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Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-48281-1_142-1

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Alternative Fuels from Waste Products
in Cement Industry

Wilfred Zieri and Ibrahim Ismail

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Types of Alternative Fuels Used in the Cement Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Residue Oil and Solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Tires and Rubber Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Thermal Fraction of Domestic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Sewage Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Animal Meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
MSW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Technical Information of RDF (Residual Derived Fuel) [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Technical Information of TDF (Tire-Derived Fuel) [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Alternative Fuels Calorific Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Alternative Fuels Components [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Criteria of Selection: The Alternative Fuels for Cement Industry [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Utilization of Alternative Fuels [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Utilizing Alternative Fuels for the Calciner [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Alternative Fuel Utilization Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Present Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Scenario A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Scenario B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Design Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fuel Equivalent (FEQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Cost Equivalent (CEQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fuel Handling and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Process Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Combustion Process [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

W. Zieri
Inducem Consultants, Pölten, Austria
e-mail: wilfredzieri@inducem.eu
I. Ismail (*)
Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt
e-mail: imohamed@zewailcity.edu.eg; dr_ismail@icem-group.org

# Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

L. M. T. Martínez et al. (eds.), Handbook of Ecomaterials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48281-1_142-1
2 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Combustion Gas Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Increasing of Combustion Gas Volume [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Particle Size of Calciner Fuel [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Case Studies in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
CO2 Emissions Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Conclusions and Further Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Abstract
Although fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas can provide all the
energy the world needs for the time being, the fast depletion in their current world
reserves, their bad effect on the environment and global warming, and their
possible utilization as raw materials in more added-value industries suggest that
other alternative fuels should be considered in energy-intensive industries.
Today’s cement industry becomes more challenging for the following main
factors: the lowest production cost and the lean environmental impact. One of
the most effective methods for accepting the challenge is to use the alternative
sustainable fuels. The required specific calorific values can be achieved by mixing
of high calorific primary fuel with low calorific alternative fuel. The substitution
rate depends on the type of alternative fuel used and plant design and operation
parameters. A substitution rate of up to 80% can be achieved on a permanent
basis. One hundred percent substitution was recorded in a plant-utilizing liquid
waste in its main burner. The main alternative fuels used in cement industry are
residue oil and solvents, contaminated wood and process waste from wood, used
tires and rubber waste, plastic waste, thermal fraction of domestic waste, sewage
sludge, and animal meal.

Introduction

From energy consumption point of view, cement industry is one of the most energy-
intensive industries in the world. With a consumption level of 120 kWh/t of cement,
the cement subsector accounts for approximately 10–15% of the total industrial
energy used worldwide. Furthermore, cement plants are traditionally characterized
as a great consumer of natural raw materials and fossil fuels and as remarkable
emitters of pollutants [1]. Therefore, it is highly recommended to use biomass and
solid wastes as alternative fuels and raw materials in the cement manufacturing
industry. The production of Portland cement requires a high amount of thermal
energy. Burning of 1 kg clinker out of the raw material components, mainly
limestone and clay, requires a thermal energy of 1.75 MJ in basic calculations.
This requirement results from the endothermic reactions of the decarbonization of
limestone and the dehydration of clay (a value of approx. 2. 20 MJ/kg) and the
exothermic reactions of the phase forming of C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF (a value of
approx. –0. 45 MJ/kg). Based on the actual cement manufacturing data, the effective
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 3

thermal energy requirement is increased to approx. 3.1–3.5 MJ/kg clinker in Euro-

pean plants and 3.7–4.1 MJ/kg clinker in Egyptian plants due to high bypass rates
required. Although fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas can provide
all the energy the world needs for the time being, the fast depletion in their current
world reserves, their bad effect on the environment and global warming, and their
possible utilization as raw materials in more added-value industries suggest that
other alternative fuels should be considered in energy-intensive industries [1–3].
Cement industry is a very emissions-intensive process. Around 50% of the
emissions come from converting the limestone into clinker, 40% comes from
burning the fuels, and the rest comes from transportation and electricity. As the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions became an urgent global issue, it is our duty to
minimize the emissions from the cement industry. One of the most important keys
for reducing the emissions is to use lower GHG emission alternative fuel for firing in
the kiln or, in other words, to substitute a percentage of the fossil fuels by different
types of the alternative fuels available. There are also a lot of benefits for using the
alternative fuels in the cement industry not only the reduction of CO2 and NOx
emissions but also considerable energy cost and ecological benefits of conserving
nonrenewable resources [3].
Two major sources of CO2 emissions can be identified in the cement industry. The
first source is linked to the energy used for the fuel combustion for burning the
clinker and running the pre-heaters and other operations. The second source is the
natural release of CO2 associated with the decarbonization of limestone to produce
the calcium silicates and aluminates in the clinker processes under intense heat.
However, there are other minor sources that should also be considered [1]. Around
50% of the emissions come from converting the limestone into clinker, 40% comes
from burning the fuels, and the rest comes from transportation and electricity [4].
Today’s cement industry becomes more challenging for the following main
factors: the lowest production cost and the lean environmental impact. The effective
method for accepting the challenge is to use the alternative fuels, and the required
specific calorific values can be achieved by mixing of high calorific primary fuel
with low calorific alternative fuel. The substitution rate depends on the type of
alternative fuel used as well as the plant design and operation parameters. A
substitution rate of up to 80% can be achieved on a permanent basis with up to
100% substitution recorded in some plant-utilizing liquid waste in the main burner.
The main alternative fuels used in cement industry are residue oil and solvents,
contaminated wood and process waste from wood, used tires and rubber waste,
plastic waste, thermal fraction of domestic waste, sewage sludge, and animal
meal [2].
This book chapter discusses the types of the alternative fuels that can be used in
the cement industry, the utilizing technique of the alternative fuels in the cement
industry, and the recommended substitution rate to be used. Case studies of cement
plants in Egypt will be showed.
4 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Types of Alternative Fuels Used in the Cement Industry

There are several types of alternative fuels used in the cement industry.

