ie \D Tehovo this 374 NUCLEAR DECAY AND RADIOACTIVITY Principles of Mossbauer Spectroscopy (New York: Halsted, 1976). Collections of recent papers on the application of the Méssbauer effect are Applications of Méssbauer Spectroscopy, Vols. 1 and II, edited by Richard L. Cohen (New York: Academic, 1976 and 1980), and Méssbauer Spectroscopy, edited by U. Gonser (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1981). PROBLEMS 1. Each of the following nuclei emits a photon in a y transition between an excited state and the ground state. Given the energy of the photon, find the energy of the excited state and comment on the relationship between the nuclear recoil energy and the experimental uncertainty in the photon energy: (a) 320.08419 + 0.00042 keV in *'V; (b) 1475.786 + 0.005 keV in MOC; (c) 1274.545 + 0.017 keV in Ne; (4) 3451.152 + 0.047 keV in *°Fe; (@) 884.54174 + 0.00074 keV in "Ir. 2. Following the decay of ‘Au, three y’s are observed to be emitted from states in Hg; their energies (in keV) are y,, 411.8041 + 0.00015; 5, 675.88743 + 0.00069; and y;, 1087.69033 + 0.00074, It is suggested that there are two excited states E, and E, in }*Hg that are populated in the decay, and that the y’s correspond respectively to the transitions £, > Ey, E, > E, and E, Ey (where Eo represents the ground state). If this hypothesis were correct, we would expect E,, + E,, = E,,, which is almost but not quite true according to the experimental uncertainties. Show how the proper inclusion of the nuclear recoil resolves the discrepancy. 3. The calculation of the emission probability for electric quadrupole radiation involves a term of the form of Equation 3.36, with the proper labeling of initial and final wave functions. From such an integral, verify the parity selection rule for electric quadrupole transitions. JA. (a) For a light nucleus (A = 10), compute the ratio of the emission probabilities for quadrupole and dipole radiation according to the Weisskopf estimates. Consider all possible choices for the parities of the initial and final states. (b) Repeat for a heavy nucleus (A ~ 200). 5. Ina nucleus described by the rotational model (see Figure 5.22), the second excited state is always 4*. This state decays by £2 radiation to the 2* state. Justify this observation by calculating, using the Weisskopf estimates, the ratio between the E2 decay probability and (a) the octupole (= 3) and hexadecapole (L = 4) decays to the 2* state and (b) the hexadecapole decay to the ground state. (Note: These are collective rotational states, for which the Weisskopf estimates should not be taken too seriously } (© For the following y transitions, give all permitted multipoles and indicate which multipole might be the most intense in the emitted radiation. faving ae (0) 4h 2* pst Ovo} Oy Te-42t (37 3" 72) A certain decay process leads to final states in an even-Z, even-N nucleus and gives only three y rays of energies 100, 200, and 300 keV, which are10. tt 12. 13. 14. GAMMA DECAY 375 found to be (respectively) of £1, E2, and £3 multipolarity. Construct two different possible level schemes for this nucleus (consistent with known systematics of nuclear structure) and label the states with their most likely spin-parity assignments. Suggest experiments that might distinguish be- tween your proposed level schemes. 2 ‘A nucleus has the following sequence of states beginning with the ground state: 3*, 3", $+, 1°, and 2. Draw a level scheme showing the intense y transitions likely to be emitted and indicate their multipole assignment. The isomeric 2* state of “Co at 58.6 keV decays to the 5* ground state. Internal conversion competes with y emission; the observed internal conver- sion coefficients are ay = 41, a, = 7, ay = 1. (a) Compute the expected half-life of the 2* state if the transition multipolarity is assumed to be M3, and compare with the observed half-life of 10.5 min. (b) If the transition also contained a small component of E4 radiation, how would your estimate for the half-life be affected? (c) The 2* state also decays by direct, B emission to Ni, The maximum B energy is 1.55 MeV and the log ft is 72. The 2* state decays 0.25% by f emission and 99.75% by y emission and internal conversion. What is the effect on the calculated half-life of includ- ing the B emission? An even-Z, even-N nucleus has the following sequence of levels above its 0* ground state: 2* (89 keV), 4* (288 keV), 6* (585 keV), 0* (1050 keV), 2* (1129 keV). (a) Draw an energy level diagram and show all reasonably probable y transitions and their dominant multipole assignments. (b) By considering also internal conversion, what additional transitions and multi- poles would appear? (a) Pick half a dozen or so typical