ces nc he partes ge frp eon T=: set portman etn nt mating a an eq Siuse casos tema enmen How wl ou se smtng tee Sncge ens he des cf yo ew teacher. From informal conversations in the teachers‘ lounge to professional work. shops and institutes, many opinions are offered on how to meet these challenges, Often because of the urgent problems teachers face each day, these opinions, lying at the surface cs education, are not examined and -eflected upun. But upon reflec. tion, the seemingly everyday Issues take on a deeper and more philosophical di. mension. This chapter examines educational philosophy's role in helping teachers ‘move from unexamined opinions to such philosophical questions as the following: ‘© What is truth, and how do we know and teach it? ‘= What is right and wrong, and how can we teach ethical moral values? 1» How can schools and their curiculum exemplify what fs true and valuable? 1 How do teaching and learning reflect ones beliefs about truth and value? ‘seful books on the philosophy of education are Robert D. Heslep, Philosophical Thinking i Edtcational Pracice (Westport, Conn. Pracget Publishers, 1997), and Nel Nodding, Palos phy of Education (Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1995)Basie question: and philosophical issues Philosophies and theories ‘Throughout the chapter, we shall refer to these as “the basic questions.” Asa future teacher, you will be asked to answer them, not in so many words perhaps, but through all of your daily actions. The policies and procedures of the school in ‘which you teach will then reflect an underlying philosophy? These are not easy questions to answer. They cannot be answered in truefalse, ‘multiple-choice format, Most likely, your answers to these questions will change over time, become more complex, and upon reflection result in the creation of your ‘own philosophy of education. In today’s educational practice, portfolios are used for ongoing student assessment. Teachers also keep journals with daily entries about classroom events, successes, and problems. Both portfolios and jousnals pro vide a personal framework of educational events upon which you can reflect. In ‘much the same way, you can build a personal philosophy of education. It will not be easy or quick, but it will be rewarding both personally and professionally It will, help move your professional development from opinion to more relective beliefs. ‘though philosoplacal issues can be found throughout this book, they are es pecially relevant to Chapter 13 on the goals of education and to Chapter 14 on cur- riculum. This chapter will provide you with a philosophical and theoretical map, a Kind of grid, upon which you can examine your opinions about education and ‘transform them into your ovn philosophy of education. The following questions ‘ean guide you in reading the chapter and also serve to aid you on the joumey to bullding your own philosophy of education: 1. What are the areas of philosophy, how ate they defined, and what are my be- liefs about them? 2. What philosophies of education are found in human culture? Do [find certain philosophies in my educational experiences? Do I find these philosophies use- ful in examining and explaining beliefs about education? 3. What theories guide educational practice ~ curriculum, teaching, and learn ing? Do I find these theories present in my educational experiences? Are these ‘theories useful in examining and explaining my beliefs about education? 4, How do philosophies and theories of education influence teaching and learn- {ng in the classroom? For example, how does a teacher's educational relation: ship to students reflects or her ethics and values? '. How does a teacher's method of instruction reflect a particular theory of knowledge and human understanding? How does a teacher's attitude to cul- ‘ural diversity relect his or her conception of a just society? This chapter examines four educational philosophies and five educational thes cries, Systematic philosophies, such as idealism and realism, refer to complete bod- les of thought that present a worldview of which education is a part. In contrast, educational theories focus on education itself and on schools. (See Figure 12.1.) ‘There ate close links between the general philosophies examined in this chapter and the more specific therles of education. The theories are the school-based com: ponents of the philosophical approaches. For example, the theory of essentialism is Closely related to the philosophy of realism. Similarly, the theories of progressivism and reconstructionism both derive from the general philosophy of pragmatism. 2or the relevance of educational philosophy to classroom practices, see Tony W Johnson, Discipleship or Piglmage? The Sty of cational Philosophy (Albany, NY. State University of New York Press, 1995). as390 Charter 12 w Philosophical Ponts of Education Differences Between “Philosophies” and “Theories” of Education GENERAL speciric | Philosophies Theories wide-ranging, systematic, Focused on education; no complete i complete global pilosophical system offered Components related to Components related to species metaptysics, epistemology, ef education, sch a8 cutcuum, ‘ology, and logic teaching, and leaning | | | tnaghts dered fom ine Insights derived fom more general stem ‘general philosophies or feom school contexts ‘To understand current disputes about educational goals and curticula, we need +0 explore these often conflicting philosophical rots. Before doing so, we must de. fine certain terms and areas of philosophy. ooo Special Terminology 252. nears esemotay enol ane ae ec Sr ee ee ee Soe ee eee ee eee eee ie on ome oyaaui ee eae Se Seg as eee ln ere eee ee nating eet hein, aient piso hal ee a ee ee eee Fela tellin ie Ta ch rcs tt ce nto bod ett Bee ee oe eae aes wae’ pun a soaey in pened cary waa hogy 44the atis sala? itual stent tics alues ‘ot, ye UNL RU ass Special Terminctogy 391 ‘The Situation proughout a teachers professional career, decisions need tobe made re ‘garding curtculum and instruction. These decsions reflect a personal Dhilosophy of education. Consider, fr example, Amanda Scot, a seventh grade English and socal studies teacher inher fst year of teaching. The bull {ng principal has appointed Amandla to a three-person committee to review and make recommendations for revising the terature couse. Amanda brings with hher many progressive and critical theory ideas from her teacher-education pro- gram. For example, she believes that her own study of literature in middle and Secondary soo] overemphasized historical rather than contemporary books and that too many selections were wrltten by white Euro-American males, n- clined toa progressive philosophy and some cial theory ideas, she would lire to revi=the course to include more selections fom contemporcty Asian and Atican American wntes,espedally women. ‘At the committee’ fst meeting, the three members — Clara Emerson, a teacher with ifteen years of service inthe school, David Seno, a teacher in his fifth year of teaching and comaitee chairperson, and Amanda — share their cpinions. Mes. Emerson says that the presen literature curriculum represents slectlons fom the finest waters in the American past — James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Louisa May Alcolt, and Henry David Thoreau. ‘Speaking as an exparienced teacher, she say that these important wodks cay ‘with them enduring perennial themes that shouldbe the coe of any Iiterature program. Amanda then gives het opinion but is somewhat overwhelmed by ‘Mrs. Emerson, who speaks with a sense of authority. Mz. Senko, who spends much of his time on administrative responsibilities, takes a neutral position land concludes the first meeting by saying, “oth points of view are interesting aun useful, The conimittee wil meet next week to daft the general principles that will guide our work, Before our next meeting, it would be a good idea for ‘Mrs, Emerson and Ms; Scott to ineet informally over coffee to discuss their ap- patently opposing viewpoint.” ‘Thotight qestions! 1. In what pllosophies ox theories of education is each divergent view lo- ‘cated? For example, i Mrs. Emersom speaking as perennialist? What philosophy or theory is represented by Amanda's point of view? 2.Do you believe that Amanda, who i first-year teaches, should con- ‘unue to argue for cuniculum change against Mrs, Emerson, an expet- enced teacher? If 04, why not? Ifyes, how should she proceed? 3. Me Senko appears to be neutral. I is kindof neutrality philosophically and professionally defensible, of should he take more ofa stand? 