Paper No.
1089
621.319.5
THE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS
By F. S. EDWARDS, M.Sc, Member, A. S. HUSBANDS, B.Sc, Associate Member,
and F. R. PERRY, M.Sc.Tech., Member.
{The paper was first received 24th October, 1949, and in revised form 2lst October, 1950. Proofs were made available to the public 30th December
1950, and the paper was read before THE INSTITUTION Wth January, and the NORTH-WESTERN CENTRE 9th January, 1951.)
SUMMARY
The paper explains the need for high-voltage impulse generators
which will produce the standard voltage waveshapes specified for
impulse testing. A theoretical analysis of the impulse generator and
load circuit is given, and the development of the multi-stage generator
for high voltages is described. The mechanism of operation of the
multi-stage generator is analysed and is illustrated by oscillograms.
Illustrations of two typical generators are shown, and some of the
auxiliary equipment needed is briefly mentioned. The paper concludes
with an example of impulse-testing technique.
(1) INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing demand for impulse-voltage tests on
electrical apparatus, particularly when the latter is directly
employed in the transmission of power. These tests are usually
designed to simulate the conditions which may arise on trans-
mission lines or associated equipment owing to the presence of
surge voltages.1 From the knowledge already obtained of the
nature and magnitude of the surges occurring in practice, it is
possible to specify appropriate impulse-strengths for the insula-
tion of the apparatus. Impulse-voltage testing is concerned with
the investigation of the electric strength of such new equipment.
Surge voltages have always occurred on transmission and
distribution systems, and long experience has led to the establish-
ment of insulation levels determined on the basis of the strength
measured when power-frequency voltages are applied. Con-
sequently, the high alternating over-voltages commonly used in
the testing of electrical apparatus have partly served to test the
ability of the apparatus to withstand the effects of surge voltages.
It is evident that, as the knowledge of surge phenomena increases,
this purpose will be better served by tests which are more appro-
priate to the characteristics of the surges to be guarded against,
and thus it is probable that impulse-voltage tests will replace
some of the alternating-over-voltage tests, although, of course,
the latter will still be required—perhaps in a modified form—as
a check on the characteristics of the apparatus when power-
frequency voltages are applied.
Impulse-voltage testing is now usually carried out with a
multi-stage generator; the paper describes the evolution of this
type of generator and presents an analysis of the circuits
employed. The paper is intended to collate and supplement the
information contained in a large number of technical publica-
tions. The auxiliary operating and measuring devices are an
essential part of impulse-generator equipment, and a description
is given of the relationship of these items to the impulse generator
itself. The technique of impulse testing has been described
elsewhere.2
(2) DEFINITIONS OF WAVESHAPE TERMS
The shapes of the impulse voltage waves used for testing have
been standardized in various countries, and, although there is
This is an "integrating" paper. Members are invited to submit papers in this
category, giving the full perspective of the developments leading to the present
practice in a particular part of one of the branches of electrical science.
Mr. Edwards and Mr. Perry are at the Research Laboratory of the Metropolitan
Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd.
Mr. Husbands is at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, and was formerly at
the Research Laboratory of the Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd.
[155
MEASUREMENTS SECTION
some variation between the different specifications, all the
definitions result in similar waveshapes. The wave must be
aperiodic and reasonably free from superimposed oscillations.
The shape of the wave is then designated by numbers (e.g.
1/50 microsec) which give, respectively, the time during which the
voltage is rising to its peak value and the time during which it
subsequently declines to one-half of the peak value, both times
being measured from the start of the wave. A typical impulse
waveshape is shown in Fig. 1; the rising portion of the wave is
Nominal
front
O9V -A
0-5V
0-1V — -
Time
Fig. 1.—Analysis of impulse-voltage waveshape.
termed the wavefront and the declining portion is called the
wavetail; its duration is defined as the time taken for the
voltage to fall to one-half of the peak value.