examples of 2+ + 0* transitions from the first excited states of “rotational” nuclei, 150 < A < 190. (Use standard reference works for nuclear spectroscopic data.) Compute the ratio between the observed y decay rate and the corresponding Weisskopf estimate. Be sure 0 correct the measured lifetimes for internal conversion if necessary. (b) Repeat for “vibrational” nuclei, 60 < A < 150, excluding cases at closed shells. (c) Draw any apparent conclusion about the difference be- tween “rotational” and “ vibrational” y transitions. The Table of Isotopes shows multipole assignments of y transitions and lifetimes of excited states. By searching through the data given there, prepare a graph similar to Figure 10.13 showing the lifetimes for M2 transitions. Verify the dependence on the transition energy. (Be sure to use the partial lifetime in the cases in which a level can decay through several transitions.) Among the cases you should consider are “Ar, "As, “Eu, 16Ho, Ta, and !W, but you should find many other instances as well, Among the nuclei in which there are known E4 transitions are “4Sc, “*Mn, “Rb, ®Mo, "In, and Pb, Look up the partial lifetimes for these transitions from collections of spectroscopic data, and compare with values calculated from the Weisskopf estimates. The isotope "Cd captures a very low-energy neutron, leading to an excited state of "Cd, which emits a y ray leading directly to the "“*Cd ground376 NUCLEAR DECAY AND RADIOACTIVITY 16. 17. 18. nn. state, (a) Find the energy of the y ray, neglecting the nuclear recoil. (b) Caleulate the kinetic energy of the recoiling "*Cd, In Section 5,2, the states of the vibrational model for even-Z, even-N nuclei up to the 0°, 2*, 3°, 4*, 6* three-phonon multiplet were discussed. The model also gives selection rules for y emission: the phonon number must change by exactly one unit, and only £2 transitions are permitted. Draw a vibrational level scheme showing all permitted y transitions starting with the three-phonon multiplet (use Figure 5.19 as a basis) ‘A certain decay scheme shows the following y energies (in keV): 32.7, 42.1, 74.8, 84.0, 126.1, and 158.8. Coincidence studies reveal two features of the decay: only one of the y’s has none of the others in coincidence with it, and none of the y’s is in coincidence with more than three of the others. The y's are preceded by a f decay that populates only one level. From this information suggest a possible level scheme. (Note: There are two different arrangements of the 7’s that are consistent with the information given.) In a study of the conversion electrons emitted in a decay process, the following electron energies were measured (in keV): 207.40, 204.64, 193.36, 157.57, 154.81, 143,53, 125.10, 75.27, 49.03, 46.27, 34.99. The electron binding energies are known to be 83.10 keV (K shell), 14.84 keV (L shell), 3.56 keV (M shell), and 0.80 keV (N shell). What is the minimum number of y’s that can produce the observed electron groups, and what are the y energies? Based on the information given in Figure 10.18 and Table 10.2, find all partial lifetimes for y and electron emission for the 8~ level of HE, For each of the following Massbauer-effect transitions compute the natural width, the Doppler width at room temperature, the Doppler width at liquid helium temperature (4K), and the nuclear recoil energy: (a) 73 keV, 6.3 ns in Ir; (b) 14.4 keV, 98 ns in *"Fe; (c) 6.2 keV, 6.8 us in !Ta; (4) 23.9 keV, 17.8 ns in "Sn; (€) 95 keV, 22 ps in Ho. Half-lives are given. The absorption of the 27.8 keV magnetic dipole Mossbauer transition in "I takes the nucleus from its 2 ground state to a $* excited state. The values of the magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments are: (2) = +2.6 By, HGS) = +2.8 ny, O(2) = -0.55 b, OCS) = —0.68 b. Make a sketch of the m-state splittings (similar to Figures 10.30 and 10,31) for the magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole cases and show the number of components in the Méssbauer spectrum. Hint: The magnetic field (B or H) and the electric field gradient (q or V,,) can be regarded as positive, In most of our work in nuclear physics, we regard the decay constant A as a true constant for a given nuclear species. However, in this chapter and in the previous chapter you have studied two processes in which the nuclear decay rate could be sensitive to the chemical state of the atom. Discuss these two processes and explain how the atomic state might influence the nuclear decay rate. (For a discussion and some examples of cases in which this can occur, see the review by G. T. Emery, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Sci. 22, 165 (1972).] PTOeae) 2 Foegha ie y. droog “—— Tronskes solu _ Wasskepf Mimooders | Soy Perredl, xieraen Rea clokent Ayan obow Froatlion Padoat |i bier 7 Ritydavumcnatce® ook fork) Sdediag whe argh eca case Peon ~ Tec. Sema TEC caretaker,Nuclear Physics Practice 7 Example 1: Recoil energy in gamma-decay Following the decay of '*Au, three y's are observed to be emitted from states in '*Hg; their ‘energies (in keV) are 1, 411.80441:+0,00015; 2, 675.8874340.00069 and 3, 1087.69033+0.00074. Itis suggested that there are two excited states E1 and E2 in "Hg that are populated in the decay, and that the y’s correspond respectively to the transitions E\—E», E>+Ei, E>—>Eo (where Eo represents the ground state). If this hypothesis were correct, we would expect Ey,.