4. Do you see any way in which the committe can work out a pil sophical compromise? What might be the effects of sucha compromise ‘on the students and teachers, especially Amanda and Mrs. Emerson?392 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Roots of Education Deiutive and inductive tirinking ‘warding or punishing behavior depending on whether it conforms fo thelt concep. tions of what is right, good, and beautiful. Moreover, the school climate as a whole represents the values ofthe educational community. Logic, which is concerned with cortect and valid thinking, examines the rues of inference that enable us to correctly frame our propositions and arguments Deductive logic moves from general statements to particular instances and appl. cations. Inductive logic moves from the particular instance to tentative generaiza, tions subject to further verification. Curticulum and instruction are both based on ‘conceptions of logic. Does something in the subject itself logically dictate how ma, terial should be organized and presented to students (the deductive approach)? Or should teachers take their cue from students’ interest, readiness, and expetience in deciding how to present instruction (an inductive approach)? With this background in terminology, we can examine different philosophies ‘and theories. After discussing the key concepts of each one, we will see how it an. swers te basic questions raised at the begins'>g of the chapter and helps ate: ‘create his or her own philosophy of education. (See Overview 12.1 forthe philoso. phies discussed in this chapter) a Idealism [Notable idealist thinkers Universal, eternal truth ‘Macrocosm and microcosm Latent knowledge Idealism, one of the oldest ofthe traditional philosophies, goes back to Plato, who ‘developed idealist principles in ancient Athens. In Germany, Georg W. E Hegel cre. ated a comprehensive philosophical worldview based on idealism, and in the United States, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau developed a tran- scendentalist variety of idealism, Friedrich Froebel based his kindergarten theory on idealist metaphysics Asian religions such as Hinduism and Beddhism also rest oa the spiritual outlook associated with idealism, key Concepts Metaphysics. \dealists, holding that only the mental or spisitual is ultimately rel, see the universe as an expression of a highly generalized intelligence and will —a universal mind. The person's spistual essence, or soul, is the permanent aspect of human nature that provides vitality and dynamism. This mental world of ideasis eternal, permanent, regular, and ordetly. Truth and values are absolute and univers Idealists, such as the transcendentaliss, have used the concepts of the maco- osm and the microcosm to explain their version of reality. Macrocosm refers; the universal mind, the frst cause, creator, or God. Regardless of the particult ‘name used, the macracosmic mind is the whole of existence. It isthe one, allincusivs and complete self of which all lesser selves are parts. The universal, macrocosm ‘mind is continually thinking and valuing. The microcosm is a limited part ofthe ‘whole — an individual and lesser self. But the microcosm is of the same spiritual substance as the macrocosm. Epistemology. Idealism emphasizes the recognition or reminiscence of ideas that are latent — already present but not evident — in the mind. Such ideas area prior that i, they concern knowledge that exists prior to and independent of human &| For dlscusion ofthe leading contributors to Lealiam, see Howard A, Ozman and Samuel 1M. Craver, Philsophical Foundations af Education, Sth ed (Columbus, Oho, and Englewoo! ‘Cis, Ns Mere Prentie-Tall, 1989), pp. J-15,ale oo Idealism Realism | Philosophy Pragmatism | experimentatsm) Existentialism Blerani of Idealism 39% Educational | Metaphysics Epistemology Axiology Implications Proponents | Realty is spire Knowing isthe Valuesare —Asubjectsmatter Butler {ual or mental rethinking of absolute curiculum Emerson and unchang- latent ideas andeternal_ emphasizing —_=Froebel the great and Hegel enduring ideas Plato of the cufture| Realty is objec- Knowing consists Values are subject-matter Aquinas fiveandiscom- of sensation and absolute curiculum. Aristotle | posed of matter ausvaction andeeteroal, stresing hue ——Broudy land form; iis asedon | manisticand Martin fixed, based on rature'slaws scientific disci-_Pestalozz) ‘natural law plines Realtyisthe Knowing results Values are Instruction or- Childs interaction of an from experienc- situational ganized around Dewey individual with ings use of scien- relative problem solving James, fenvironiment or tfc method according to Peitce experience; iis the scientific ‘always chang- method Realityissub- Knowing isto Values. Classroom dia- Sartre jective, with make personal should be _—_‘logues stimulate Marcel | existence pre choices freely chosen awareness that Moris ceding essence feach person Soderquist, creates a self. ‘concept ‘through signifi- ‘ant choices perience about them, Through introspection the individual examines his or her ‘own mind and finds a copy of the mactocosmic mind. Since what isto be known is already present in the mind, the teacher’ challenge Is to bring this latent knowl- ledge to consciousness. The goal of education is to help students arrive ata broad, ‘general, and unifying perspective of the universe.* Tdealist teachers prefer a hierarchical curriculum based on traditional discl- 1es Or subject matter. At the top of the hierarchy are the most general disciplines, philosophy and theology. These general and abstract subjects transcend the limita tions of time, place, and circumstance, and they transfer to a wide range of situa- tons. Mathematis is valuable, too, because it cultivates the power to deal with abstractions. History and literature also rank high as sources of moral and cultural Sel Cepia ial Pepsin at a sng. Sus mea 41394 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Roots of Fducation Endering values Knowledge of universal ideas Schooling: an intellectual pursuit of truth ‘Scratic method High stondands Intellectual development, not vocational taining models, Somewhat lower in the curriculum, the natural and physical sciences ad. dress particular cause-and-effect relationships. Language is important because it _an essential ool at all levels of learning. For the idealist, the highest level of knowl, ‘edge recognizes the relationships among all these subject matters and integrates them, Aniology, Because Sdealists see the universe in universal and eternal tern, they preseribe values that are unchanging and applicable to all people. Thus ethical be. hhavior reflects the enduring knowledge and values of human culture. Pitlosophy, theology, history, literature, and ar are rich sources for transmitting this heritage of ‘values, This kind of education requires that students be exposed to worthy models, especially the classics — the great works that have endured over time. The Basic Questions I you were io ask an idealist teacher, “what is knowledge?” ive or she would reply that knowledge concems the spiritual principles that ate the base of reality. This knowledge of reality takes the form of ideas. If knowledge Is about universal ideas, then education is the intellectual process of bringing ideas to the leamers con. sciousness. Tn answering the question “What is schooling?” the idealist educator would say that the school isa social agency where students seek to discover and pursue truth, It is an intellectual institution where teachers and students explote the questions Socrates and Plato fist asked: What is truth? What is beauty? What is te good life? ‘These answers, although hidden, are present in our minds, and we need to reflect deeply to bring them to our consciousness. Nothing should be allowed to distract us ftom the intellectual pursuit of truth. ‘Who should attend school? The idealist would say everyone. Not all students hhave the same intellectual aptitude, but all need to cultivate thelr minds to the lin its of their capacities, Gifted students need the greatest intellectual challenges that the teacher can provide, Hove should teaching be carried on? The idealist would say that thinking and learning are names for the process of bringing Ideas to consciousness. A very effec tive means of doing this is the Socratic method, a process by which the teacher stimulates the learner's awareness of ideas by asking leading questions. Another im portant aspect of idealist methodology is modeling. Teachers should be model ‘worthy of imitation by students; they should have wide knowledge of the cultural hneritage and lead an exemplary ie. dealists want to safeguard the quality of education by maintaining high inte lectual standards and resisting any tendency toward mediocrity. In Plato's Republi for example, intellectual standards were so high that only a gifted minority ent the ruling elite of philosopher-kings. Today's idealists would not go that far, ‘they define educational goals as the developing of intellectual capacity, and the generally accept the fac that not all students will go on to the highest stages of ef uueation, Implications for Today's Classroom Teacher Idealism offers significant possibilities for today’s classroom teacher. It seeks t0€ ‘ate an intellectual environment for teaching and learning. It rejects the © sumerism and vocationalism that often shape attitudes in contemporary society. 