Residue Oil and Solvents

Used oil becomes unusable if it is exposed to other substances such as water, dirt, or
chemicals used in conjunction with the oil to improve performance. The unusable
part often contains trace amounts of lead, arsenic, dioxins, benzenes, and polycyclic
aromatics, all of which are toxic and harmful materials to humans, animals, and
plants. Burning of the nonrecyclable used oil is an effective way of disposal as the
temperatures of the kiln is high enough to burn all organic materials and nonorganic
compounds are chemically trapped in the clinker. Compositions of waste oil and
heavy oil components are shown in Table 1 [5].
Storing spent oil for a long period may cause some problem due to the environ-
mental hazards. Storage of oil particularly light and volatile oils increases the risk of
fires or explosions although they are controlled well. Another problem which arises
from storage is emission of volatile organic compound (VOC). It was previously
reported that the percentage of nitrogen dioxides and CO2 emissions are reduced
while using spent solvents compared to fossil fuels [5].

Tires and Rubber Waste

An end-of-life tire is a waste from the car industry and generally disposed of in
landfills. Landfilling tires have environmental and health hazards like rodent and
insect infestation. In mid-1980s, tires became very popular to the cement manufac-
turer as alternative fuel to cope with the increasing fossil fuel costs. The advantages
of using tires and rubber waste are high carbon content, high heating value of
35.6 MJ/kg, and low moisture content, making the tire-derived fuel (TDF) one of
the most used alternative fuels in the cement industry [5].
Tire-derived fuel (TDF) costs are significantly lower than natural gas costs, and the
overall unit cost of tire-derived fuel is even less than the coal. Reinforced wires of tires
can be consumed as a replacement of raw material containing iron when the whole tire
is used as alternative fuel. There are no significant differences in the chemical compo-
sition of the clinker manufactured by using TDF as opposed to fossil fuel. Different
form of tire, whole or fine grained, can be used in cement kiln as alternative fuel. The
fine-grained tire can be mixed along with powdered coal directly, but removal of the
steel from tire to produce crumb rubber requires higher cost. Tire chip can be fed
mechanically to the kiln and/or the calciner, and the feed rate can be easily controlled.
Disadvantages of tire chip are the shredding cost and the steel wires, which cause
trouble during handling. Whole tires do not require any processing cost. Transpor-
tation, storage, and management of whole tires require more logistical care and more
manual labor and difficult to control. The compositions of tires vary depending upon
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 5

Table 1 Compositions of waste oil and heavy oil components

Composition Waste solvent (%wt.) Heavy oil
H2O 16.5 –
C 47.7 84 (%wt.)
H 8.2 –
O 23.1 14.73 (%wt.)
N 1 0.44 (%wt.)
S 0.7 0.83 (%wt.)
Cl 2.4 20 (g/t)

the source and levels of bracing material within the tire or tire chips. Though the use
of end-of-life tires in cement kilns reduces fossil fuel consumption, it was intensively
studied for its environmental impact especially the SOx and NOx emissions levels
after using TDF in cement manufacturing. It was discovered in a Canadian cement
factory that using a combination of coal and scrap tires decreases the NOx emissions
and increases the SOx emissions [5]. It is worth noting that tires contain high level of
S elements that was used for rubber vulcanization. It does not only increase the SOx
in the emission, but it also creates a sulfur loop inside the pyro-section of the cement
plant which will enhance heavy coating. To overcome this problem, bypass system
should be utilized to purge the SOx gases. In Egypt, almost every plant has its bypass
system originally designed for the alkalis and chlorides, which facilitate the tires
utilization in Egyptian cement lines.
A schematic data of air emission while burning 1 ton of scrap tire is shown in
Fig. 1, stating the amount of pollutant emission that will be increased if 1 ton of scrap
tires are co-incinerated with the traditional fossil fuel [5].
Figure 2 represents a schematic diagram of process involved in cement industry
while using tires as alternative fuel. The diagram indicates the saving of coal and iron
miner. Contrasting results are also available in terms of metal and dioxin and furan
emissions. In real plant scenario, dioxin and furan emissions increased while using
scrape tire as alternative fuel [5].

