homelessness, 73
Therapeutic Community Experiential Training, 246
strengths-based approach, to treatment planning, “three strikes and you’re out” legislation, 2, 206
66–67
TIPs cited
stressors
Substance Abuse (TIP 34), 138
environmental, 31, 67
Combining Substance Abuse Treatment With
in jails, 165
Intermediate Sanctions for Adults in the
psychosocial, 115
Comprehensive Case Management for
substance abuse
Substance Abuse Treatment (TIP 27), 220
definition, 4
Detoxification and Substance Abuse Treatment
level of problems, 52
(in development), 21, 45, 73, 139, 217
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Vocational Services (TIP 38), 20, 101, 219,
23), 38, 97
Planning for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse
(California), 136
System (TIP 17), 3
T 20
therapeutic alliances, 82
Substance Abuse: Administrative Issues in
therapeutic communities, 46
development), 45, 216
330 Index
Substance Abuse Treatment: Addressing the treatment issues
Specific Needs of Women (in development), anger and hostility, 76–77
38, 96, 97, 193, 210 anxiety disorders, 116
Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic basic needs, addressing, 72
Violence (TIP 25), 29, 98 cognitive disorders, 116
Substance Abuse Treatment and Family co-occurring disorders, 108–109
Therapy (TIP 39), 196 criminal code, 75
Substance Abuse Treatment and Men’s Issues criminal identity, 77
(in development), 101, 193, 210 criminal thinking, 74–75
Substance Abuse Treatment and Trauma (in cultural identity, 77
development), 29 depressive and bipolar disorders, 115
Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With detoxification, 72–73
Child Abuse and Neglect Issues (TIP 36), 29, and disability, 105–107
98 family issues, 77–79
Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With goals in the jail setting, 176
Co-Occurring Disorders (TIP 42), 18, 19, homelessness, 73
25, 26, 39, 61, 109, 114, 192 infectious diseases, 116–118
Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With life skills, 73–74
HIV/AIDS (TIP 37), 117 manipulativeness, 75
Substance Abuse Treatment: Group Therapy older adults, 107
(TIP 41), 98 pretrial, 125–126
Substance Use Disorder Treatment for People rural clients, 107–108
With Physical and Cognitive Disabilities schizophrenia and psychotic disorders,
(TIP 29), 107, 116 115–116
Index 331
Brooklyn Drug Treatment Alternative to Prison V
program, 151–152
victims, 241
programs, 204
and borderline personality disorder, 115
Program, 99
instruments for, 32–33
(Washington), 183
working with violent offenders, 102–104
program), 103
in community supervision settings, 219
(Pennsylvania), 183
W
Probationers in Recovery (California), 232
Walden House, 67, 99
226
Project (California), 184
(Pennsylvania), 232
Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers,
treatment services
Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Practice
barriers to, 47
GAINS Center for People with Co-Occurring
creating, 47–49
Disorders in the Justice System, 225
key activities, 48
166, 230
recommendations, 56–57
High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas
49–50
Center, 46
190
332 Index
National Association of Drug Court
Professionals, 153
parenting programs for male offenders, 78
Partnership Against Violence Network (Pavnet),
103
Project for Homemakers in Arizona Seeking
Employment, 101
Regional Drug Initiative (Oregon), 240
Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative,
3, 228
SHARPER FUTURE, 121
Slosson Oral Reading Test - Revised, 36
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, 153, 252
Index 333
SAMHSA TIPs and Publications Based on TIPs
What Is a TIP?
Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIPs) are the products of a systematic and innovative process that brings together clinicians,
researchers, program managers, policymakers, and other Federal and non-Federal experts to reach consensus on state-of-the-art
treatment practices. TIPs are developed under the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA’s)
KnowledgeApplication Program (KAP) to improve the treatment capabilities of the Nation’s alcohol and drug abuse treatment service system.
Ordering Information
Publications may be ordered or downloaded for free at http://store.samhsa.gov. To order over the phone, please call
1-877-SAMHSA-7 (1-877-726-4727) (English and Español).
TIP 1 State Methadone Treatment Guidelines—Replaced by TIP 13 Role and Current Status of Patient Placement
TIP 43 Criteria in the Treatment of Substance Use
Disorders
TIP 2 Pregnant, Substance-Using Women—Replaced by Quick Guide for Clinicians
TIP 51
Quick Guide for Administrators
TIP 3 Screening and Assessment of Alcohol- and Other KAP Keys for Clinicians
Drug-Abusing Adolescents—Replaced by TIP 31
TIP 14 Developing State Outcomes Monitoring Systems for
TIP 4 Guidelines for the Treatment of Alcohol- and Other Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Treatment
Drug-Abusing Adolescents—Replaced by TIP 32
TIP 15 Treatment for HIV-Infected Alcohol and Other Drug
TIP 5 Improving Treatment for Drug-Exposed Infants Abusers—Replaced by TIP 37
TIP 6 Screening for Infectious Diseases Among Substance TIP 16 Alcohol and Other Drug Screening of Hospitalized
Abusers—Archived Trauma Patients
Quick Guide for Clinicians
TIP 7 Screening and Assessment for Alcohol and Other
Drug Abuse Among Adults in the Criminal Justice KAP Keys for Clinicians
System—Replaced by TIP 44
TIP 17 Planning for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse
TIP 8 Intensive Outpatient Treatment for Alcohol and Treatment for Adults in the Criminal Justice
Other Drug Abuse—Replaced by TIPs 46 and 47 System—Replaced by TIP 44
TIP 18 The Tuberculosis Epidemic: Legal and Ethical Issues
TIP 9 Assessment and Treatment of Patients With for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Treatment
Coexisting Mental Illness and Alcohol and Other Providers—Archived
Drug Abuse—Replaced by TIP 42
TIP 19 Detoxification From Alcohol and Other Drugs—
TIP 10 Assessment and Treatment of Cocaine- Abusing Replaced by TIP 45
Methadone-Maintained Patients—Replaced by TIP 43
TIP 20 Matching Treatment to Patient Needs in Opioid
TIP 11 Simple Screening Instruments for Outreach for Substitution Therapy—Replaced by TIP 43
Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Infectious
Diseases—Replaced by TIP 53 TIP 21 Combining Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse
Treatment With Diversion for Juveniles in the
TIP 12 Combining Substance Abuse Treatment With Justice System
Intermediate Sanctions for Adults in the Criminal Quick Guide for Clinicians and Administrators
Justice System—Replaced by TIP 44
335
TIP 22 LAAM in the Treatment of Opiate Addiction— TIP 31 Screening and Assessing Adolescents for Substance
Replaced by TIP 43 Use Disorders
See companion products for TIP 32.