+Ey; which is almost but not quite true according to the experimental uncertainties. Show how the proper inclusion of the nuclear recoil resolves the discrepancy. Solution: ‘The three y-decay energies are the following: E,, =411,80441+ 0.00015 keV E, , = 675.88743 £ 0.00069 keV E, =1087.69033 + 0.00074 keV Let us calculate the sum of the first two y-energies: E,; = E,, +E, = 1087.69184 +0.00071 keV ‘where the uncertainty of the energy was determined with the Gaussian error propagation formula: CAE, +E, ‘The difference between the two energies: E,, ~E,, =0.00151+0.00103 keV ae, 0.00071 keV. Although the difference is small, the question arises whether there is some effect which has been yet neglected in the calculation. + Recoil of the nucleus! ‘The momentum conservation law: substituting this back to the energy conservation law, the recoil energy will be: 2p ey a 2my — 2myc*The corrected y-energies (the uncertainties also changed, but the change is smaller than the last digit): E,, =411.80487 £0,00015 keV E,,, = 675.88867 + 0.00069 keV E, , =1087.6935440.00074 keV Let us calculate now the sum of the first two corrected y-energies: |087.69354 + 0.00071 keV where the uncertainty of the energy was determined again with the Gaussian error propagation formula: (AE, .)° + (AE, 2)? ‘The difference between the two corrected energies: 0.00071 keV E, ,-E,, =0+0.00103 keVNuclear Physics Practice 8 Example 1: Dipole and quadrupole emission probabilities For a light nucleus (4~10) calculate the ratio of the emission probabilities of dipole (+1) and quadrupole (1-2) radiation according to the Weisskopf estimates. Repeat the calculation for a heavy nucleus (4*200). Solution: ‘The Weisskopf-units for electrical and magnetic transitions: 2 i+1 3 E, ae =44-10%.—!+1_¢ 3), Fy patsy 7 D441 Tarp Ta Gg? P'Soled d+1 Ry 2 ai) =1.9-108. 41 3) Bayan pet ser 0 oo TDM Ga Sih) where R is in [fm], and £y is in [MeV]. The radius of the nucleus can be calculeied from the mass number: R=n- A? The ratio of the dipole and quadrupole emission probabilities in the electrical and magnetic transition probabilities: 2 3 AE) _ FF 4 MED _3 3 215° 5 2 z AMI) 4 A(M2) g 5 2 197 ‘Therefore the ratios are the same for electrical and magnetic transitions. AEN _ AMY 3 47.496. 1.12-10° -— A(E2) 2(M2) (Ey e For a light nucleus (4~10) AED) _ ACMI) =2.41-10° 2(E2) (M2) For a heavy nucleus (4=200): AE) _ ACM) = =3.27-10* 2(E2) A(M2)This means that for a given Ey energy the probability of the quadrupole transition compared to dipole transition is about 10 times higher in the case of heavy nuclei.wer Se 3.1 Calculate the recoil energy of a nucleus, mass m, after it has emitted a y ray of energy E,, Hence, calculate the energy of the excited state of ’O, which emits a 6128.63-keV 7 ray when it de-excites to the ground state. 3.2, List all the possible multipolarities for the following y-ray transitions, inc rey which is likely to be the most intense: ()) 3 — 2'; Gi) f= #3 wrt “3.34 nuclear excited state decays by an E2 transition to the ground state. List the possible spin-parity (/*) assignments of the excited state. If there is no evidence of decay by an MI transition, what is the 7" of the excited state most likely to be? 3.4 The low-lying spectrum of ”Pb is shown in Figure 2.11. Sketch the diagram and ~ show the main y-ray transitions for the first three excited states, indicating the most likely types and multipolarities in each case. Estimate the half-lives of the states and suggest which, if any, are likely to be isomers. Solutions: 3.1 Momentum of the recoiling nuclens: p, E,/e. Therefore, recoil energy 2 /2m = E3/2me?. For the 0 decay, m= 16w giving E; = 1.26keV. Excitation energy £* = E, + E; = 6128.63 + 1.26 = 6129.89 keV. 3.2 Conservation of angular momentum and parity in radiative transitions leads to the selection rules given in Section 3.2.1, For the transitions in the question, the possible sputpees re () EN, 2, , MA, BS; (i) ED, MS, A, MS, £6, MT (il) (i) Bd, 3.3:1/2°,3/2*, 5/2*, 7/27. IE MI does not occur, J* = 7/2*. 