Plastic Waste

Plastic waste is considered as one of the most available alternative fuel resources in
cement industry due to their worldwide production and high calorific value, which
ranges from 29 to 40 MJ/kg. Plastic wastes are available as municipal waste as well
as industrial waste. The only disadvantage of using it is the chlorine content, which is
mainly found in polyvinyl chloride, PVC. The preferable particle size is less than
5 cm, while the accepted particle size for the incineration process is 10 cm, and a
shredder is needed when larger parts are offered in the kiln. Isolation of materials
from plastic waste requires additional capital and labor costs. The material prepara-
tion can be done in on-site or off-site. Plastic can be transported either to the kiln or
to the precalciners through a tube or belt conveyor.
6 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Air emissions
100 kg CO
1 ton of scrap tyres Co-incineration in cement kiln
7 kg NOx
140 kg SO2

Fig. 1 Air emissions produced from 1 ton of scrap tires

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of

process involved in cement Tyres
industry while using tires as Electricity
alternative fuel Water
Steel Grinding Iron Scrap

Oil

Fuel Emissions
Transport

Additional
Electricity Co-Combustion emissions

Coal Heat Iron minerals

(saved) (saved)

Mathematical modeling showed that usage of polyethylene and polystyrene

plastics as alternative fuel decreased the emission of the CO2, which is approxi-
mately 1.0 ton of CO2 per ton of coal replacement. If the chlorine content of plastic
waste exceeds 0.7%, then it may impact the quality of the clinker [5].
Emission of HCl, dioxins, and furans can be increased by the presence of chlorine
under specific conditions. In normal incinrator, emission of HCl, dioxins, and furans
can be increased by the presence of chlorine under specific conditions. In cement
kiln, the high buning temperatures in the kiln and in the calciner prevent the
formation of dioxins, and furans. NOx emission, during burning plastic waste,
may depend on the nitrogen content of the plastic and some other facts such as the
flame temperature. They have considered five parameters to assess environmental
impact which are global warming potential (GWP) in 100 years (for CO2), ozone
depleting potential (ODP) in 20 years (for CFC), acidifying potential (for SO2),
ozone-creating potential (POCP), and oxygen consumption potential [5].
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 7

Thermal Fraction of Domestic Waste

The sewage sludge sample was obtained from a Spanish wastewater treatment plant
operated by Aguas de Barcelona (Vic) and had been dried using the novel RINA-JET
system. This process involves the turbulent circulation of hot air, combustion gases,
or hot inert gases at low pressures which creates an intense drying action with
minimum heating of solid particles. The operating temperature can be varied, and
dry sludge can be recirculated to control the final product humidity [6].
Major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence (Philips PW1404). Minor
elements were determined by ICP-AES (Thermo Jarrel ASH). Total C, H, N, and S
contents (Leco 930) and loss on ignition (1 h at 1000 C) of the dry sludge were
determined separately. The thermal behavior and calorific value of the dried sewage
sludge were analyzed using simultaneous thermogravimetric/differential thermal
analysis (TG/DSC, TA model SATQ600). The heating rate was 4 C/min up to
1050 C and was carried out both in N2 and air atmospheres. Mineralogical charac-
terization of milled sludge was carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Bruker D8
Advance). Particle size distribution was determined by laser diffraction in a water
medium (Sympatec Helos 12LA) over the range 0.1e1750 mm. The environmental
impact of the sludge was assessed by a batch leaching test as per the EN 12457-2
standard, in accordance with EU landfill waste acceptance criteria. When the organic
component of the sludge undergoes combustion, the inorganic fraction will remain
as ashes and be incorporated into the cement clinker [6].

Sewage Sludge

A large amount of sewage sludge is produced worldwide during wastewater treat-

ment. Landfill and agricultural use as organic fertilizer and soil conditioner are the
main conventional methods of disposal, which are not environment-friendly. Alter-
native disposal option for sewage sludge is to incinerate it in cement kiln and confine
the ash in the clinker. In 2006, the Swiss cement industry used 54,964 tons of dried
sewage sludge, which is 22% of the total used tonnage of alternative fuels [5]. The
maximum sewage sludge feed rate should not be more than 5% of the clinker
production capacity of the cement plant. The wet sewage sludge is better for
blending into wet process slurries and use in wet process kilns. In the dry cement
process, the sludge must be dried to reduce the moisture content below 1% before
firing. The range of different elements on the sewage sludge and its calorific value
depends on the characteristics of the source and the treatment process of the sludge
[5]. Burining sewage sludge as a fuel in cement kiln reduces the NOx emissions
compared with the primary fossil fuels. On the other hand, it will increase SOx
emissions and the level of mercury (Hg). To use sewage sludge in cement industry,
the suggested maximum mercury content is around 0.5 mg/kg [5].
8 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Animal Meal

In 1994, the European Union banned both the use of meat and bone meal (MBM) as
cattle feed and landfilling due to the BSE pathogens (known as mad cow disease).
This ban increased the interest in using MBM as fuel in cement industry to ensure
that any living organism is thermally destroyed and its energy potential is utilized.
Nowadays, most cement producers started using MBM to a large extent. In France,
about 45% of the annual productions of MBM were burnt in cement plants. The
availability of MBM is higher than most of the other alternative fuel commonly used
in cement kiln. The feeding rates of MBM Min cement kilns vary from country to
country. For example, in Spain, the limit is 15% of the energy needed in the kilns, but
there is no limit in Switzerland. MBM has calorific value (lower heating value, LHV)
of 14.47 MJ/ kg which is almost half of the coal [5].
The main reason to use MBM is its high calcium content which reduces SOx
emission as it could retain most of SOx formed during combustion. Presence of
excess amount of calcium can produce free lime while burning in cement kiln which
may affect the clinker quality. Another potential barrier of using MBM in cement
industry as fuel is the moisture content which is about 70%. Another potential barrier
of using MBM in cement industry as fuel is the moisture content which is about
70%. Pretreatment is required to reduce the moisture content of MBM that increases
the processing cost. MBM is generally fed in the kiln burner and an additional
amount of air may be required, if it is used in precalciners riser. Approximately
5–10% more air is needed for combustion if MBM is fed to the burning zone.
Compared with coal, MBM has lower fixed carbon and higher chlorine. Due to
higher chlorine content, there is a potential buildup and blockages occurring in
preheater units. This will reduce the efficiency of the plant. As the nitrogen content
in the MBM is about seven to eight times higher than that in coal, one would expect
that NOx emissions would increase.