48ats at ad as al ee Iie, nat wy of alt importa subjects An idealist lesson Realism A real world of objets Knowing: sensation, then abstraction Realism 395 sees teachers as vital agents in helping students realize their fullest potential, and it encourages teachers to acquaint themselves and their students with the finest ele: ments of the cultural heritage. By joumersing themselves in the great ideas of the Doeritage, learners prepare to contribute to the heritage in their own right, Mealist teachers se certain subjects as especially powerful in stimulating think- Ing and developing identification with the cultural heritage. For example, they use ‘mathematics to develop students’ powers of abstraction. History fs seen as the study of the contributions made by the great women and men of the past. Teachers ex- pose students 10 the classics — great and enduring works of ar, literature, and ‘music — so that they can experience and share in the time-tested values conveyed by these cultural works. How might a teacher use idealism in developing a lesson? For example, a fifth- grade teacher might illustrate the power of ideas and the higher ethical law by & unit on the Ife and work of Dr. Martin Luther King,Jr. Students would study the bi ography of Dr. King and seek #9 discover the principles of nonviolence and {ustice that guided is actions duting the clvil rights movernent. They would study and re- cite his “Ihave a dream" speech to discover the power of ideas in shaping behavior Finally, Dr. King would serve as a model worthy of imitation. Realism, which stresses objective knowledge and walues, was developed by the an- ‘ient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas articulated 4 variety of religious realism, known as Thomism, which was a synthesis of Atis- totelianism and Christian doctsine. Thomism emphasizes a dualistic conception of reality with 2 lower material and 2 higher spiritual dimension. Thomism became ‘the philosophical basis for Roman Catholic education. Alfred North Whitehead continued the realist tradition. Realism holds that (1) there is a wortd of real exis: tence that human beings have not made; (2) the human mind can know about the real world; and (3) such knowiedge is the most reliable guide to individual and so- cial behavior. These doctrines provide a starting point for considering realism’s ed- ‘ucational implications. Key Concepts Metaphysics and Epistemology. For the realist, 2 material world exists that isin dependent of and external to the mind of the knower$ All objects are composed of ‘matter. Matter, in turn, must assume the structure of particular objects Human beings can know these objects through their senses and their reason, Knowing Is @ process that involves two stages: sensation and abstraction. Fist, the knower perceives an object and records sensory data about it, such as colo, size, ‘weight, sell, or sound. The mind sorts these data into those qualities that are al ‘ways present in the object and those that are sometimes present. By abstracting out the necessary qualities (those that are alays present), the learner forms a concept Soran analysis of wells, see two books by Roy Bhaskar, ScintfcRaalsm and Human Eman pation London: Verso, 1986), and Reclaiming Realty: A Critical Irteduction 9 Contemporary Philosophy (London: Verso, 1989), Bhaskar’ conception of teal is analyzed in D3 Cor fon, "Education Research and Bhaska's Conception of Discovery,” Bduattanal Theory (SpHng 1991), pp. 189-198, "396 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Roots of Education Curticatn of organized subjects Rational behiaviey, based ot reality Knowledge concens objets Eitucation via subject-matter alsciplines Classrooms for earning, not therapy Teachers as subject matter experts of the object and recognizes it as belonging to a certain class. With this classifica. tion of the object, the learner understands that it shares certain qualities with othe, members ofthe same class but not with objects ofa different class. Like idealists, realists believe that following a curriculum of organtzed, separate subjects isthe most effective way of learning about realty. Organizing subject mar. ter, as scientists and scholars do, isa sophisticated method of classifying objects. For example, the past experiences of humankind can be organized into history. Plants ‘an be studied systematically according to their classifications in botany. Units of political organization such as nations, govemnments, legislatures, and judicial sys tems can be grouped into political science. For the realist, the way to acquire know. ‘edge about reality is through systematic inquiry into these subjects. Axiology. In the realis’s conception of knowledge, certain rules govern intelligent ‘behavior For example, human beings ought to behave in a rational way, and be. havior is rational when it conforms to the way in which objects behave in realty. Frou their study of reaity, people can develop theories basec. on nature, ;hysia, and social laws, Since natural laws aze universal and eternal, so are the values basad fon them, The Basic Questions ‘To begin our philosophical cross-examination, we again ask, What is knowledge? Realists would reply that knowledge concerns the physical world in which we liv When we know something, our howledge is always about an object. Our concep ate valid when they conrespond to those objects as they really exist the world Formal education, the realists would say, isthe study ofthe subject-matter di ciplines into which Knowledge has been organized and classified. History, an- ‘guages science, and mathematics are ongenized bodies of knowledge. If we know them, we will know something about the world in which we ive. This knowledge's our best guide in conducting our daily affairs. For realists, societies have established schools, as primarily academic institu tions, to provide students with knoviledge about the objective worl. Since all per sons have aratfonal potentiality, schooling should be available to all, with students pursuing the same academic curiculum that will prepare them to make tational de Cisions. Realist teachers should be subject-matter experts who combine ther dic plinary expertise with effective teaching methods.” Implications for Today's Classroom Teacher In realist classrooms, the teacher's primary responsibility Isto teach some skil, such as reading, writing, or computation, or some body of disciplined knowledge, such as history, mathematics, or science. Although they appreciate that thetr studen! are emotional as well as rational persons, realist teachers do not tum classrooms into therapeutic centers for emotional or behavioral adjustment. Realist teaches ‘would oppose those nonacademic activities that interfere with the school’s prima purpose as a center of academic learning. In order (© perform theic primary educational responsiblity, realist teaches need to be knowledgeable in the content of thelr subject. For example, the teacbe™ “Davi Kelley, The Evidence ofthe Senses: A Realist Theory of Perception (Baton Rouges Lousy Slate University Pres, 1986) william ©. Marin, Realism in Education (New York: Harper and Row, 1969) sous Example of a realist approach Pragmatism Founders of pragmatisa he Organism and environment ch as Problem solving ng Pragmatism 397 of history should be a historian who possesses a thorough background in that disci- pline. In addition, the relist teacher should have a general education in the liberal arts and sciences — a background that will enable the teacher to demonstrate rela- tionships between her or his area of expertise and other subject-matter areas. Real~ Ist teachers may employ a wide repertoire of methods, such as the lecture, discussion, demonstration, or experiment, Mastery of content is most important, and methodology is @ necessary but subordinate means to reach that goal How might a high-school physics teacher with a realist philosophical oxlenta tion plan a unit on Isaac Newton's laws of motion? First, the teacher would histor cally locate Newton and comment on his scientific contributions. Second, the teacher might illustrate the laws of motion in a laboratory demonstration, Third, the students might discuss the demonstration and frame the scientific generaliza- ‘on that it Wustrated. Finally, students would take a test to demonstrate their un: derstanding of Newton’s laws of motion.® ‘Because of their srress on the teachers expertise and the acadeanic learning of students, realists tend to favor competency testing for both teachers and students. ‘They also believe that administrators and school boards should maintain strong. academic standards and encourage a high level of achievement. Pragmatism, a philosophy developed in the United States, emphasizes the need to test ideas by acting on them. Among its founders were Charles, Pete (1839-1914), William James (1842-1910), George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), and John Dewey (1859-1952), Petcestessed sing the scientific method to validate ideas, and James applied pragmatic interpretations to psychology, religion, and education, Mead em- phasized the development of the child 35a learaing and expertencing human or ganism. Dewey, in particular, wrote extensively on education? Chapter 4 examined Dewey's work as an educational pioneer. Here we will focus on his pragmatic or experimentalist philosophy, which featured change, process, slativty, and the reconstruction of experience. Tailuenced by Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory, Dewey applied the terms ovganism and environment to education. Dewey saw human beings as biological and sociological organisms who possess drives or impulses that sustain life and promote ‘rowth and development. Every organism lives in a habitat or envionment. Educa- tion, so conceived, was to promote optimum human growth, Rejecting the 2 prion foundation of the older idealist and realist perspectives, Dewey's test of experience meant that human purposes and plans could be vali- dated only by acting on and judging them by their consequences. The need to judge by consequences also applied to educational programs. Did a particular edu cational program, curicular design, or methodological strategy achiew its antici pated goals and objectives? For Dewey, the only valid test was to try out the proposal and judge the esults.