34 MeV oS oe a8 m0 2, , BEES | ; on se wes |e | o%0 — w Using Equations (3.10) with halflife t4/2 = In 2/T, one obs $/2- 1/2: TUE2) = 5.4 x 109s", which gives fy2 ~ 10s, 3/2 1/2: (M1) = 2.3 x 10! s-! > T(E2) = 5.3.x 10s"! Verify that 3/2> —» 5/2> is weaker than 3/2 ~ 1/2~. Therefore, ty ~ 3 x 10-5, 13/2 ~+ 5/2": T(M4) = 0.24571 > T(ES) = 2.4 x 10's", Thus, we predict that ti/2 ~~ 3s (isomer). (Actual value 0.85.) Estimates, based on Equations (3.10) are very approximate and the difference between the estimate and actual value, noted here, is not unexpected.@ * : ; soe ant e - = 455 ae ao # re: 3.4 ——_ ‘ 3.06 uw 0 war 0 oF Ny “9, ) es au an o M5 0 eer ane BP” BB 2h Figure 2.11 Energy-level diagrams for nuclei near the doubly closed-shell nuclei (a) 0 and (b) "Pb. The excitation energy is given in MeV on the left-hand side of cach level and the spin and parity quantum numbers /* on the right. For the nuclei neighbouring the closed-shell ‘nuclei, single-particle and single-hole configurations are indicated on some levels. The expressions for the single-particle, reduced transition rate estimates can be substituted into Equation (3.5) to give single-particle estimates for radiative decay probabilities (s~') in terms of Z, £, (MeV) and A. Results for multipole orders up to S (with Ro = 1.2 fm) are T(E1) = 1.0 x 10'¢A?7 E> T(M1) =3.1 x 1033 T(E2) =7.3 x 10° A‘? EY T(M2) = 2.2 x 10'A?P ES T(E3) = 344°E} T(M3) = 10447 £7 (3.10) T(E4) = 1.1 x 10-8499 B? T(M4) = 3.3 x 10-S47E? T(ES) =2.4 x 10°AEM T(MS) = 7.4 x 10 APES.9.2 Energetics of y-Ray Decay Imagine a y transition between two nuclear states. Applying the law of conser- vation of energy, we have Mic? = Myc? +E,+T, (9.2) where E,is the photon energy, 7, is the kinetic energy of the recoiling nucleus after y-ray emission, and Mj and M, are the masses of the higher and lower nuclear states, respectively. Applying the law of conservation of momentum, we have only two bodies in the final state so that Py +P,=0 (9.3) where p, and p, are the momenta of the photon and recoiling nucleus, respec- tively. The kinetic energy of the recoil is so small that nonrelativistic mechanics can be used for it but not for the photon. Hence we have 2 poke = oa (94) where M is the mass of the recoiling nucleus. Since Pe = (—p,)? = ph: (9.5) further E, = pc? so that BE T= 9.6 1 UM i) For example, if E, = 2 MeV (a relatively large value for nuclei) and A = 50, then the recoil energy is about 40 eV, which is larger than typical molecular bond energies but negligible for nuclei except for Massbauer studies (discussed later in this chapter). Table 9.1. y-Ray Selection Rules and Multipolarities. 22 eer Radiation Type Name e=Al Ax EL Electric dipole 1 (Yes) ML Magnetic dipole 1 (No) E2 Electric quadrupole 2 (No) M2 Magnetic quadrupole 2 (Yes) 53 Electric octupole 3 (Yes) M3 Magnetic octupole i (No) Ea Electric hexadecapole 4 (No) Ma Magnetic hexadecapole 4 (es) Bom Med - Nucl hunSample Problem 9.1: y-Ray Recoil Energies __/ Calculate the recoil energy for the IT decay of °Zn™ to the ground state of °Zn and the recoil energy from the emission of a 15.1 MeV photon by an excited "C nucleus. Recall that the mass excess of ”C is exactly zero so that the mass of "C is 12 amu. Solution. Using the energy of the excited state from Figure 9.2, we have (Mg — My) c? = E, = 0.439 MeV Recall that Myc? = amu * 931.5 MeV/amu. Using the mass excess of 68.418 MeV found in the wallet cards for Zn, the mass is 68.927 amu. (This is obtained by 69 amu + (~68.418 MeV/931.5 MeV/amu) = 69 amu + 0.073 amu = 68.927 amu.) EF (0.439 MeV? SS = = 1S x10 MeV Myo * H68927 x 931.5 Meva ~ 1X10" Me The recoil energy from the emission of the 15.1 MeV photon from an excited °C nucleus is ER ___5.1Mevy? fo? (12 x 931.5) MeV? T, = 1.02 x 10? MeV = 10.2 keV “~2n(13 he.) Decay Scheme 13 hr. Figure 9.2. Decay scheme for ®Zn™.Sample Problem 9.2: Application of Selection Rules / Use the electromagnetic selection rules to identity the character of all of the transitions that could link the second excited state at 2.080 MeV (7/2*) in Na with the ground state (3/2*). Solution First, we should note that Ax = no. Then W-ils¢1.022 MeV.Sample Problem 9,3: Wavelength Calculation Calculate the ratio of the wavelength of the 439 keV IT photon emitted “ when the isomeric state of ®Zn® to the ground state of this nucleus. Solution Recall for a photon E,=hv ay ¢ he _ (6.626 x 10-* Js) (2.998 x 10° m/s) E, (439 10° eV) (1.602 x 10-® J/eV) = 2.82 x 107? m thus ie 282x102 m 2R 2x 1.2 x (69)'8 x 10-5 m A nucleus is not an effective antenna due to its small size compared to the wavelength of the radiation. y-Rays are in the long-wavelength limit and are not very sensitive to the detailed internal structure of the emitting nucleus. 