In Britain, B.S. 923: 1940 gives the standard testing wave as
a 1/50-microsec one, which is also the waveshape recommended
by the International Electrotechnical Commission* and the
Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker.f The waveshape recom-
mended by the American Standards Association! is a 1 • 5/40-
microsec one, but the tolerance allowed by B.S. 923 is sufficient
to include the latter value. B.S. 923 also prescribes the methods
of measurement of the duration of the wavefront and wave-
tail. These are designed to overcome the difficulty which
arises in defining the start of the wave and the point to be taken
as the wave peak on the flat portion of the crest. Referring to
Fig. 1, the "nominal" wavefront duration, tf, is therefore defined
as being \-25t'f, where /y-is the time interval between the points
where the voltage attains 10% and 90% of its peak value on the
rising wavefront. In effect, this assumes that the nominal
wavefront has a uniform voltage gradient equal to the average
gradient between the two specified voltages and that the wave
starts at that point where the zero-voltage axis is cut by this line
of uniform gradient. A similar method is proposed in the
American specification, except that the suggested factor is I • 5
instead of 1-25.
The 1/50 microsec (or equivalent) waveshape is usually
employed, but it is recognized that special occasions may arise
when impulses of shorter duration are required; for this purpose
there are standards of 1/5 and 1/10 microsec (the latter occurs only
* I.E.C. Publication 60 : 1938.
t V.D.E. Specification 0450 : 1939.
t A.S.A. Specification C68.1—1942.
156 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
in the V.D.E. rules). Other special waveshapes may be required
for particular applications, e.g. chopped waves for transformer
tests, or even oscillatory waves for some purposes, but these are
necessarily specified by the requirements of the individual tests.
(3) THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCUIT
The simplest representation of a single-stage impulse-generator
circuit which corresponds approximately with practical condi-
tions is shown in Fig. 2, where:
Cj = Discharge capacitance of generator.
C2 = Capacitance of load.
Ly — Internal inductance of generator.
L2 — External inductance of load and connections.
/?, or JRJ = Resistance for control of wavetail.
R2 — Resistance for control of wavefront.
R The position of Rj may sometimes be of great practical
T I'. Jt T
c,
^"^ Alternative
positions of Rt
Fig. 2.—Simplified circuit of impulse generator and load, showing
alternative positions of the wavetail-control resistor.
If C, is charged to a voltage E and the gap G is then closed,
the subsequent variation in the voltage, V, across C2 can be
analysed only by extremely laborious methods involving a
quartic differential equation. If L2 is made zero or is, in effect,
combined with Lv the equation3 is reduced to one involving
no power higher than the third:
0)
1 1 A 1-J
If Rj is on the generator side of R2, i.e. in the position R[,
the parameters are slightly different, but the equation is of the
same form. Even more complicated representations have been
examined, particularly by Thomason,4 but the resulting expres-
sions are of little more than academic or mathematical interest,
especially as the stray capacitances and inductances are distri-
buted throughout the circuit and no precise numerical values
<^in be assigned to them.
In practice, it is convenient to simplify the calculations, and
four cases are examined in the following Sections.
(3.1) Non-inductive Circuit
If the circuit shown in Fig. 2 is considered as a non-inductive
one, then L, and L2 will both be zero. Consider first the
situation when R, is on the generator side of R2, i.e. in position
Rj'; now, if the time-constants Tt and T2 are given by CtRt and
C2R2, respectively, and the ratio C2IC} is denoted by X, it is discharge of the circuit shown in Fig. 2 (when L2 is zero) is
easily shown that the roots — ocj and — a 2 of the differential given (Goodlet)3 as:
equation for Kare:
1+
•and V=E- (2)
The true wavefront duration, tv i.e. the actual time taken for
the voltage V to rise to its maximum value, is given by
and the voltage efficiency, rj, of the generator is given by VmaJE,
i.e.
- a,)
Consider now the case when Rj is on the load side of R2, as
shown in Fig. 2. With the same symbols as before,
X+T2ITtXf
or a2 = ^7S
27;
11
The values of /, and TJ will be determined exactly as they are
when Rj is on the generator side of R2.
importance. It will be immediately apparent that when Rj is
on the load side of R2, the two resistors form a potential
divider which reduces the output voltage, but when Rj is on the
generator side of R2, this particular source of voltage loss is no
longer present. Fig. 3 shows how the efficiencies of the two
circuits vary with the ratio C^Cj for the particular case of a
0 • 6/5-microsec wave.