MSW

Municipal solid waste (MSW) constitutes a complex and very variable fuel due to
their heterogeneous composition. Its physical or chemical properties cannot be
determined reliably. The availability of the MSW makes it one of the most alterna-
tive fuels in cement manufacturing. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is the homogenous
part of MSW and preferred as alternative fuel due to their high calorific value and
low moisture content. At that point, it was really difficult to predict the future trend
of energy utilization in cement industry, and it was predicted that RDF may not be a
feasible option as alternative fuel due to different and uncertain supply of waste.
Over time, as the world population grows, the excess amount of MSW becomes an
environmental concern, and cement industry seizes that opportunity to replace coal
by the alternative fuel MSW [5].
Cement kilns are potentially the best option over incineration of MSW in thermal
power plant and co-combustion in a biomass combustor. During increase of MSW,
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 9

Table 2 Composition of MSW by weight percentage

Component MSW dry solids % RDF dry solids %
Carbon 34.88 47.1
Hydrogen 4.65 7.1
Nitrogen 1.02 0.7
Sulfur 0.15 0.24
Chlorine 1.02 0.6
Oxygen 23.11 29.4
Moisture 31.2 15
VM 64.8 82.06
Ash 35.17 10.9
Heating value 15.4 MJ/kg 21.2 MJ/kg

toxins and heavy metals are produced which can leach into the water supply and soil.
With energy recovery in cement manufacturing, these substances are partially
transferred to the clinker. Diversion from landfill is another aspect of using MSW
in cement industry. The main problem of using MSW in cement kiln is the varying
heating value and moisture content due to the heterogeneous composition of MSW.
Depending on these MSW can be substituted up to 30% of the fuel mix in cement
manufacturing. Generally MSW contains various components including plastic,
paper rubber, wood, and textile. Table 2 shows a typical composition of MSW
regarding different material by weight percentage and volume percentage [5].
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) can be produced from MSW by a number of processes
consisting:

1. Separation at source
2. Sorting or mechanical separation
3. Size reduction (shredding, chipping, and milling)
4. Separation and screening
5. Blending
6. Drying and palletizing
7. Packaging
8. Storage

The municipal solid waste is initially screened to remove the recyclable fraction
such as metals and the inert fractions such as glass and separate the fine wet
decomposable fraction (e.g., food and garden waste). Then MSW can be dried and
pelletized to form dens RDF. MSW typically has a calorific value of 8–11 MJ/kg,
while the calorific value of RDF ranges from 15 to 20 MJ/kg. Belt conveyor is used
to feed MSW or RDF directly to the burning zone.
From environmental point of view, SOx and NOx emissions decrease when MSW
is utilized in cement kiln.
10 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 3 Typical components of RDF [7]

Waste Wet Moisture LHV weight Fine fraction
type weight weight kJ/kg <60 mm
Organics from O 30.72% 24.58% 14,000 20%
MSW
Garden refuses O 20.02% 16.02% 13,000 20%
Bones A 1.03% 0.93% 18,000 10%
Animal waste O 2.35% 2.23% 13,500 5%
Plastic and R 5.63% 4.79% 31,000 15%
rubber
Paper P 2.7% 2.3% 13,500 15%
Rugs R 7.45% 7.38% 17,000 1%
Wood A 1.24% 1.18% 18,000 5%
Glass G 0.7% 0.56% – 20%
Metals M 0.32% 0.26% – 20%
Dust, dirt, stones D 27.84% 22.27% – 20%
Fine F 17.53% – –
fraction<60 mm
Total mass (kg/t 100% 100% – –
fuel)

A reduction in CO and CO2 emissions occurs in comparison with fossil fuel, but it
leads to an increase of HCl emissions due to high content of chlorine in MSW
components. Also mercury and heavy metal emissions increase.