287 Table 9.2 Weisskopf Single Particle Transition Rates (E, in MeV). Multipolarity Ee me e ne) Ns“) 1 1.0 x 10'4 A2/3ES 3.1 x 103E3 2 7.4. 107 A4/3ES 2.2 10" A2/3E3 3 3.5 x 10! A?E? 1.1.x 10! AY3E3 4 1.1.x 10-5 A*/SE? 3.3 x 1076 APE* A 24x 107? AMEN 7.4x 10713 A®BEPSample Problem 9.4: Weisskopf Transition Rate Use the electromagnetic selection rules to identity the character of the isomeric transition from the first excited state at 0.439 MeV (9/2+) in Zn with the ground state (1/27). Then calculate the Weisskopf single particle rates for the allowed transitions. Solution First, we should note that Ax = yes. Then, recall from the previous discussion: y-Ts oS +h l4is¢s5 ‘Thus, only M4 and ES transitions are allowed. Using the expressions in Table 9.2, Dyp(M4) = 3.3 x 1076 £7A2/st Agp(M4) = 9.5 x 10-6/s* and Dep( ES) = 2.4.x 10-EN At0/3 st Agp(ES) = 3.8 x 1071 /s! so we expect that the transition will be predominantly M4 in character due to its higher decay rate. The observed transition occurs almost twice as fast as the single particle estimate since expt = In(2)/(14 h x 3600 s/h) = 1.4.x 10-°/s! indicating that a change in the “current” from more than one particle con- tributes to the magnetic transition.et (254W.u) 18.6ps Figure9.4 Schematic diagram of the ground-state rotational band transitions for Dy. (358 W.u.) 103 ps (1098 W.u.) 2026 ps TeDy Sample Problem 9.5: Internal Conversion Coefficients ue Use a standard reference such as the Table of Isotopes, 8th Ed., to deter- mine the internal conversion coefficients for each shell for the transition from the first excited state at 0.08679 keV (2+) in ‘Dy to the ground state (0*). Then calculate the decay rates for internal conversion and for y-ray emission. Solution First, this transition can be identified as an E2 photon using Appendix F in the Table of Isotopes, 8th Ed. Interpolation in a graph gives «ty (E2, Z = 65, 0.090 MeV) = 1.5 4, (E2, Z = 65, 0.090 MeV) = 0.1 «1, ,(E2,Z ~ 65, 0.090 MeV) = 5. 4%, 3(E2,Z % 65, 0.090 MeV) = 2.5 Gg = Oy +My +5 +0, = 9.1 2 = In(2)/2.02 x 107° § = 3.34 x 108 s = A(1 + hoya) ‘ a Fink —+*—_ =34x10's to Orr gen) dag = A= Ay = 3X 10° s Note that internal conversion occurs ~10 times FASTER than y-ray emis- sion for this transition in this (heavy) nucleus.1. Acertain décay scheme shows the following gamma energies in keV: 32.7, 42.1, 74.8, 84.0, 126.1, and 158.8. Coincidence studies reveal two features of the decay: only one of the gamma energy peaks is in coincidence with three of the others. The gammas are preceded by a beta decay that is known to populate only one single excited state of the daughter nucleus. From this information suggest a possible level scheme. (note: there are two different arrangements of the energy levels that are consistent with the information given above.) Soln.: feet puts tls x a ee i566 keV E Et Rev Bee kev grad shite a ged ® trek par arta fensrgy tmnsition @ “14. (KI0.7). A certain decay process leads to final sates in an even-Z, even-N mucleus and gives only three rays of energies 100, 200 and 300 keV, whose multipolrities are El, E2 and E3, respectively. Consiict two possible level schemes fr this nucleus and label the states with their ‘most likely spin-parity assignments, ‘The party of the En fray is (-1)* so El and E3 involve a change in parity between the two ‘nuclear levels involved. E2 involves no such change. Furthermore, the ground state of the even-even ‘nucleus is O°. The ‘a in En gives the change in nuclear spin. #8 RB BoP By 2 anoev [a 300 keV oF |__ 200kev | t00kev on ov [or obeyGiven below are the (experimental) relative conversion electron and relative y-ray intensities of transitions following the decay of !9%mAg. Calculate, using the Normalised Peak-to-Gamma (NPG) method, the K-conversion coefficients for the 79, 614 and 723 keV transitions, given that the ax of 434 keV E2 transition is 7.89 x 10°. Compare with the theoretical ax values using BrICC (from NNDC website) and comment on their multipolarities. Trans- ition ——Relative Relative Energy Y Electron (keV) Intensity Intensity 792 7.3208 2044 10(K) 254 2(L) 4340 =100 = 100(K) 1482 23(L +--+) 6144 10323 372 1K) (Lo) 51s 632.9 0.16 + 0.02 73.0 10243 7) Decay scheme of “Ag. The 127-y isomer decays 91% by i decay and £% through y rays. The branching ratios of the # decay of the 2.4-min ground state are also shown.‘Trans- Conversion Cosfficient ition Relative Relative (units of 107>) Energy Y Electron (keV) Intensity Tntensity Experimental ‘Theoretical 79.2 7340.8 2044 10(K) 220+ 26 = 270( El), 710 (1),2400 (£2) 25 + 2(L) 24 33 (E1),88 (M1), 777 (£2) 434.0 = 100 = 100(K) = 7.89 7.89 (E2) 148 = 23(L 4-5) L172 O18 1.02(£2) 6144 10323 3723(K) 2.83 $0.24 1.03 (£1),3.01 (M1),2.92( £2) Sz 16(L~ -++) 039 = 012 0.12 (£1),0.35 (M1).0.36 (£2) 632.9 0.16 + 0.02 723.0 10243 25.0 = 1.2(K) 1.93 = O11 0.72 (£1),2,06 (M41),1.91 (£2) 46 = O8(L = --+) 0.35 0.06 0.08 (£1).0.24 (M1), 0.23 ( £2) Source: Experimental data from O C. Kistner and A.W’, Sunyar, Phys, Rev . 