50
0-25 0-5
Ratio C 2 /C x
Fig. 3.—Effect of position of wavetail-control resistor on voltage
efficiency of generator.
(a) Resistor on generator side of R2.
•(b) Resistor on load side of R2-
When Rj is on the load side of R2 the efficiency is very low
for small values of C2/Cj, but when the circuit is so arranged that
Rj is on the generator side of R2, the efficiency is highest when
the load is zero, and the latter circuit should obviously be used
wherever possible, especially when the resistance of R2 is not
very small when compared with that of Rj. •
As a numerical example, if C2/Cj = 0-2, the voltage efficiency
of the generator with a 1/50-microsec wave falls from 80% to
77 %, if the resistor Rj is moved from the generator side to the
load side of R2. The effect is much greater with a 1/5 microsec
wave, the efficiency being about 60% with Rj on the generator
side of R2 and 40% with Rj on the load side of R2. Moreover,
under the latter condition the wavefront cannot be made longer
than about 0-6 microsec if the wave tail is to be maintained at
5 microsec.
(3.2) Inductive Circuit Free From Oscillations
The necessary and sufficient condition for a non-oscillatory
icfi - 36)3 > #2a3 - gab + 27c)2
where a, b and c are the coefficients of D2V, DV and V, respec-
tively, of eqn. (1). Such an unwieldy expression is of little
practical use, and the only simple deduction that can be made
is that a2 must be greater than 36 if the discharge is to be non-
oscillatory.
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS
(3.3) Simplified Non-Oscillatory Inductive Circuit
If the tail of the wave is long compared with its front—as it
is for a standard 1-5/40- or 1/50-microsec wave, then very little
error results from ignoring the wavetail resistance during the
calculation of the wavefront duration; the circuit shown in
Fig. 2 then simplifies to that shown in Fig. 4, for which the
mathematical solution is very easy.
G L
R Until E. Marx took out his famous patent3 in 1923, no means
I o o nfiRr^—vw—|
C
T T2
Fig. 4.—Simplified circuit of impulse generator and load for calculation
of wavefront.
The critical resistance R is given by
R = VC4I/O
1 1 1 2 000-kV impulses by 1923. Since the impulse waveshape could
where
The voltage across C2 can then be expressed explicitly as follows:
If, now, the inductance L is reduced to zero, but the resistance
R remains unchanged, then
CF
. . . . (6)
The expressions for V in eqns. (5) and (6) both approach the
value CE/C2 as t approaches infinity, as they obviously should.
Eqns. (5) and (6) have maxima only at infinity, but if the lengths
of the wavefronts are calculated from the definitions given in
Section 2, it is found that, according to the formulae proposed
in B.S. 923: 1940 and V.D.E. Specification 0450: 1939, the
nominal wavefront is equal to 2-15CR when L is zero and to
2-1C7? when the circuit is critically damped; these two results
correspond to the conditions prescribed by eqns. (5) and (6),
respectively. On the other hand, when determined according
to the formulae given in Standard No. 4 of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, the nominal wavefront duration
equals 3-B9CR when L is zero and 2-19CR when the circuit is
critically damped.
In practice, fairly accurate results are obtained by computing,
first, the value of R2 required to make the circuit shown in
Fig. 2 non-oscillatory when Rj is absent, then the value of
R2 [if greater than «/(4LIC)] required to give the desired wave-
front, and finally the value of Rt required to give the required
wavetail when R t is on the generator side of R2 in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2. The efficiency can then be approximately
estimated as being ClftCl + C2) times a factor which is about
0-95 for a 1/50 microsec wave.