° Whereas idealism and tealism emphasized bodies of substantive knowledge or subject-matter disciplines, Dewey stressed the process of problem solving. For "Dilip H. Phenix, Piesophies of Education (New York: Wiley, 1961) pp. 22-24 ‘olin Dewey, The Child andthe Curlin (Chicago: Univerty of Chicago Press, 1902); Joh. ewes, Demcracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1906); John Dewey, The School and ‘Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1923), and John Dewey, Experience and Ea tion (New York: Macmillan, 1938), ‘Stepien M. ishman an Lucille MeCatthy, Jn Dewey and the Challenge of Classroom Prac tice Neve York: Teachecs College Tress, 1998) 5398 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Roots of Education Experience No permanent realities “Reconstruction” af perso ‘and environment Relativity of values Inductive logic Dewey, learning occurs as the person engages in problem solving, In Dewey's ex. perimental epistemology, the learner, as an individual ar as a member ofa group, "uses the scientific method to solve both personal and social problems. For Deve the problem-solving method can be developed into a habit that is transferable toy wide variety of situations." Key Concepts ‘Metaphysics and Epistemology. Whereas idealism and realism emphasize an un. changing reality, pragmatism or experimentalism sees epistemology as a process of examining a constantly changing universe, In Dewey's philosophy of experimen, talism, the epistemological, or knowing, situation involves a person, or organism, and an environment. Experience, defined asthe interaction of the person with the environment, is a key concept, The person interacts with the environment %0 live, agro, and Zevelop. Tals interaction may alter cx change both the zerson and the environment. Knowing is thus a transaction, a process, between the learner and the environment, Although each interaction has some generalizable aspects that cazty over to the next problem, each episode will differ somewhat. Effective people, by using the scientific method, can solve problems and add the features ofa particular ‘problem-solving episode to their ongoing experiences.” If reality is continually changing, then a curriculum claiming to be based on permanent realities is foolish. Concepts of unchanging or universal truth become ‘untenable. The only guides that human beings have in thelr interaction with the environment are tentative assertions that are subject to further research and vet. cation. Therefore, according to pragmatiss, what is needed is a method for dealing ‘with change in an intelligent manner. The Deweyites stress problem solving as the most effective method for directing change toward desired outcomes, Even though reality involves constant transformation or reconstruction of both the person and ‘the environment, humankind can benefit from the process. Each time a human ex: perience is reconstructed to solve a problem, a new contribution is added to hu: rmanity’s fund of experience. Axiology and Logic. Pragmatic axiology is highly situational. Since we inhabit a constantly changing universe, values, too, ust change, Values are relative to time, place, and circumstance. What contuibutes to personal and social growth is val: able; what restricts or limits experience is unworthy. Further, we can clarify our val- vues by testing and reconstructing them in the same way scientific claims ate verified." Following the scientific method, experimentalist logic is inductive. Tentative assertions are based on empirical experience and must be tested. Experimentalist logic is suspicious ofa priori truths and deductions based on ther. "Laweence J Dennis and George W. Stickel, “Mead and Dewey: Thematic Connections i [Educational Topics,” Educational Theory Sammer-Fall 1981), pp. 320-321 22Toan Colwell, “Te Ecological Perspective in Job Dewey's Plosophy of Education,” Ht ‘atonal Theory (Suramer 1985), p. 237. ‘Swim R Caspary, “Judgements of Vale in John Dewey’s Theory of thie,” Education ‘Theor Spring 1990) pp. 155-169, Se also Rober B, Westbrook, fa Dewey and Armercah 5a Demecracy sca, NA. Comnell Unversity Fess, 1991), pp. 1ST-AS6,Knowledge is tentative An experimental process Interdscolinary approach School as microcosm of soctety Transmitting cultural heritage (Cultural diversity, but shared learning processes Combining quality and equity Subject matter as instrumental “Applying the scientific method Pragmatism — 399 The Basic Questions ‘The pragmatist’s answers to questions about knowledge, education, schooling, and instruction are very different from those of more traditional philesophies, Since knowledge s tentative and subject to revision, pragmatsts are more concerned with the process of using knowledge than with truth as a body of knowledge. In contrast, traditional philosophers emphasize truth asa permanent body of knowledge. For the pragmatist, education is an experimental process —a method of deal- {ng with problems that arise as people interact with thoir world, Dewey argued that ‘human beings experience the greatest personal and social growth when they inter- act with the environment in an intelligent and reflective manner. The most intelli gent way of solving problems isto use the scientific method, When you face a problem, the pragmatists say, the information needed to solve it usually comes from many sources, not from a single discipline or academe sub- ject. For example, to define the problem of pollution of the physical environment and to suggest ways of solving it, we must consider souzces that ate historical, po- litical, sociological, scientisc, technological, and international. An educated pet~ son, in the pragmatic sense, knows how to use information from all these sources. Pragmatists therefore favor interdisciplinary education, Idealists and realists, in contrast, are suspicious of interdisciplinary education because they believe students must fist study organized subjects. Pragmatists such as Deviey see the school as a miniature community, a micro: ‘cosm of the larger society. For them, no true separation exists between school and society. The school exercise three major functions: to simplify, purify, and balance the cultural heritage. To simplify, the school selects elements ofthe heritage and re- duces their complexity to units appropriate to learners’ readiness and interest. To purify, it selects worthy cultural elements and eliminates those that limit human in- teraction and growth. To balance, the school integrates the selected and purified ex- Periences into a harmony. Since many diverse cultural groups participate in society the pragmatic school helps children of one culture understand and appreciate members of other cultures. Although cultural diversity is regarded as enriching the entire society, pragmatists want all cultural groups to use the scientific method. They also see schools as build- ing social consensus by stressing common processes of learning. As genuinely inte- grated and democratic learning communities, schools should be open to all ‘As a proponent of an open and sharing society, Dewey did not regard quality and equity as mutually exclusive. To offer equal opportunity forall, schools would not need to compromise educational quality. In Dewey's view, a society and its schools teach their zenith when they provide for the widest possible sharing of re- sources among people of all cultures inthe community. Sharing does not diminish duality but enriches it. Implications for Today's Classroom Teacher Unlike idealist and realist teachers, who see teaching subject matter as their primary responsibility, pragmatist teachers ate more concerned with the process of solving problems intelligently. While not ignoring subject matter, they use it instrumen- tally in problem-solving activities. They do not dominate the classroom but guide earning as facilitators of the students’ research and activities. For students in a pragmatist classroom, the main objective is to share the expe- tence of applying the scientific method to a full range of personal, social, and400 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Roots of Education Classroom as community ‘Teachers as risk takers A progmatist lesson txistenfaism Personal reflection Creating one’s essence trough choices intellectual problems. By using the problem-solving method, it s expected that si dents will earn to apply the process to situations both in and out of school ang thus to reduce the separation of the schoo! from soctety. Pragmatist teachers work to transform classrooms into learning communities by encouraging students to share their interests and problems. Pragmatist educator, also encourage both cultual diversity and commonalities. Although they recognize that each culture has something of value to share with other cultures, they stess shared communication between