TIP 23 Treatment Drug Courts: Integrating Substance Abuse
Treatment With Legal Case Processing TIP 32 Treatment of Adolescents With Substance Use
Quick Guide for Administrators Disorders
Quick Guide for Clinicians
TIP 24 A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary
Care Clinicians KAP Keys for Clinicians
Concise Desk Reference Guide TIP 33 Treatment for Stimulant Use Disorders
Quick Guide for Clinicians Quick Guide for Clinicians
KAP Keys for Clinicians KAP Keys for Clinicians
TIP 25 Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic Violence TIP 34 Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance
Linking Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic Abuse
Violence Services: A Guide for Treatment Providers Quick Guide for Clinicians
Linking Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic KAP Keys for Clinicians
Violence Services: A Guide for Administrators
Quick Guide for Clinicians TIP 35 Enhancing Motivation for Change in Substance Abuse
KAP Keys for Clinicians Treatment
Quick Guide for Clinicians
TIP 26 Substance Abuse Among Older Adults KAP Keys for Clinicians
Substance Abuse Among Older Adults: A Guide for
Treatment Providers TIP 36 Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Child
Substance Abuse Among Older Adults: A Guide for Abuse and Neglect Issues
Social Service Providers Quick Guide for Clinicians
Substance Abuse Among Older Adults: Physician’s KAP Keys for Clinicians
Guide Helping Yourself Heal: A Recovering Woman’s Guide to
Quick Guide for Clinicians Coping With Childhood Abuse Issues
KAP Keys for Clinicians Also available in Spanish
Helping Yourself Heal: A Recovering Man’s Guide to
TIP 27 Comprehensive Case Management for Substance Coping With the Effects of Childhood Abuse
Abuse Treatment
Also available in Spanish
Case Management for Substance Abuse Treatment: A
Guide for Treatment Providers TIP 37 Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With
Case Management for Substance Abuse Treatment: A HIV/AIDS
Guide for Administrators Quick Guide for Clinicians
Quick Guide for Clinicians KAP Keys for Clinicians
Quick Guide for Administrators Drugs, Alcohol, and HIV/AIDS: A Consumer Guide
TIP 28 Naltrexone and Alcoholism Treatment—Replaced by Also available in Spanish
TIP 49 Drugs, Alcohol, and HIV/AIDS: A Consumer Guide for
African Americans
TIP 29 Substance Use Disorder Treatment for People With
Physical and Cognitive Disabilities TIP 38 Integrating Substance Abuse Treatment and
Quick Guide for Clinicians Vocational Services
Quick Guide for Administrators Quick Guide for Clinicians
KAP Keys for Clinicians Quick Guide for Administrators
KAP Keys for Clinicians
TIP 30 Continuity of Offender Treatment for Substance Use
Disorders From Institution to Community TIP 39 Substance Abuse Treatment and Family Therapy
Quick Guide for Clinicians Quick Guide for Clinicians
KAP Keys for Clinicians Quick Guide for Administrators
Family Therapy Can Help: For People in Recovery
From Mental Illness or Addiction
336
TIP 40 Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in TIP 50 Addressing Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in
the Treatment of Opioid Addiction Substance Abuse Treatment
Quick Guide for Physicians Quick Guide for Clinicians
KAP Keys for Physicians Quick Guide for Administrators
TIP 41 Substance Abuse Treatment: Group Therapy TIP 51 Substance Abuse Treatment: Addressing the Specific
Quick Guide for Clinicians Needs of Women
Quick Guide for Clinicians
TIP 42 Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons With Co- Quick Guide for Administrators
Occurring Disorders
Quick Guide for Clinicians TIP 52 Clinical Supervision and Professional Development
Quick Guide for Administrators of the Substance Abuse Counselor
KAP Keys for Clinicians Quick Guide for Clinicians and Administrators
KAP Keys for Clinicians
TIP 44 Substance Abuse Treatment for Adults in the
Criminal Justice System TIP 54 Managing Chronic Pain in Adults With or in
Quick Guide for Clinicians Recovery From Substance Use Disorders
KAP Keys for Clinicians TIP 55 Behavioral Health Services for People Who Are
Homeless
TIP 46 Substance Abuse: Administrative Issues in
Outpatient Treatment TIP 56 Addressing the Specific Behavioral Health Needs of
Quick Guide for Administrators Men
337
Substance Abuse Treatment
For Adults in the
Criminal Justice System
Collateral Products
Based on TIP 44