(3.4) Crest Current on Discharge
The maximum value, /, of the current in the undamped dis-
charge of a generator into a short-circuit can readily be calcu-
lated from the energy equation:
i.e. I=VV(CXIL)
157
If the circuit is critically damped, the result is less obvious,
but a simple calculation gives the result:
~1ST
(4) DEVELOPMENT OF THE MULTI-STAGE IMPULSE-
GENERATOR CIRCUIT
were known (or at least published) whereby the principle of
charging condensers in parallel and discharging them in series
could be put to practical use for the production of high-voltage
impulses.
In 1921, Grunewald6 described a single-stage circuit in which
an electrostatic generator charged a condenser, which then dis-
charged across a spark-gap in series with the load and the con-
sequent oscillatory discharge doubled the voltage. Peek7
employed a transformer to supply a high alternating voltage for
charging a condenser which was then used as a single-stage
impulse generator; in 1915, he produced output voltages of
200 kV, and subsequent improvements enabled him to produce
not be measured, it was calculated by means whose validity was
very questionable,8 and no series damping was used. Moreover,
the polarity of the impulse was not readily controllable.
It was at this point that Marx produced a simple circuit which
effectively solved the fundamental problem by eliminating the
need for any individual components to operate at more than a
small fraction of the desired output voltage. The most con-
vincing proof of the merit of his invention is that, after the lapse
of more than a quarter of a century, this circuit, without any
basic change, is still invariably used in the construction of
impulse generators, although important modifications have been
made to the details.
Charging - i - Output
voltage,E "T voltage, V
Fig. 5.—Marx's original voltage-doubling circuit.
Fig. 5 shows Marx's so-called "voltage-doubling circuit,"
fitted with a spark-heating condenser (shown dotted) which,
although mentioned in the text of his patent specification
appears only in two of his four illustrations. This circuit
suffers from the serious defect (common to all the circuits shown
in the patent specification) that the charging voltage, E, is applied
continuously to the load across the points C and D, on which
the breakdown of the spark-gap merely superimposes an impulse
of the same magnitude, so that the output voltage V rises
suddenly from E to 2E and then decays to E.
It is remarkable that, in an article9 published subsequent to
the patent, Marx described a single-stage circuit (Fig. 6) and
emphasized that there was no voltage on the load during charg-
-H-
Output
voltage, h voltage,V
Fig. 6.—Marx's single-stage circuit, showing the load earthed during
charging.
158 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
ing; he then went on to explain the circuit shown in Fig. 5 without
mentioning the defect to which attention has just been drawn.
Fig. 7 shows Marx's so-called "voltage-tripling circuit," in
which the load is again subjected to the charging voltage E on
which the operation of the spark-gaps superimposes an impulse
1
—AVWWWWN/ '
Fig. 7.—Marx's original voltage-tripling circuit.
' F O B
Fig. 8.—Rearrangement of Marx's original voltage-tripling circuit.
voltage of twice this value. The circuit of Fig. 7 is redrawn in
Fig. 8. If the point O is earthed and both spark-gaps break
down together (although there is no reason why they should),
the charging voltage E applied to one side of the load at D is
augmented at this point by an impulse of E volts and at point F
by an impulse of — E volts.
A little later, Marx10 again described his circuit but modified
it slightly as shown in Fig. 9. The new circuit has an earth
-A/V
1
\A/WWWWV'
Fig. 9.—Marx's modified voltage-tripling circuit without spark-heating
condensers.
Fig. 10.—Marx's original multi-stage generator drawn for eight stages.
point but no spark-heating condensers; Marx said that C2 and
C3 should have much smaller capacitances than should Cj, "as
the capacitance of these condensers (C2 and C3) to earth has to
be charged to a high voltage and the required energy is drawn
from Cj, which should therefore be as large as possible."
Marx's reasoning is difficult to follow; the loss of voltage caused
by charge-sharing with a condenser which is, effectively, con-
nected between the points D and F and in parallel with the load,
would surely be reduced more easily by making all the con-
densers as large as possible. Marx himself makes this very
point later in his paper, thus contradicting his earlier statement.
The numerical values quoted in the paper are:
Cl = 2 230 cm.
C , = C3 = 630 cm.
R = 1 megohm (approximately).