918 (1966), coefficients can be computed in the following way: 0, (434) = 4 (614) = where / represents the tabulated intensi 1, (434) 7(434) 74(614) 7,(614) ties. Since we have relarive. rather than absolute, intensities, we form the ratio (614) _ (614) 1,(434) a, (434) ~ 7, (434) | 7,(614) J<(614) _1,(434) a (614) = ax (434) - ES ie) 3743 100 fs as eS 5 TE 0 Saas = (2.83 + 0.24) x 10-3 From a similar jure, the remaining conversion coefficients can be calcu- lated, as listed in Table 10.1, and from tabulated values, we can find the theoretical values also listed in the table. ‘The 614- and 723-keV transitions are either M1 or E2 character, but from the Conversion coefficients we cannot decide which is correct because it happens (for this atomic number and y-ray energy equal. range) the M1 and £2 values are nearlywhy M2 competes with Fl far less effectively than E2 competes with M1? Usually the spins J, and J, have values for which the selection rules permit several multipoles to be emitted. The single-particle (Weisskopf) estimates permit 1us to make some general predictions about which multipole is most likely to be emitted. Let us consider the previous example of an [,= }* to /, = $* transi- tion (M1, E2, M3, E4). We assume a medium-weight nucleus (A = 125, so A*} = 25) and a transition energy E = 1 MeV. The estimates (Equations 10.13 and 10.15) give emission probabilities in the ratio A( M1): A( £2): A(M3): A(E4) = 1:14 x 107° ea x 1071213 10" You can see that the lower multipoles (M1 and £2) are far more likely than the higher ones, In practice we could regard this transition as being composed of M1 radiation with possibly a small mixture of £2. If the transition were Am = yes, the multipoles would be £1, M2, E3, M4 with the ratios ACEI): A( M2): A(E3): A(MA4) = 1:2.3 X 1077:2.1 x 107:2.1 x 10-27 Here only the E1 is expected to contribute to the transition, ‘There are rather general expectations, based on the single-particle estimates: 1, The lowest permitted multipole usually dominates. Electric multipole emission is more probable than the same magnetic multi- pole emission by a factor of order 10 for medium and heavy nuclei, (Of course, the selection rules prohibit EL and ML from competing in the same radiation field.) 3. Emission of multipole L + 1 is less probable than emission of multipole L by a factor of the order of about 10-5. 4. Combining 2 and 3, we have the following (here L’ = L + 1) (EL) CEL’) (EL) XACML) ~ XCEL) © X(MLY A(ML’) (ML) XACML) NEL) — X(ML) XCEL) We therefore have the following angular momentum and parity selection rules: W-ilsLsl+h, (noL=0) Aw =no: even electric, odd magnetic Am = yes: odd electric, even magnetic =10-*x 10? = 10-7 = 10-5 x 10°? = 1077 (10.16) ‘The exception to the angular momentum selection rule occurs when J, = J; because there are no monopole (L = 0) transitions in which a single photon is ‘emitted. Classically, the monopole moment is just the electric charge, which does not vary with time. (A spherical charge distribution of radius R gives only a pure 1/r? Coulomb field for r > R. Even if we allow the sphere to undergo radial oscillations, the Coulomb field for r > R is unaffected and no radiation is produced.) For transitions in which J, = J,, the lowest possible y-ray multipole order is dipole (Z = 1).‘The ICCs depends on the E of the transition, the Z of the nucleus and principal atomic quantum number (n) in approximately the following way: 3 ICs are also larger for magnetic transitions than for electric go Zz transitions, and increase with increasing multipolarity. n3E?: The internal conversion coefficient ‘a’ depends on the atomic number and the excitation energy , i.e. 2 Internal conversion is more important in heavy nuclei in particular in the decay of low-lying excited states (small E"). Gamma emission is predominated in light nuclei. Features of conversion coefficients: > increase as Z*, so ICP is more imp. for heavy nuclei than light nuclei > decreases rapidly with increasing transition energy. (In contrast, the probability of y emission increases rapidly with energy.) > increase rapidly as the multipole order increases; in fact for the higher L values, ce emission may be far more probable than y emission. > ICs for higher atomic shells (n > 1) decreases like | / n°. Fora given transition, we might roughly expect ax / a1 = 8. number of features of the conversion coefficients: 1. They increase as Z°, and so the conversion process is more important for heavy nuclei than for light nuclei. For example, the 1.27-MeV £2 transition in jjNe has a, = 6.8 x 10~® and the 1.22-MeV E2 transition in ''3W has ay = 2.5 X 107%; their ratio is very nearly equal to (10/74)°, as expected. 