members of different cultures so that all students together can help create the larger democratic community of shared interests ang ‘values. Instead of simply preserving the status quo, pragmatist teachers need to take risks. They must see knowledge as indeterminate and open-ended, and their educa. sional goals must constiture an ongoing ingulry that leads to action. How might pragmatism be applied to classtoom teaching? Although pragma. ‘ism is applicable to all levels of schooling, we can use the example of a college teacher-educatics class chat defines te study of Zocal sche? governance as i problem and project. The class does preliminary reading about school district orgs nization and then attends a meeting of the board of education, After this exper ‘ence, the class divides itself into research committees to investigate specific areas of local district goverance, such as (I) the roles, functions, and responsibilities ofthe board of education, the central office, and the bullding principals; (2) the develop- ment and revtew of curriculum and instruction; (3) teacher staffing, in-service tain- ing, and organization; (4) the composition, organization, and academic assessment of students; and (5) the role of community organizations. After completing the nec essary research, each committee shares its findings with the class. Then an editorial ccomunittee prepates a collaborative papet on school governance. This project, lus trative of the pragmatist approach, is especially useful to future teechets’ profes sional development. “The philosophy of existentialism, representing both a feeling of desperation anda spit of hope, examines ife in a very personal way. An existentialist education e courages deep personal reflection on one’s identity, commitments, and choices, Key Concepts ‘The existentialist author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) stated that "Existence prey cedes Essence.” This means that human beings are born and enter the world with cout being consulted. They simply are here in a world that they did not make ot shape, However, they possess volition, or will, which gives them the {reedom t ‘make choices and to create their own purposes for existence. As people live, they ate thrust into choice-making situations, Whereas some cholces are trivial, thos ‘that deat with the purpose and meaning of life lead to personal self-defiaition. person creates his ot her own definition and makes his or her own essence. You a what you choose to be. Han frecdom is otal, say the existentialists, and one's sponsibility for choice is also total." ‘This conception of a human being asthe creator of his or ler own essence’ {ers substantially from that ofthe idealists and realists, who see the person 35 Oaman and Craves, Philosophica! Foundations of Eduation, pp, 243-283 4For existentalits, education should help students develop consciousness about the free sdom to choose and allow them to experiment with artistic media to dramatize their feelings and insights. (© Winter/The Image Works) Existential Angst Choosing selfdetermination Creating personal values Existentislsm 40% versal category. Moreover, whereas the Idealist or realist sees the Individual as an in- habitant of a meaningful and explainable world, the existentialist belleves that the universe is indifferent to human wishes, desires, and plans, Existentialism focuses con the concept of Angst, or dread. Each person knows that his or her destiny Is death and that his or her presence in the wosld is only temporary. It is with this sense of philosophical dread that each person must make choices about freedom and slavery, love and hate, peace and wat. As one makes these choices, a question is always present: What difference does it make that I am here and that Ihave chosen tobe what [ am? According to the existentialists, we must also cope with the fact that others — persons, institutions, and agencies are constantly threatening our choice-making freedom. But existentialism does see hope behind the desperation. Each person's response to Ife is based on an answer to the question, Do 1 choose to be a self- determined person or do I choose to be defined by others? Each person has the po tential for loving, creating, and being. Fach can choose to be an inner-directed, authentic person. An authentic person, free and aware of this freedom, knows that every choice is really an act of personal value creation."* Since existentialists have deliberately avoided systemization of their philoso- phy, i is difficult to categorize its metaphysical, epistemological, axiological, and logical positions. However, some comments on these areas can illustrate the exis- tentialist point of view. As already stated, each person creates his or her own sel: definition, or essence, by the personal choices he ot she makes. Epistemologically, the individual chooses the knowledge that he or she wishes to possess. It is axiology ‘that is most important for existentialists, because human beings create their own values through thelr choices. ‘Maxine Greene, Landscapes of Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 1978), and Van. Cleve Moras, Exstetialgm in Education (Nev Yor: Harper tnd Row, 1966) 55402 Chapter 12 « Philosophice! Roots of Education, Awakening consciousness of| the human condition Questioning and dialogue An existential curriculum Same opportunites for alt ‘Teacher encourages Am existentialist lesson The Basic Questions Existentialist realize that we live in a world of physical realities and that we have developed a useful and scientific knowledge about these realities. However, the most significant aspects of our lives are personal and nonscientifc, Thus, to our questions about knowledge and education, existentialist would say that the most importent kind of imowledge is about the human condition and the personal ‘choices we make. Education’s most significant goal is to awaken human conscious, ness to the freedom to choose. Education should create a sense of self-awarenes, and contribute to our authenticity. ‘An existentialist teacher would encourage students to philosophlze, question, and participate in dialogues about the meaning of Lie, ove, and death. The answers to these questions would be personal and subjective, not measurable by standa l2ed tests. An existentialist curriculum would consist of whatever might lead to philosophical dialogue. Particularly valuable are those subjects that vividly oortray Individuci men and wocuen in the act of making chotces, inctuding subjects that are emotional, aesthetic, and poetic. Literature and biography are important for revealing choice-making conditions. Drama and films that vividly portray the human condition and human decision making ought to be seen and discussed by students. In addition to literary, dramatic, and biographical subjects, students need to create their own modes of self-expression.” They should be free to experiment ‘with artistic media and to dramatize thelr emotions, feelings, and insights. ‘The school, for the existentialist, is where individuals meet to pursue discus. sion about their own lives and choices. Since every person is in the same predice- ‘ment and has the same possibilities, every individual should have opportunities or schooling. Inthe school, both teachers and students should have the chance to ask questions, suggest answers, and engage in dialogue. Implications for Today's Classroom Teacher Teaching from an existentialist perspective is not easy because teachers cannot specify goals and objectives in advance ~ these are determined by each student as {an individual person. Rather than imposing goals on students, the existentialist teacher seeks to create an awareness in each student that she or he is ultimately re- sponsible for her or his own education and self-definition. In creating this aware- ress, the teacher encourages students {0 examine the institutions, forces, and situations that limit freedom of choice. Further, existentialist teachers seek to create ‘open classrooms to maximize freedom of choice. Within these open learning envi- ronments, instruction is self-directed. Literature, drama, and film are especially powerful in existentialist teaching. An example of existentialist teaching might bea senior high school history class that is studying the Holocaust, the genocide of six million Jews in Europe during World ‘War I. The class views Steven Speilberg’s movie, Schindler’s List, in which an indus- ttialist, Oscar Schindler, who initially profits from the forced labor of Jewish con centration camp inmates, makes a conscious decision to save his workers from Maxine Greene, The Dialctc of Featom (New York: Teachers College Fess, 1988). am approach that uses nrtative and dialogue to examine philosophical Issues in educe tion, See Carol Wiherell and Net Nodding, eds Stories Lies Tel Naat and Diogu it Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991). 5Educational Thenvies 403 Educational Theory ‘im Curteotem ° —impleations Proponents rr Intron hat Dewey | (oueain frit acct: ros features preblem Kiet Se ee soning and Pater | inet and gruprcities §—— Washbume reeds Baesse feemator Seciulcecon- Torwconsuct«—=sSokcences.