It should be noted that no series resistors are shown, that the
author takes it for granted that the discharge will be oscillatory
unless the leads are very short, and that the breakdown of one
gap would increase the voltage across the other only if there
was capacitance coupling between B and C or between D and F
(see Section 5.3). Marx evidently had trouble on this account,
for he emphasized the need to set the two gaps at exactly the
same spacing.
The circuit shown in Fig. 10 is electrically identical with
Fig. 3 of Marx's specification, showing an 8-stage generator, but
it has been redrawn so that it assumes a more modern and
familiar appearance. If the point O were earthed, the left-hand
side of the Figure would show a 4-stage circuit with a steady
voltage E on the load (at the point Z), on which an impulse, 3E,
is superimposed when the spark-gaps break down. The right-
hand side is an entirely different 4-stage circuit with the load
earthed at the point J through the resistor connected between
the points J and O during the charging period, an impulse voltage
of AE being applied to J when the four right-hand spark-gaps
break down.
If the point J is earthed, the spark-gap HG must be arranged
to fail first, and the voltage on Z (initially E) rises to 8E. It
should be noted that, if the point O is earthed, the spark-gaps
AO and KL are independent and the breakdown of the spark-
gap AO need not raise the voltage across the spark-gap KL.
Fig. 11 (Fig. 4 of Marx's specification) illustrates a circuit
which is noteworthy in that an earth point is definitely shown.
It is really an extension and duplication of the circuit of Fig. 7,
and there are two quite separate circuits. The charging voltage
is applied to the load, but if Marx had taken only the right-
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS
+/
T—*^ywwvwwv^vyw\AA-i^y^^
'•OO'oO ,
I /I /I /I /I
Fig. 11.—Marx's original double multi-stage generator.
hand side of the circuit shown in Fig. 10 and connected the
charging resistors in the manner shown in Fig. 11, he would
have had an entirely satisfactory circuit—as shown in Fig. 12—
with the load earthed during the charging period and with the
T^wvvxA^ywvv^^^
Fig. 12.—Combination of circuits shown in Figs. 10 and 11 to give
new circuit.
polarity of the impulse voltage opposite to that of the charging
voltage. This latter circuit is described by Goodlet.11 Alterna-
tively, he could have added another gap and another resistor
to the top half of the circuit of Fig. 11 (as shown dotted) and
obtained another equally satisfactory circuit, with the charging
voltage and the impulse voltage of the same polarity.
Peek's circuit12 of 1929 is interesting as one which is inter-
mediate between those shown in Figs. 10 and 12. This circuit
has been redrawn in Fig. 13 from Peek's original diagram,
IV V VV
Fig. 13.—Peek's multi-stage impulse generator.
and it will be seen to bear a close resemblance to that of Fig. 12,
particularly in that the sign of the impulse is opposite to that
of the charging voltage at the instant of breakdown of the
spark-gap AO—a point which Peek did not mention. It should
be noted that resistor R4 has to withstand the full output voltage.
Miner 13 published some comments on Marx's circuit in 1926
and extended the circuit shown in Fig. 5 to obtain two intercon-
nected circuits which have been separated and redrawn in
Fig. 14; at a later date14 he added isolating gaps at the points
P and Q. If the point O in Fig. 14 is earthed, the circuit
becomes the original defective Marx circuit of Fig. 11 plus the
modified circuit of Fig. 12.
Miner also showed13 an improvement whereby one side of
the load was earthed; this circuit was, in effect, that shown on
the left-hand side of Fig. 10.
Referring back to Fig. 8, it will be seen that, if the direct-
159
A R C Y\
j—AAAA/N « AAAAA^AAAAA -
or n^ o. T
KVVVVLVVVVMVVVVNVVVVP
Fig. 14.—Miner's extension of Marx's voltage-doubling circuit.
voltage input is connected between the points C and F, with F
earthed, the circuit is one-half of that shown in Fig. 11; if only
the circuit enclosed by the points A, C, F and O is considered,
with the load connected between the points F and O and the
input between C and O with the point O earthed, the result is
a single-stage circuit of the type shown in Fig. 12. Finally, if the
voltage is applied between the points A and B, with B earthed,
the result is a 2-stage circuit of the type shown in Fig. 12.