Technical Information of RDF (Residual Derived Fuel) [7]

RDF (residual derived fuel from municipal waste) is a mixture of various combus-
tible and inert materials. A typical mix taken from samples in Egypt is given in
Table 3.
Additionally, the composition and the LHV of the RDF will be influenced by
seasonal changes as well as large nearby industries and activities, e.g., shopping
centers, slaughter houses, etc.
The RDF quality depends on the following:

1. LHV (specific energy content)

2. Moisture content which has a direct influence on LHV and combustion gas
volume
3. Particle size of the various components, e.g., plastic sheeting compared to wood
4. Bulk density which varies in the range of 140–250 kg/m3

Figure 3 shows the transformation of unsorted municipal waste into treated waste
(RDF).
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 11

Fig. 3 Transformation of unsorted municipal waste into treated waste (RDF)

Fig. 4 TDF (tire-derived fuel)

Technical Information of TDF (Tire-Derived Fuel) [7]

TDF (tire-derived fuel) or tire junks have one of the highest energy content of all
solid alternative fuels. However, there are important technical factors to be consid-
ered when choosing such alternative energy source. Tire junks are ranging from
76 mm down to approximately 13 mm in size as shown in Fig. 4. The bulk density of
tire chips can be expected to range from 420 to 480 kg/m3. Tire junks are basically
flat and irregularly with jagged edges that may or may not contain protruding and
sharp pieces of metal, which are parts of steel belts [7]. This makes the combustion
behavior of such bulky material unpredictable. Additional steel wires catching onto
material handling and dosing equipment may cause interruption in the fuel feed. So
the physical dimensions of the tire junks as well as the quality of cutting edge (max.
length of blank steel wires) must be specified in a supply contract and followed up by
a quality control of the tire junks supplied [7].
Table 4 shows the percentage of the used alternative fuels in different cement
plants.
12 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 4 Percentages of used alternative fuel

Holcim CEMEX Italcementi Lafarge
Waste type used as alternative fuel (%) group group group group
Waste oil 5 – 8.5 22.1
Solvent and liquid waste 11 – 21.9 –
Tires 10 16 14.9 19.7
Plastic sewage 9 – 4.7 33.1
Industrial and house hold waste (solid) – 65 13.8 –
Industrial waste and other fossil-based 30 – – –
fuel
MBM 2 4 15.7 –
Agriculture waste 9 10 11.1 –
Wood chip and other biomass 15 5 – 25.1
Sewage sludge 2 – 1.7 –
RDF – – 7.8 –

Alternative Fuels Calorific Values

Table 5 shows the impurities of the alternative fuels used in the cement industry and
the caloric value of each type.

Alternative Fuels Components [2]

Alternative fuels consist basically of three main groups such as water, organic
components (e.g., carbon), and mineral components (e.g., ash), and the quantity of
metals is negligible in the total mass flow [2].
The chemical properties of the alternative fuels may have a detrimental effect on
the clinker quality as well as the plant emissions. The level of contamination must be
investigated considering the following:

1. The elements involved

2. The behavior in the pyro-process
Table 6 shows the components of alternative fuels and their behavior in the pyro-
process.

Criteria of Selection: The Alternative Fuels for Cement Industry [7]

The selection of the kind of the alternative fuel used depends on the following points:

1. Moisture content, which affect the specific energy content.

2. Specific energy content (LHV).
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 13

Table 5 Impurities of alternative fuels and their calorific values [2]

Material Significant contaminations Calorific value (kcal/kg)
Residue oil and solvents Pb, Zn, Cl According to water
content up to 8100
Contaminated wood and process Pb, Zn, Cl, Cd (according to According humidity from
waste from wood the contamination) 2600 to 4300
Tires, rubber waste Zn, S Approx. 6000
Plastic waste Co, Cd, Pb, Zn According to the blend up
to 7000
Thermal fraction of domestic Cl, Cd, Cr, Hg Humidity <10% approx.
waste 5300
Sewage sludge Pb, Cd, Hg Acc. humidity approx.
2000
Animal meal P, Cl 2900–3800

Table 6 The components of alternative fuels and their behavior in the pyro-process [2]
Elements involved Components/carriers Transfer details
Chrome, zinc, Clinker mineral Mainly transfer into the clinker
lead, nickel, elements
arsenic, etc.
Sulfur from the Low-volatile metals
fuel Sulfur component of
fuel
Mercury, carbon, Non-burnt organics Mainly transfer into the preheater exhaust gas;
sulfur in raw meal Volatile metals (if there can be source of emissions if no secondary
is no filter used) treatment is done
Products of combustion
Thallium, (Semi-)volatile heavy Possible buildup of cycles: transfer into
mercury, cadmium metals preheater exhaust dust content, or recirculate
via raw meal. Mixing filter dust to cement mill
can bleed cycle
Chlorine, sodium, Halogen, alkalis, Buildup of internal cycles: absorption by raw
potassium, residuals conveyed meal in upper part of cooler, recuperation in the
with clinker hot kiln area. Bypass system can bleed
elements for external disposal

3. Chemical analysis.
4. Ash content on a weight %.
5. Chemical analysis of the ash resulting from combustion.
6. Fluctuation in the ash and specific energy content.
7. Availability of the required amount of the fuel.
8. Availability on daily basis and seasonal fluctuations on availability (e.g., agri-
cultural waste)
9. Number of trucks required for transportation the fuel to the plant, as it will
increase the road traffic to the plant. So a traffic study should be done.
14 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 7 Typical specific energy LHV of fuel used in cement production