—_inituton that a ae foosesonsis (rooted in riflant socioeco- | ogra) rei lens Perris -«‘Toeducatethe —=«Subjectoier” == Fotusonendn, = Ader | (rooted in a | realism) cally arranged ti ‘ceins asrevealed Hutchins | Gentes peter Nena | fed (reat books ofthe Westen i ete) cultura hertage | | excntaten -Yoadacateie ‘eae UR on a bagey (Cootedin de. useful and com reedng, oiling’ «| aWaeoastat esr | cee pene | cee cree | cue | | ism) English, science, tural heritage Morrison | feegnlanguaghs items oe oem ‘efficiency: Creal Theory Tora con acbiogrplis °° Raise” Meta (ootedin Knives have lowered actdemic standards. They charge that many children in elementary schools have not mastered basic literary and computational skills and that academic ‘weaknesses in high schools result from the absence of a prescribed curriculum. The bback-to-basies position is that schools should concentrate on the essential skills and subjects that contribute to literacy and to social and intellectual efficiency. Back-to-basies proponents want teachers restored as educational authorities. ‘Teachers must be well prepared anid accountable for children’s learning. Regular as- signments, homework, recitations, and frequent testing and evaluation should be standard practices Neoessentialism In the 1980s and 1990s, a series of national reports on the condition of American education generated a period of neoessentialist educational reforms. The term ‘neoessentalst indicates that this movement reiterated themes from earlier essential ists, These essentialist themes were prescribed as remodies for certain economic and social problems facing the United States, such as lowered productivity and increas- ng violence. Gerad L. Gute, Basle Edwation: A Historical Perspective (Bloomington, Ind: Pht Delta appa Eaticational Foundation, 198). DeArthu E. Besto, Jr, The Restoration of Learning (New York: Knopt, 1988) pen Brodsky, “Back tothe Bases: The Movement an Its Meanicg,” Pit Delta Kappan (arch 1977), pp. 523-827, 68is 2 é Hore elementary pupils are working at 2 geography lesson on map skls itustrat- ing emphasis on essential Skis. (© Bob Daemick/ ‘Stock Boston) Essential knowledge ‘Cormmon essentialist and perennialis themes scents: 415 [Neoessentialism was clearly evident in the 1983 report A Nation at Risk, exam- ined in Chapter 13, which recommended a high school curticulum of “ive new ba- sles": English, mathematics, science, social studies, and computer science, Of these subjects, only computer science was really new; the others had all been emphasized by eater essentialists. E.D. Hirsch, who criticizes the decline of cultural literacy in the United States, also echoes neoessentialist themes. Hirsch argues that Americans need to possess & core of essential background knowledge. This core contributes to cultural literacy ‘which, in tum, is necessary for functional literacy and national discourse and com ‘munication. Without the transmission of such a cultural core by education, Ameri- can society will become culturally fragmented 2” ‘Common themes run through the variations of essentiaism: (1) the elernen: ‘ary school curticulum should cultivate basic skills that contribute to literacy and to mastery of arithmetical computation; 2) the secondary curriculum should cultivate knowledge of history, mathematics, science, English, and foreign languages: (3) schooling requires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority; and (4) learning requires hard work and disciplined attention. The Basic Questions Since the perennialists and essentialists share many ideas about knowledge, educa- tion, schooling, and instruction, their views can be examined as a shared educa- tional defense of cultural conservatism, For them, knowledge lies in the cultural heritage, the tested wisdom of the human race accumulated over time. They differ, ational Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Ed gual tom Washington, D.C: Us, Goverment Pang Of, 1959), pp. 25-3. ED. Miele, Colle Literacy Wit Every Armeicat Ne Mii, 1987), { Rrow (Boson: ioughton 6ANS Chapt.= 12 = Philosophice Roc of Education Five new basies Essentialise curriculums “pyfecive” schools and seachers An essentialist lesson however, in that petennialists se wisdom originating with human rationality and cessentlalsts se it coming from tested human experience. Both see the school as so- iety’s agency for transmitting the cultural heritage from adults to the young. Perennialists and essentialists are suspicious of those who want to use schools as agencies of socialization or vocationalism. They are critical of those who pro- ‘mote multiculturalism without fist establishing an integrating cultural cote based ‘on the Western and American heritage. For them, the school asa cviliing agency brings children and adolescents into contact with the fundamental processes of lan- ‘guage and numeracy and with great works of art, music, and literature. Warning against the rising tide of violence in modem society, they urge schools to require behavior based on a civility that is rooted in Western culture Essentialists belleve the curticulum should consist of basi skills, especially tt racy and computation, and academic subjects such as the “five new basics” recom- ‘mended in A Nation at Risk, Teaching and learning should focus on mastery of sis ‘and subjecss. Although all childzei and adulescents should attenst schood, they should meet rigorous academic standards. Promotion and graduations should re- ‘quire mastery of needed skills and subjects. Social promotion, based on age rather than academic achievement, should be ended since it places umsprepared people in society and the workplace. The competency testing many states require for both students and teachers reflects contemporary essentialism. Implications for Today’s Classroom Teacher Essentalist teachers, preferring a structured curriculum, seck to transmit the cul: tural heritage to students by means of carefully sequenced basic skills and subjects. ‘The teacher Isto be a specialist in subject-matter content and skilled in organizing it into instructional units. In the essentialist classroom, students devote their ‘ray to Tearning academic skills and subjects rather than to currently popular fads. Reading, writing, and arithmetic and subject-matter disciplines such as English, for ign languages, mathematics, history, science, and geography are emphasized. Much of the contemporary “effective schools” movement is based on the way. cessentialists define effectiveness. Schools are judged effective when principals and teachers hold high expectations of academic achievement and see the school’s function as preparing students to be academically competent. Effective teachers know thelr subjects well, are committed to teaching them as academic disciplines, ‘and succeed in having students do well on measutes of academic achievement. ‘The essentialist emphasis on first mastering facts and then basing generaliza ‘ons on those facts can be illustrated ina high-school! American history class thats studying the differences between the two African American leaders Booker T: Wash ington and W. E, B, Du Bols. Fits, the teacher assigns reading on both men. Then he or she leads a discussion in which the students carefully identify Washington's and Du Boi’ differences in background, education, and palicy. After such teacher- led research, the students are to reach a judgment about why Washington ané Du Bois acted as they did and to assess their influence in African American and United States history A Critical Theory Neo-Marxsos Critical theory, a highly influential contemporary educational theory, relates €© Martism, especially to current neo-Marxism. Karl Mars, an important nineteenth century German philosopher, argued that all social institutions rested on an eco JConpict theory Who controls the schools? Powerfid groups dominate Postosderism Critica! theory 417 ‘nomic base and that human history was a struggle of socioeconomic classes for eco ‘nomic and social control. For example, Marx's concept of clas struggle is important for conflict theory, a focusing theme in critical theory. Using conflict theory, ct Jcal theorists believe that dominant social and economic classes use social institu tions, such as schools, to maintain their control of society. Dominated clases, if conscious of their repressed condition, can change the conditions that exploit and isempower them.