2. The conversion coefficient decreases rapidly with increasing transition en- ergy. (In contrast, the probability for y emission increases rapidly with energy.) For example, in “Co there are three M1 transitions, with energies 158 keV (ax = 0.011), 270 keV (ax = 0.0034), and 812 keV (ay = 0.00025). These decrease approximately as E~**, as expected based on Equation 10.27. 3. The conversion coefficients increase rapidly as the multipole order increases; in fact, for the higher J. values, conversion electron emission may be far more probable than y emission. For example, in Tc there is an M1 transition of 141 keV with ay = 0.10, while an Md transition of 143 keV has ay = 30. Based on Equation 10.27 we would expect the ratio a,(143)/ax(141) to be about (2m,c?/E)°, or about 370, which is quite consistent with the observed ratio (about 300). 4, The conversion coefficients for higher atomic shells (n> 1) decrease like 1/n*. Thus for a given transition, we might roughly expect a, /a, = 8. Using the correct electronic wave functions will cause this estimate to vary considerably, but many experimental values of ay /«,, do fall in the range of 3-6, so even in this case our estimate serves us well. We therefore expect relatively large K-shell conversion coefficients for low- energy, high-multipolarity transitions in heavy nuclei, with smaller values in other cases (higher atomic shells, higher transition energy, lighter nuclei, lower multi- poles).1. Make a "back of the envelope" estimate of the transition rate for nuclear electric quadrupole (£2) y-deeay. How does this rate depend on the mass number A (say A= 50) and on the transition energy E (2 MeV)? In making a “back of the envelope” calculation we must simplify the existing theory and make appropriate assumptions. ‘The transition rate for gamma decay is given by, Krane equation 10.10, (b+1 ett Nel) = rare taR(2) | Imnleb a We are interested in electric quadrupole transitions therefore, L = 2. Assum- ing the transition is due to one nucleon changing from one state to another in the shell model we can simplify the calculation. First of all the spherical harmonic for quadrupole radiation is, e(32? — r?). (2) We can then calculate the radial part of the transition probability. Assuming the wavefunction of the initial and final state are constant within the nuclear radius and zero elswhere, Bride 3 aw @) The other crucial approxiamtion is to say that the integral over spherical harmonics gives a result on the order of unity. Now we can see that e3_\? op (a) * o) Using L = 2 our final equation is then (8) Ey8e3)? ME2) “Saran G)* _ ‘We can use R = R, Ad and after some algebra we obtain, [mp (oL)P = [rng (BLP A(B2) = 108E°44, (6) ~ where A(E2) is in sec“! and E is in MeV. For a nucleus with A = 50 and a gamma ray of 2 MeV the rate is 5 x 10" sec~!.+ 1. A nucleus has a neutron resonance at 80 eV and no other resonances nearby. For this resonance: Pn = § eV, P¥ = 1 eV, Fe =3 eV and all other partial widths are negligible. What are the cross sections for (n, ¥) and (n, «) reactions at 85 eV? Given that the only partial widths to be considered are Ta=SeV, Pr=1eV, Pa =3eV. The total width F is just 9 eV. In the discussion given in the notes of the compound nucleus reaction: atX »C* 9 Y+b an expression for the (Breit-Wigner) resonance cross-section is written as 6 y=2°gI,h, (4m - EY + 7'74)} where g is a statistical weight (2+ + 1) which can be taken as unity since the low energy neutron will be captured from a zero orbital angular momentum state (1 = 0). The energy of the resonance is Ey while E is the neutron energy and 2 is the neutron de Broglie wavelength. For an energy of 85 eV this latter is 3.1 10°? m and putting in the factors the (n, ¥) and (n, «) cross-sections are found to be 8.5 102° m? and 2.5 10% m? respectively. { 3. Alpha particles with kinetic energy 6.8 MeV are coulomb scattered by a gold foil. a, What is the impact parameter for particles which are scattered through 90°? , What is the distance of closest approach of the alpha particle to the gold nucleus in this case of 90° scattering? c. At what scattering angle is the scattering rate (per unit solid angle) an order of magnitude larger than it is at 60°? The Rutherford theory of alpha particle scattering is dealt with in many textbooks and this should be examined as a part of answering the question. Neglecting nuclear recoil, the _differential cross-section can be written as of 40(@) da,” Tain@72) in which