It should be noted that neither series resistors nor isolating
gaps are shown in any of Marx's original drawings, but these
features appear in his book on high-voltage practice15 published
in 1941; some of his diagrams are reproduced as Figs. 15-17.
'-AAAAA^-AAAA-^^
Fig. 15.—Marx's later single-stage circuit with series resistors.
Fig. 16.—Marx's later voltage-doubling circuit, with isolating gaps
and the load earthed during charging.
Fig. 17.—Marx's later multi-stage generator, with isolating gap.
The circuit shown in Fig. 15 is the same as that shown dotted
in Fig. 11, with the important addition of a series resistor, whilst
Fig. 16 shows a rather inconvenient means of short-circuiting
the load during the charging cycle. Finally, Fig. 17 shows a
circuit with an isolating gap, a series resistor and a load-
discharging resistor shown as RD.
Bouwers16 also reviewed various impulse-generator circuits
and introduced several new ones which took inductance into
account and showed the use of a series resistor on the generator
side of the discharge resistor instead of on the load side. One
of his diagrams, shown in Fig. 18, is particularly interesting in
160 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT A N D
C.R.O.
Fig. 18.—Bouwer's multi-stage circuit, showing distributed series
resistors.
that the series resistors are distributed throughout the generator
(two per condenser), both to suppress internal oscillations and
to control the wavefront duration. There is also an isolating
gap, as in the circuit shown in Fig. 17, but the resistor connected
to earth on the load side is used as a potential divider for the
cathode-ray oscillograph. A loading condenser, C (shown
dotted), is recommended for tests on loads of small capacitance,
"so that the standard wavefront can be obtained without
increasing \he damping resistance."
The first reference to the use of distributed series resistors in
a multi-stage circuit was published in 1932, when Ackermann17
employed the circuit shown in Fig. 11 but with resistors in each
spark-gap shank. The advantages of such distributed resistors
have been discussed by Eisner and others, 18 . 19 and their disad-
vantages have long been apparent to those who have computed
the voltage efficiency of impulse-generator circuits.
As the wavetail-control current flows through these resistors if
they are inserted in the circuit in the manner shown by Bouwers
and Ackermann, it follows that the larger the discharge capaci-
tance becomes (above a certain optimum value), the lower will
be the output voltage, and various authors 18 - 23 have published
curves which show this inconvenient effect very clearly. The effect
produced is essentially the same as that which results from
putting the resistor Rj (Fig. 2) on the load side of the series
resistor, the consequences of which are illustrated in Fig. 3.
The combination of high efficiency with distributed wavefront
resistors was achieved in 1937,20 and the circuit employed is
shown in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19.—Modern multi-stage circuit showing distributed series
resistors connected to give maximum efficiency.
The essence of this circuit is that R3 is made large compared
with J?j, whereas R2 is made as small as is necessary to give the
required length of wavetail. It will be seen that under these
conditions the current through R 2 does not flow through Rj
and so has no effect in reducing the initial generator-output
voltage, no matter how small R2 or how large Rx may be. In a
practical generator where this circuit was employed, the stage-
capacitance was 0-20 fjiF, i?j was about 40 ohms and the wave-
tail resistance required to produce (on this occasion) a 5-microsec
wavetail was about 25 ohms; R3 was made about 10 kilohms,
R2 about 25 ohms, and less than 1 % of the output voltage was
lost in Rj. With the normal connections, about two-thirds of
the voltage would have been lost in Rj. This circuit is now
widely used.
An American installation*1 employs a slight modification of
the circuit shown in Fig. 19 when a 1 /5-microsec wave is required,
but it uses the conventional connections when a 1 • 5/40-microsec
wave is used.