* Critical theorists see the school as a place where different ‘groups are in conflict over control of curriculum and teaching." For example, evil rights, enviconmentalist, feminlst, counterculture, gay and lesbian, and antiwar groups are in conflict with neoconservatives, who emphasize Fundamentalist reli- ious values, nationalist patriotism, economic competition, and basic education. In the cultural confit, critical theorists support disempowered groups such as the poor, minorities, and women by challenging the status quo that traditional schools, reproduce. Key Concepts CCatical theory involves both critique and reform. As critique, it examines the issue (of control of educational institutions and agendas. Critical theorists ask the follow: {ng crucial questions: Who coatrols the schools? Who makes policies that govern schools? Who determines the ethical, social, and economic goals of education? Who sets the curriculum? Once the question of control is answered, critical theo- tists turn to the motivations behind this control* CCitical theorists contend that many structures in contemporary society, in- cluding educational institutions, are used by powerful groups to control those who lack power. The power holders seek to impose their knowledge, beliefs, and values ‘on those who lack economic and political power. The power holders in the cozpo- rate capitalist sector dominate political processes and the media. In the United States, those who have power have traditionally been white males of European an- cestry. The dispossessed have been women; unskilled and service workets; small farmers; and Asian, African, and Native Americans. Extending the critique globally, ‘tical theorists divide nations into the powerful industrial ones and those, often in the southern hemisphere, that ate less technologically developed. On the basis of their cutique, critical theorists advocate a reform agenda to empower these who lack control over their own lives and destinies. The Basic Questions Seeking to create a “new public philosophy” for the “postmodern” twenty-first cen- tury, ciitcal theorists challenge traditional belies about knowledge, especially the For an assessment of Marxist educational theory, see Frank Margonis, “Marssm,Libeal- jgmn, and Educational Theory, Educational Theory all 1993), pp. 449-65, Martin Catmoy, “Education, Sate, and Culture In American Society,” in Henry A. Groux and Peter L McLaren, eds, Cia Pedagogy, the State, and Calta Struggle (Albany: State Un fest of New York Press, 1988), pp. 6-7. *Sjomes Davison Hunter, Culture Wrs Te Stag o Deine America (Nev York: Basie Books/HarperCollin, 199i), pp. S2-4, Soc alo Valerie. Sstamburio, Soldier of Misfortune The New ight Culture War ard the Pls of PlltcalConectess (Nev York: Peet lang, 1998). ‘For an analysts of power relations, domination, and empower rt, see Seth Kreksbes ‘Dansfoming Power: Domination, Empowerment, and Edacaton (Albany: Sate University of ‘New York Press, 1992), 7Deconstruction [Wer wantto argue that the cument deste abot etc Critics ® tion represents more than a commentary on the ate Critical of public education in this county ti fandamen- Pedagogy, I tally a debate about the relevance of democracy, social es the State criticiem, and the status of utopian thought In con- 1 structing both our dreams and the symbols and stories and Cultural ‘we devise in order to give meaning to our lives. The debate has taken a serious turn in the last decade, Uniler the guise of attempting to revitalize the language of conservative ethics, he neoconservative) agenda 4 has, in reality, launched a dangerous attack on some ‘of the most fundamental aspects of democratic public life. What hrs becn valor‘zed in t's Iangu2ge is not the issue of reclaiming public schools a8 agencies of social justice or critical democracy, but a view of schooling that disdains the democratic implications ‘f pluralism, rejects a notion of leaming which regards excellerice and equity as mutually constitutive, and atgites for a return to the old transmission model of learning. It fs worth noting that since the early 1980s the conservatives have dominated the debate over public ‘education and have consistently put liberals and other ‘groups of progressive stripe in the uncomfortable position of defending failed, abandoned, of unpopu- lat policies and programs initiated in the 1960s,-even 4 iajor literary and philosophical texts of the old order. Rather than valuing these works as cultural classics, as do idealists, realists, essentalists, and perennialist, they see them as the constructions of dominant and often oppressive groups at 2 pacticulac time in history: They argue that the conventional curriculum has been Sominated by a Eurocentric, white male perspective that is contaminated by racism, sexism, and imperialism, Rejecting the perennialist argument that the cu rculuon must feature the classics of Western civilization, critical theorists see these Classis as period pieces that legitimate the cultural dominance of one group over another. The curriculum needs to be deconstructed, or taken apart, and then reco®- Cceptuslized to include different cultural experiences and perspectives, especially those neglected in the past by the dominant power structures? Supportive of maul> ticultural education, critical theorists emphasize learning rooted in the students! ‘own autobiographies and family and community experiences, ‘Henry A. Giroux and Peter L McLaten, “Schooling, Cultural Politics, andthe Strugale fr Democtacj,” in Henry A Gitowx and Peet McLaren, eds. Crtkal Pedagogy, the State, and Cs lval Suge, (New York tate Lniersity of New York Press, 1988), pp. x. Foy mocseceptuaizing the curticulum, sce Aakcey Thompson and Andrew Gitlin, “Creating ‘Spaces for Reconstructing Knowledge in Feminist Pedagogy,” Educational Theory Spring 1995), pp. 135-180, 72though itis recognized that many of these programs ‘and polices were either never properly implemented or were not given an adequate chance at achieving their expected results. The power of the conservative Initiative resides, in part, in its ability to link school: ing to the ideology of the matketplace and to suc cessfully champion the so-alled virtues of Western civilization. In edition, it has doggedly defended a programmatic policy of school reform based on jargon- filled and undifferentiated conceptions of authority, citizenship, and discipline... In our view, the debate over public education has bees, predictably ene-side? in that she conservat:ves hhave set the agenda for such a debate and initiated a plethora of policy studies designed to implement their own educational initiatives. The success of the conservative educational agenda aso point to a fun- damental falure among progressive and radical edu- Scators to generate 2 public discourse on schooling "This is not to suggest that there has been an absence of writing on educational issues among leftist critic. In fact, the body of literature that has emerged in the tast decade is daly impressive. One major problem facing the recent outpouring of critical discourse on schooling is that over the years it has become largely academiczed. It has lost sight of its fundamental mission of mobilizing public sentiment toward a re newed vision of community; it has failed to recog- nize the general relevance of education as a public service and the Importance of deliberately translating educational theory into a communlty-elated discourse capable of reaching into and animating public cul ture and lie In effect, eritical and radical writings on Schooling have become ghettoized within the ivory tomer, reflecting 2 fallure to take seiously the fact that education asa terain of struggle is central fo the reconstruction of public life and, a such, must be understood in vernacular as well 3s scholaly terms. | Questions, 1, How do Glroux and McLaren characterize the our- rent debate over education? 2, What are the major elements in their critique of neoconservatism? 3. What emphases would critical theorists such as Giroux and McLaren recommend in a teacher's professional development? 24 Rept by pein of he sae Unive of New | Youk Press trom Cra Pedogogy, the Sat, and Cultural Str leby Henry A Groux and Peer L Mclaren eds © 1989 State | University of New York. Al ght reserved | Critical theorists want all children and adolescents to attend school, but they also want schools to become liberating rather than indoctrinating agencies. They contend that schools have been and continue to be controlled by dominant groups ‘hat impose their version of knowledge as @ mesns of social control. Children of sub- ‘ordinate groups, usually economically disadvantaged and potitically weak, are in- doctrinated to believe that they live in the best of all possible worlds. The approved textbooks and other educational materials contirm, oF legitimate, this “sanitized” version of social reality. The “hidden curriculum” (see Chapter 9), with its emphasis ‘on individual competition and private property, reinforces corporate values. Criti- cal theorists want schools to be transformed into “democratic public spheres” ‘where young people become conscious of the need to create a more equltable soci- ety forall people. e Teachers, like students, need to be empowered so that they can use methods 7 {hat open students to social alternatives rather than mirroring the status quo. Crit ‘al theotsts attack such mechanisms as standardized (esting, teacher competency assessment, and top-down administrator-controlled schools as disempowering teachers, Put sp Giroux and McLaren, p23,420 Chapter 12 « thie Agena for teacher ‘npowerment Einpasizing diversty ee Guilding Your bun Philosophy of Education ——_ Summing Up -ophical Roots of Education: Implications for Today's Classroom Teacher Critical theorists want teachers to examine the ideologies that connect education to ‘wider social and political issues. Thele agenda for teacher empowerment includes ¢) fighting for genuine school reform that will give teachers power over the conditions, of teaching and learning; (2) engaging in collaborative research with other teachers to reconceptualize curriculum and instruction; (3) studying the culturally diverse people in the commaunities whose children the schools educate; (4) organizing ‘community centers for collaborative action with community members; (5) engay. ing in critical dialogues with students about the realities of American politics, eca- ‘nomics, and culture; (6) redistributing power in schools between teachers and ‘administrators; and (7) involving schools in attempts to solve society's major prob. lems, such a5 drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, illiteracy, malnutrition, and inade- ‘quate health care. Emphasizing cul-uial diverity, che critical cheorist woula lead students on ‘knowledge explorations that begin with theic own unigue multicultural experi- ‘ences. The curriculum would stress study of the students’ histories, languages, and ‘cultures, as well as analysis of the persistent issues of American life, particularly those that empower some and disempower others.