Fuel quality LHV-specific energy (MJ/KG)
Pure polyethylene 46 High grade
Light oil 42
Heavy oil 40
Pure polystyrene 40
Pure rubber (without inert material) 36
Anthracite 34
Waste oils (various refinery wastes) 30–40
Pet coke 33
Waste tires (with steel and inert materials) 28–33
Bituminous coal (low ash) 29
Bituminous coal (high ash) 24
Acid sludge, acid tar(from oil refining) 16–22 Medium grade
Lignite (10% moisture) 16–21
Pot liners (from aluminum smelters) 20
PVC 19
Palm nut shells (10% moisture) 19
Pressed olive cake 18
Dried peat (10% moisture) 18
Fuller earth (from oil refining) 13–18
Dried wood, bark, saw dust (10% moisture) 16
Rice husks (10% moisture) 16 Low grade
RDF (from domestic refuse 10% moisture) 16
Shredder wastes 15
Cardboard, paper (air dry) 15
Dried sewage sludge (10% moisture) 10
Domestic refuse (30% moisture) 8.5

10. Operation cost includes storage, preparing, dosing, and transportation to the
calciner section.

Once the above criterion is done, the selection of the alternative fuel can be done
correctly.
Table 7 gives a good summary of typical fuels used in the cement industry and its
associated specific energy content.

Utilization of Alternative Fuels [7]

The utilization of alternative fuels is the best way for fuel cost saving in the cement
industry, but the changing fuel scenario process has some implications such as:
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 15

Fig. 5 Logic steps for alternative fuel utilization

1. Incomplete combustion
2. Increasing of combustion gas volume
3. Increasing of volatile cycles
4. Changing of the ash composition

To prevent the above process problems, the substitution rate of the alternative
fuels should be low. Also the following points should be considered for more
effective process:

1. Apply the criteria of selection the alternative fuels.

2. Consider the specifications of the storage, dosing, and transportation system.
3. Specify the present and the future substitution rate.

So process evaluation must be done to avoid the problems discussed and deter-
mine the appropriate substitution rate. Figure 5 indicates the sequence of the main
decisions to be taken for an efficient alternative fuel system [7].

Utilizing Alternative Fuels for the Calciner [7]

In a modern precalciner kiln, the energy input is split typically 60% in the calciner
section and 40% through the main burner.
Any type of fuel can be used in the calciner if the temperature from 850 to 900  C
can be maintained. In the modern cement production plants, a 100% substitution rate
of the calciner primary fuel can be achieved, i.e., 60% of the pyro-section energy
demand can be replaced with alternative fuel if several conditions are achieved as
described in the following sections. Maintaining at least, a 5% of energy input via
primary fuel is preferred to avoid the problems because of the rapid temperature
change in the calciner [7]. The following calciner fuels have been selected:
16 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 8 Data of selected fuels [7]

Fuel 1 Fuel 2 Fuel 3
Base data RSA coal RDF Tire chunks
Feed burner cost (EUR/t) 95 6 15
Bulk density (kg/m3) 780 220 450
Delivery truck size (t/truck) 40 10 18
Chemical analysis
Type of analysis (dry/wet) Wet Wet Wet
Carbon 79.9% 36% 65.8%
Hydrogen 3.14% 5.4% 7%
Oxygen 13.2% 21% 3.3%
Nitrogen 0.16 0.6% 0.25%
Sulfur 0.34% 0.2% 1.55%
Chloride 0.01% 0.8%
Ash 15.8% 8% 6.5%
H2O 1.55% 28% 1.5%
LHV actual (kJ/kg) 24.1 16.1 33.6
LHV actual (kcal/kg) 5.756 3.845 8.025
Total components 100% 100% 100%

1. Coal
2. RDF from municipal waste
3. TDF (tire junks)
Table 8 shows the basic data, chemical, and physical analysis of the selected fuels.

The following additional information for the selected fuels (RDF and tire junks)
will be helpful for understanding the fuels various process influences [7].

Alternative Fuel Utilization Scenarios

This section refers to the calciner section only, i.e., 60% of the total fuel energy input
to the pyro-process.

Present Scenario

Base scenario with no primary fuel substitution

Coal 100%
RDF 0%
TDF 0%
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 17

Scenario A

Sixty-seven percent of primary fuel substitution in calciner

Coal 60%
RDF 20%
TDF 20%

Scenario B

One hundred percent of primary fuel substitution in calciner

Coal 40%
RDF 40%
TDF 20%

Table 9 shows the quantity required of the fuel for the different fuel scenarios.

Design Estimates

The following estimates will help for the process design: the amount of fuel required,
annual fuel cost, and the basic plant design.

Fuel Equivalent (FEQ)

The fuel equivalent identifies the ratio between the LHV (specific energy content) of
the primary and the alternative fuel, so the quantity required to be burned of the fuel
can be determined.
FEQ coal/RDF = 0.67. So for 1 ton of coal, 1.49 ton of RDF is required for the
same energy quantity.
FEQ coal/TDF = 1.39. So for 1 ton of coal, 0.72 ton of TDF is required for the
same energy quantity.