(5) MULTI-STAGE CIRCUITS IN PRACTICE
(5.1) Types of Generator
As discussed in Section 4, the original Marx circuit was
modified by the addition of an isolating gap and a discharging
resistor across the load. In the modification by Goodlet,11 the
circuit was altered as shown in Fig. 12, the main difference
between the two circuits being that in Marx's construction the
impulse is of the same sign as the charging voltage, whilst in
the modification the sign is reversed. There are also certain
practical differences, one of which is that on discharge botb
sides of the first spark-gap, Gj, are raised to the charging voltage
in the Marx connection and fall to earth potential in the modified
connection.
(5.2) Disposition of Components
(5.2.1) Wavefront-Control Resistors.
The wavefront control resistors can be placed either outside the
generator, partly within and partly outside or wholly within it.
Since the inductance is distributed all round the circuit, the third
method is not wholly satisfactory, because the external leads,
the load and the stray earth-capacitance form an oscillatory
circuit which requires to be damped by an external resistor.
The important practical merit of resistors distributed within
the generator is that they diminish the need for an external
resistor capable of withstanding the full voltage. Such a
resistor for, say, 2 000 kV will be inconveniently long and will
possibly occupy valuable space, so that even a small amount
of internal resistance is helpful. Probably the best compromise
between conflicting requirements is to arrange for about one-
half of the total resistance to be outside the generator.
Wavefront-control resistors may be composed of wire, liquids,
or solids in the form of pellets or rods. The use of wire is not
completely satisfactory, as it is difficult to reduce the inductance
sufficiently and the heat capacity may not be adequate if there is
much energy to be absorbed; liquids have a high heat-capacity
but are unstable and require frequent attention, whilst solid
materials—sold under trade names and of secret composition—
have improved greatly in recent years.
(5.2.2) Wavetail-Control Resistors.
Wavetail-control resistors can readily perform the functions
of the charging resistors, in which case they are distributed
throughout the generator, or of potential dividers, when they
will be external to the generator. If used as a potential divider,
the wavetail-control resistor is necessarily on the load side of
the wave-front resistor, and causes a loss of voltage in conse-
quence.
(5.2.3) Paralleling of Stages.
A feature of most multi-stage generators is that stages can be
coupled together in pairs (or greater numbers), so that the dis-
charge capacitance is increased at the expense of the output
voltage. With stages in pairs, the capacitance is quadrupled
and the output voltage is halved, which is sometimes a useful
feature when large loads may be encountered, as in cable testing.
A simpler, but less effective (although usually adequate), method
is to use only a fraction of the generator, so that the discharge
capacitance varies inversely as the output voltage.
(5.3) Magnitude of the Over-voltage on Second and Subsequent
Spark-Gaps, when First Gap Breaks Down
There are but few references in the technical literature to the
reasons why the spark-gaps in a multi-stage impulse generator
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS
break down in very rapid succession, but, according to traditional
theory on the subject, the sequence of operations is as follows:
Referring to Fig. 20, when the first spark-gap, G,, breaks
down, at a voltage of, say, — V volts, the potential at the point Z
D.C.
Fig. 20.—Diagram of multi-stage circuit showing stray capacitances.
becomes zero, whereupon the potential at Y rises to + V volts,
so that a voltage of 2V appears 1 4 - 2 2 across G 2 , which will
therefore break down if set to do so for some value between
V and 2V. Similarly, voltages of W and 4V volts appear across
G 3 and G 4 (provided that the previous gap has broken
down), and so on indefinitely. Now, although in practice it
has been found quite feasible to operate a 50-stage impulse
generator, it has also been found that G 2 must usually be set
to break down at a voltage only slightly greater than that at
which Gi breaks down, otherwise it does not operate; a
little consideration will show that the theory given above is
very incomplete. When the point Y attains a potential of
+ V volts the potential at the point X does not remain at — V;
in the absence of stray capacitance and if the resistance between
the points X and Z is assumed to be infinite during the short
interval after the breakdown of G{, there is no reason why the
point X should be at any particular potential.
Actually, of course, the circuit as drawn in Fig. 20 (without
the stray capacitances, which are shown dotted) is a very im-
perfect representation of the facts. The various parts of the
generator are coupled by the stray capacitances between the
components, and it is these stray capacitances which control the
initial potential-distribution immediately after the breakdown
of G,.