*° We now retum to the questions posed at the beginning of this chapter and the ee alization that educational philosophers and theorists often provide conllicing an swers. What is truth and haw do we know and teach it? Do you believe that there are universal truths, as do idealists, realists, perennialists, and essentialists? Or do you think of truth as depending on changing circumstances, as do pragmatists and Drogressives? Your answers, reflecting your perception of realty, will influence your approach to teaching, They will aso determine your view of equity and justice is sues in schools and shape your attitudes about faimess and appropriate behavior in Yyour own teaching and classroom. Your answers to these questions are part of yout on-going quest to create your own philosophy of education, 1, To provide an orientation for developing your own philosophy of education, the text defined such terms as metaphysics, epistemology, axiology (ethics and aesthetics) and lagi. It then related these terms to education, schooling, knowledge, and teaching and learaing, 2. To provide a frame of reference for developing your own phillosophy of educa tion, we examined such philosophies of education as idealism, realism, prag- ‘matism, and existentialism and educational theories such as perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, social reconstructionism, and critical theory. 3. By studying these philosophies and theories of education, you can work to- ‘ward formulating your own philosophy of education and come to undet- stand the the underlying philosophical bases of curiculum and teaching and learning. “to, p. xi. “Christine E Sleeter and Pete ‘the Polite of Difference (bay cies, Met! tin tea Pt 08 aay a ts 74i ———_ —————_—— - t fey Terms philosophies (389) pragmatism (397) theories (389) experience (298) metaphysics (390) ‘existentialism (400) epistemology (390) progressivism (404) axiology (390) ‘constructivism (406) ethics (390) social reconstructionism (407) aesthetics (390) perennialism ($10) deductive logic (382) “The Paideta Proposal (411) inductive logic (392) cultura relativism (412) ‘idealism (292) cessentalism (414) macrocesm (392) “packto hasies" movement (415) microcosm (392) cultural literacy (415) : prion ideas (392) citcal theory (416) Socratic method (394) conflict theory (417) realism (395) i aha 1. Reet on your own des about inawede, education and schooling, nd Discusion Questions ess | eee enie e aeiee ee ee eer i listen to thelr philosophies and discuss the agreements and disagreements that i: q 2, Reflect on how your philosophy of education has Been infuenced by signif tI ant eschs in yout lor by books and modon pltres aout teaches and ' teuhng Sate aod lacs ioences th our dsr : 2. Can you dently uodetying pilovophieal oer ions inthe couses Yue | taingorin yourtneheeccveton progam sawhol? What ar they? 4. Of the philosophies and theories examined in Chapter 12, whichis most ele | ‘anand hich smostimleant to contemporary aseian eden? Why? A Suggested Projects + nlosopby or tone andryng the choo, cocatan, ad techn earlng | for Prfessinal Fa ieee ae eaten . proposing educational reforms. Then analyze the philosophical and theoret ‘al positions underlying these critiques and proposed reforms, Share and re- fect on your observations with the members of the class 3. Create and maintain a clippings file of articles about education that appear in i local newspapers of the community in which the schoo! where you are doing i ‘clinical experience, student teaching, or teaching is located. Them analyze the 2. Create and maintain acippings Se of nls abou ection that appear in Leaps capone aa anna ening se i | | |I | 422 Chapter 12 « Philosophical Rost: of ftucation philosophical and theoretical positions underlying these articles. Share and re- fect on your observations with the members ofthe class 4. Research and prepate a statement on the philosophy of education approved by the board of education in the schoo! district in which you are doing clini- cal experience, student teaching, of teaching. Compare and contrast the board's philosophy of education with the philosophies and theotles discussed in this chapter. Share and reflect on your observations with the members of the class. 5. Prepare a set of questions that can be used asa guide for interviewing key edu- cators — deans, department chai, professors — at your college or unlversity ‘about their educational philosophies, Share and reflect on your observations with the members of the class 6, Prepaze a set of questions that can be used asa guide for interviewing admin- Sstrators anz teachers in the school district in which + ou are ensaged in clini. cal experience, student teaching, or teaching. The questions should relate to their educational philosophies. Share and reflect on your observations with the members ofthe class. 7, Prepare a set of questions that can be used as a guide for interviewing key ‘community leaders — editors, politicians, media persons, officers of service or- {ganizations and unions — about their educational philosophies. Then assign members ofthe class to report the findings of their interviews. 8, Prepare a set of questions that can be used as a guide fos interviewing Key cam us leaders who represent a wice cultural diversity — officers of the African ‘American, Hispanic, and Asian Amecican organizations; gay ot lesbian al- lance; Young Republicans; Young Democrats; Socialist youth groups; leftist or ganizations; right-wing organizaUlons; religious fundamentalists; Right to Life ‘groups; Freedom of Choice groups — about their educational philosophies. ‘Then assign members of the clas to report the findings oftheir interviews. nn Suggested Headings and Hesources Internet Resources For information about neoprogressive and constructivist theotis of education, ‘consult the Association for Experiential Education at Peinceton Univesity. ‘www princeton.edu/rcurtis/aee html, For the Great Books approach associated with petennialism, consult Mercer Unt versity: httkkpk/ /rogervet.uga. edu/%7 Elnoles?grtbks.html. for information on basic education related to essentiaism and neoessentialism, consult the Council for Basic Education: www.c-b-e.org, For information related to critical theory, consult the electronic journal Postmodem Culture: worusjefferson. village. edu/pme. For information on the discussion of philosophical topics, consult the University of Chicago Philosophy Project: esmaclab:www.chicago.edu/philosophyProject/ pphilos html For teaching and leaming related to critical thinking, consult the Critical Thinking Community: wwv-sonoma.edu/cthink. Links to resources on all aspects of philosophy can be found at ‘www /bris.ac.uk/Depts/Philosophy/VL.: Suggested Readings ond Resources 42% Videos Transformation. VHS, 25 minutes (1995). Insight Media, 2162 Broadway, 20. Box 621, New York, NY 10024-0621. Phone: 212-721-6316, Designed to assist reach- es int developing a philosophy of education, the program exaneies key ideas and philosophers ‘The Progressives. VHS, 24 minutes (1988). Insight Media, 2162 Broadway, P.O. Box: 621, New York, NY 10024-0621. Phone: 212-721-6316. Explores the ives and philosophies of leading progressive educators. Professional Ethics. VES, 22 minutes (1990). Insight Media, 2162 Broadway, 2. Box 621, New York, NY 10024-0621. Phone: 212-721-6316, Explores ethical sit: uations andl decisions in teaching. Publications ee eet i wey ne nat aaa pe eam ec ee ee ee er Ep fl a por tte Gimeh Geld. Psepcel nd eal Peps on etn Boston ee Heslep, Robert D,Phifosophical Thinking in Educational Practice. Westport, Conn. | apa a coer ee ie i peg eee Po ee | hoaghtan hai, 19 Sunda rst of wate oo | te ee ee eee ee La dara Jer, Kathe, and Cao Montage Popes cation forthe 195 Ne Yor | ares ces pas cece aig ot re one | a ae peta eae | ee ee Seay Sae et of New int cs 198 bear of te pi oe ee nee eee eae | ee Mey BDL Repatsfok Fides and abs ncaa ay, Cig eee ocr, a424 Chapter 12 w Philasophical Rots of Education Noddings, Nel. Philosophy of Education. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995, Int her ‘well reviewed book, Noddings relates general issues in the philosophy of education to ‘important questions of educational potcy making and classreom practices. ‘Ozmon, Howard A., and Samuel M, Craver, Philosophical Foundations of Eiacation, Sth ed, Columbus, Ohlo, and Englewood CHES, N.J.: Merl, an imprint of Prentice Hall, 1995. bn their widely used text, Ozmon and Craver preset a first-rate analysis of te important educational philosophies. 7