Cost Equivalent (CEQ)

CEQ coal/RDF = 4.68 = > for EUR100 payed you get 4.68  the energy from RDF
compared to coal.
CEQ coal/TDF = 1.39 => for EUR100 payed you get 5.86  the energy from
TDF compared to coal.
Table 10 shows the annual fuel cost for the selected fuel scenarios.
18 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 9 Quantity required of the fuel for the different fuel scenarios
Coal RDF TDF
Present scenario (Kg/h) 100% coal
Kiln burner 10.424
In-line calciner burner 15.635
Comb. chamber burner
Total 26,059
Present scenario (%GJ)
Kiln burner 40.00%
In-line calciner burner 60.00%
Comb. chamber burner
Scenario A (%GJ) 60% coal 20% RDF – 20% TDF
Kiln burner 40.00%
In-line calciner burner 20.00% 20.00% 20.00%
Comb. chamber burner
Scenario A (Kg/h)
Kiln burner 10.424
In-line calciner burner 5.212 7.801 3.738
Comb. chamber burner
Total 15.635 7.801 3.738
Scenario B (%GJ) 40% coal 40% RDF – 20% TDF
Kiln burner 40.00%
In-line calciner burner 40.00% 20.00%
Comb. chamber burner
Scenario B (Kg/h)
Kiln burner 10.424
In-line calciner burner 15.603 3.738
Comb. chamber burner
Total 10.424 15.603 3.738

Table 10 Annual fuel cost for the selected fuel scenarios

Scenario (Euro/year)
Present scenario 21.670.664
Scenario A 14.669.343
Scenario B 11.262.040

Fuel Handling and Storage

The fuel supply must be adapted to satisfy the energy demand of the cement plant for
the year. The cement plant is operated for 24 h per day so the delivery period of the
fuel will be as follows:

• 16 h per day
• 7 days per week
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 19

Table 11 Fuel handling and storage

Fuel Coal RDF TDF
Present scenario 100% coal
Ton/hour 39.1 0.0 0.0
Truck/hour 1 0.0 0.0
Min. storage(ton) 235 0.0 0.0
Scenario A 60% coal – 20% RDF – 20% TDF
Ton/hour 23.5 11.7 5.6
Truck/hour 1 2 1
Min. storage(ton) 141 70 34
Scenario B 40% coal – 40% RDF – 20% TDF
Ton/hour 15.6 23.4 5.6
Truck/hour 1 3 1
Min. storage(ton) 94 140 34

Table 11 shows the fuel handling and storage to adapt with the different scenarios.

Process Evaluation

The combustion of alternative fuels in a cement plant has several significant impacts
which may influence the sustainability of alternative fuel utilization. The process
evaluation shall include the following [7]:

1. Combustion efficiency
2. Combustion gas volume
3. Clinker quality under assumption of fuel feed line stoppage
4. Circulating volatiles (bypass ratio)

Combustion Process [7]

The combustion process will occur if all three factors shown in Fig. 6 are present at
the same location. As temperature will be maintained (controlled) in the calciner
section between 850 and 900  C by the kiln operator, oxygen and fuel energy must
be considered as the main variables to control teh compustion.
The three important energy elements for oxidation (combustion) are:

1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Sulfur

Every fuel used in the cement plant is a mixture of various degrees of those
elements. Each of these elements has a different ignition point, combustion velocity,
20 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Fig. 6 Preconditions for

combustion

and oxygen demand which add complications to the combustion efficiency, espe-
cially if the fuels are a mixture of different species, e.g., RDF as described above.

Combustion Gas Volume

The resulting combustion gas components with a complete combustion will be as

follow:

1. CO2
2. H2O
3. SO2

The combustion gas calculation is based on the following:

1. Two percent excess oxygen at the kiln inlet

2. Two percent excess oxygen at the gas outlet of the bottom stage cyclone
3. Based on stoichiometric balance, i.e., Lambda (Air/Airmin) = 1.0
4. Data shown for Scenario A and Scenario B are based on the present fuel scenario
with 100% coal feed

Table 12 shows the percentage of the combustion air and gas for Scenarios A
and B.
The result of the combustion calculation indicates the following:

1. The combustion air required in the calciner has been reduced.

2. The total combustion gas volume has been increased.
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 21

Table 12 Combustion air and combustion gas for Scenarios A and B

Scenario A Scenario B
Comb. air kiln burner 100% 100%
Comb. air in-line calciner 99% 97%
Total combustion air 99% 98%
Comb. gas kiln burner 100% 100%
Comb. gas in-line calciner 103% 106%
Total combustion gas 102% 104%

The practical experience has shown that the combustion is not occurring under
stoichiometric conditions and excess air is required for the combustion of the
alternative fuels.

Increasing of Combustion Gas Volume [7]

The design capacity of a pyro-section and the subsequent downstream gas handling
equipment allows usually an 8–10% increase in the production. During the life cycle
of the plant, this excess capacity is consumed due to the following:

1. Increased production capacity

2. Increase in pressure drop of preheater and calciner
3. Increased false air ingress
4. Higher specific energy consumption
For practical reasons, the spare capacity of the ID fan under stable maximum
production is typically 5% to allow possible gas volume fluctuations. Table 13
shows the impact of the combustion gas volume on the ID fan operation.