bo is the distance of closest possible approach (head-on collision) of an incoming alpha particle with kinetic energy T,. i.e.EEE ‘The momentum transfer is 2p;sin(8/2) or alternatively this can be determiaed by integrating the impact of the coulomb force. Equating these two expressions yields cot (8/2) = 2a/bo where a is the impact parameter. ‘These equations can be used to answer the three sections of the question. a. Foragold nucleus Z = 79 and given that T; is 6.8 MeV the distance of closest possible approach is bo=3.3.104 m. s . As cot (90°/2) = 1 it follows that the impact parameter is by a=bo2 = 1.65 10 m, ¢. For scattering at a particular angle the alpha particle comes closest to the nucleus when its momentum is perpendicular to the radius vector from the nucleus. By using the conservation of energy and the conservation of angular momentum it is fairly straightforward to show that for 90° scattering the distance of closest approach is bo/[2(2)'? - D] = 4.0 10 m. d. The rate will be an order of magnitude larger at an angle 8 such that sin4(8/2) = 0.1. Thus 8 = 68.4°.* Assignment - IIT PPHY 202 : Nuclear and Particle Physics 19% Feb. 2020 (to be submitted positively by 3PM, 29% Feb. 2020) Ch#9BetaDecay (Kenneth S Krane) Pg. 323 - 325. End of chapter Problems 1) Prob. 3 2) Prob. 4 3) Prob. 6 4) Prob. 7 5) Prob. 10 6) Prob. 11 7) Prob. 14 8) Prob. 20 9) Prob. 21 10) Prob. 22 11) Prob. 23 12) Prob. 24 1.%Au can decay by 2", * and €.Find the Q values for the three decay modes. 2. Themaximum kinetic energy of the positron spectrum emitted in the decay 'C +B is 1.983 + 0.003 MeV. Use this information and the known mass of ''B to calculate the mass of ''C. 3.1m the decay of ”Ca to "Se, what energy is given tothe neutrino when the electron has a kinetic energy of 1.100 MeV? 4. The B decay of ''0s leads only to an excited state of Pl at 171 keV. Compute the maximum kinetic energy of the B spectrum ‘5. What isthe kinetic energy given to the proton in the decay of the neutron when (a) the electron has negligibly small kinetic energy; (b) the neutrino has negligibly small energy? 6. One of the processes that is most likely responsible for the production of neutrinos in the sun is the electron-capture decay of ’Be. Compute the energy of the emitted neutrino and the kinetic energy of the "Li nucleus. 7. A certain B-decay process has three components, with maximum energies 0.672, 0.536, and 0.256 MeV. The first ‘component has two coincident y rays: 0.468 and 0.316 MeV, which are also coincident with each other. The second ‘component has coincident y's of 0.604, 0.308, 0.136, 0.468, 0.612, 0.296, and 0.316 MeV. The third B component is in coincidence with all ofthe above, plus 0.885, 0.589, 0.416, and 0.280 MeV. Use this information to construct a decay scheme and find the mass difference between the nuclear ground states, 8. The decay of "Au to "Pt by electron capture has not been observed, even though the very similar decay of "Au to "Pt by electron capture proceeds strongly. Examine the spectroscopic features of these decays and explain why the "Au electron-capture decay is not observed. (Use the Table of Isotopes or a similar spectroscopic reference.) 9. From collections of nuclear spectroscopic data, find and tabulate fi values for 3/2” > 1/2° allowed decays in the region ofN of Z=114 to 20 (dyz-and S12 shells). Also tabulate the allowed 3/2 * to 1/2 decays for N or Z=2 to 8 (psz and pia shells). Discuss any systematic differences between the two sets of values. 10. Using systematic collections of nuclear data (such as the Table of Isotopes or the Nuclear Data Sheets), tabulate the available information on 0° > 0° transitions between frz nuclei (20 < Z, N < 28), Discuss the coupling of the odd proton and odd neutron, and explain the observed fi values. 11. Tabula the available information on gs: 72 positron decays of odd-mass nuclei; g v2 protons are generally found in the range 40 < Z< 50, and 7s neutrons are usually between N = $0 and N= 66. Try to account forthe fi values. (Note: The GT decay is sometimes called a"spin-fip® process.) 12. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted beta particle in the decay Na —> i2Mg + e+ Use particle masses to do this calculation. 13, Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the positron emitted in the decay *sB > “wBe + "ie" + v. 14. Classify the following decays according to degree of forbiddenness: (@) ®sr($*) >°Y GQ) (b) ¥#C1 @*) + Ar 0*) (© %A1G*) +Mg* @) (6) Si (0*) + *Al* (0°) + *Mg (0*) (©) Ze (47) 47NOXwa ese thom Bo deay 2 FK Pick = undustondicg the Booey & momentum speckia ~~ mparobve elf the Gyr og FE Volwe ~~ Anppley memes cod faihy sdlechen wha Doub -B decoy Nero erimvetion of fail) io B- decay