The increase in the operating parameters does not include possible increased
preheater exit gas volume due to [7]:

1. Increase in preheater gas exit temperature due to higher gas velocity.

2. Increase in false air ingress due to higher suction pressure.

Particle Size of Calciner Fuel [7]

It is understandable that the specific dimension of the fuel particle have a significant
influence on the combustion efficiency. Flat (two-dimensional particles, e.g., plastic
foil) will combust faster than a fuel junk (three-dimensional particle, e.g., wood
piece).
The calculated combustion indicator has no direct impact on process calculation
but is a good guide to:

1. Estimate the expected combustion problems.

22 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

Table 13 Changed ID fan operation for the scenario selected

Scenario Speed (rpm) % Pressure (Pa) % Energy (MW) %
Scenario A 2.00 4.04 6.12
Scenario B 400 8.16 12.49

Table 14 Combustion indicator of different fuel particles

Particle
Length Width Height Particle volume Combustion
(mm) (mm) (mm) size (mm2) (mm3) indicator (ϕ)
Reference 20 20 20 2400 8000 1.00
RDF 50 20 5 2700 5000 0.85
Straw 150 10 2 3640 3000 0.72
TDF 40 40 10 4800 16,000 1.26

2. Serve as guidance in negotiation with potential alternative fuel suppliers.

Table 14 shows the combustion indicator of different fuel particles. As reference,

a particle with dimensions of 20  20  20 mm is taken.
Particles with a larger specific surface in relation to its volume (lower combustion
indicator) allow a better heat and mass transfer within the calciner. Particles with
lower combustion indicator tend to be suspended easier in the calciner gas flow.
The effective method for lowering the production cost of the cement is to use the
alternative fuels. Using low-grade alternative fuels in precalciners, where kiln
exhaust gases pass through, will highly reduces the NOx emissions due to re-burning
reactions at relative low temperature. With (25–35) % substitution rate of the
alternative fuels burned in the kiln, the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions will be
highly reduced. Also there are ecological benefits such as conservation of non-
renewable resources, reduction of waste disposal requirement, and reduction of the
associated environmental pollution.

Case Studies in Egypt

Cement plants in Egypt has used the alternative fuels to be utilized with the primary
fuels such as coal and petcock. The utilization percentage ranges from (15:35) % for
RDF and agricultural wastes. For all the plants, the CO2 emissions had been reduced.

CO2 Emissions Calculations

For the case of existing cement plants, CO2 emissions when Mazot is burned were
selected as baseline for calculating the increase in CO2 emissions due to the use of
coal. Most of CO2 emissions come from the calcination process; however this
amount is generated whether Mazot or coal is burned. The amount of CO2 that
Alternative Fuels from Waste Products in Cement Industry 23

Table 15 Emission factors for different fuels

Fuel used EF t CO2/TJ
Mazot 77.4
Coal 94.6
Petcock 97.5
RDF 65.5
Agricultural wastes 0

needs to be calculated is the difference between that emitted when coal is used and
that emitted when Mazot is used. The calculation is based on values of emission
factors from IPCC. These values are shown in Table 15.
However, companies are allowed to make their own analysis of the carbon
content of the Pet coke or coal according to sampling and analysis methods agreed
upon with EEAA.

Example 1

A plant producing 1,500,000 t clinker/year requiring 3820 MJ/t clinker: for a fuel
Mix of 60% coal, 35% petcock, and 5% Mazot. CO2 emission for a total energy
requirement of 5730 TJ/year is calculated as follows:

Required energy, TJ/year t CO2/year

Fuel mix
Mazot 5730 5% = 286.5 286.5 77.4 = 22,175.1
Coal 5730 60% = 3438 3438 94.6 = 325,234.8
Petcock 5730 35% = 2005.5 2005.5 97.5 = 195,536.25
Subtotal 542,946.15
Fuel
100% Mazot 5730 5730 77.4 = 443,502
CO2 increase over Mazot 99,444.17

Then when alternative fuels are used, the CO2 emissions are reduced depending
on the substitution rate of the alternative fuels as the emission factor for the
alternative fuels is lower than that of the primary fuels.

Conclusions and Further Outlook

Utilizing different types of alternative fuels in cement industry is a well-established

practice worldwide. High substitution rates up to even 100% substitution rate were
reported. The cement plant is the best-ever incinerator due to the operation high
temperature and to counter current scraping of the flow gases with the raw meal. Due
to the rapid decrease in fossil fuels reserves and the increase in different types of
 24 W. Zieri and I. Ismail

wastes that can be incinerated, it is expected that alternative fuel utilization in cement
would keep growing.

References
1. Usón A, López-Sabirón A, Ferreira AM, Llera G, Sastresa E (2013) Uses of alternative fuels
and raw materials in the cement industry as sustainable waste management options, vol 23.
CIRCE – Centre of Research for Energy Resources and Consumption, University of Zaragoza,
Zaragoza, p 1
2. Zieri W (2017) Environmental effect of alternative fuel in cement industry 1:3
3. Chinyama MPM (2011) Alternative fuels in cement manufacturing, alternative fuel. In:
Manzanera M (ed). Intech. ISBN: 978-953-307-372-9
4. The Pembina Institute and Environmental Defence (2014) Alternative fuel use in cement
manufacturing implications, opportunities and barriers. Ontario
5. Rahman AQ, Rasul MG, Khan MMK, Sharma S (2014) Recent development on the uses of
alternative fuels in cement manufacturing process
6. Rodríguez NH, Martínez-Ramírez S, Blanco-Varela MT, Donatello S, Guillem M, Puig J, Fos C,
Larrotcha E, Flores J (2013) The effect of using thermally dried sewage sludge as an alternative
fuel on Portland cement clinker production. J Clean Prod 52:94–102
7. Zieri W (2017) Alternative fuel practical process guide. 3:17

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