Two such stray capacitances, Ct and C 3 , are shown in dotted
lines in Fig. 20, and the capacitance of the sphere-gap G 2 is
shown as C 2 . For the purpose of the calculation of the initial
potential-distribution, the resistors may be considered as open-
circuits, and it may also be assumed with inappreciable error
that the stray capacitances are negligible in comparison with the
stage capacitances.
Consider now what happens to the circuit when the point Z,
which was previously at a potential — V volts, is earthed by the
breakdown of the gap Gv The point Y, which was initially at
earth potential, assumes the potential + V volts, but the potential
of the point X is fixed by the relative magnitudes of the capa-
citances C,, C2 and C 3 and is calculated as follows:
If the potential at the point X, after the transients have died
away but before the resistances have begun appreciably to affect
the voltage distribution, is — Vx then
• • • (7)
VOL. 98, PART I.
161
Hence, the voltage, VY, across C 2 (i.e. across the gap G 2 ) is
given by
VY=V 1 + • • (8)
Now, if C 2 is equal to zero, VY will attain its maximum possible
value of 2V, whilst, if Cl and C 3 are both zero, VY will
equal V, its minimum possible value. From this it will be
apparent that the most favourable conditions for the operation
of the generator arise when the capacitance, C 2 , of the sphere
gap G 2 is small and the stray capacitances Cx and C 3 are large.
These deductions have been confirmed experimentally. The
setting of Gj was fixed, that of G 2 was adjusted until about
half of the failures of G , were followed by breakdown of G 2
and the ratio of the voltages corresponding to the settings of the
two gaps was then calculated. For these tests, the generator
used had a stage capacitance of 0 - 1 2 / A F . RX (Fig. 20) was
2 500 ohms for all tests, and values of 2 500 and 9 000 ohms were
used for R4, which was the same as R2 for this test. Table 1
shows the results obtained for various values of Ct and C 2 .
Although the theory outlined above goes a long way towards
an explanation of the observed phenomena, it is still very
imperfect and does not account for the extremely erratic
behaviour of some impulse generators when the resistances have
been made very small in order to produce a very short-tailed
wave. A particular example encountered by the authors some
years ago was a two-column eight-stage 1 000-kV generator of
0-20-/xF stage-capacitance which could not be made to work
consistently at charging voltages in excess of about 60 kV (the
full charging voltage being 125 kV) when arranged to deliver a
wave of 5-microsec wavetail, although it was quite satisfactory
for small charging voltages and/or when arranged to deliver a
wave with a 50-microsec tail.
Table 1
EFFECT OF THE STRAY CAPACITANCE OF A GENERATOR ON THE
OVER-VOLTAGE ACROSS THE SECOND SPARK-GAP
Additional capacitance Ratio of voltages across gaps G2
and G]
C C2 * 2 = «4 = 2. 5 k n R2 = /? 4 = 9 k n
MM o
1-5 1-6
200 0 1-7 1-8
2000 0 1-8 1-9
0 120 1-3 1-3
0 2000 1-2 1-2
200 120 1-5
0 2000 1-4 1-3
2000 120 1-9 20
Let us reconsider Fig. 20. Hitherto the effect of the resistances
has been neglected, but it is apparent that the state of affairs
represented by eqn. (8) is only transient, since the stray capaci-
tances Cj, C 2 and C 3 immediately begin to receive or lose charge
through the resistors, so that the over-voltage across G 2 (VY — V)
is quickly reduced to zero. Since these capacitances are normally
of the order of tens of micromicrofarads, the time-constants of
the local circuits are likely to be small; e.g. if the resistances
are of 1 000 ohms each, then the time-constants will be of the
order of 10~ 2 to 1 0 - 1 microsec, and correspondingly less for
lower values of resistance. In the 8-stage 1 000-kV generator
just mentioned the wavetail-control resistances were of the order
of 100 ohms, so that the time-constants were about 10~ 2
microsec.
12
162 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
Let it be assumed that R2 is large (it may easily be ten times
RA in practice) so that R 2 can be regarded as an open-circuit
(i?! plays no part at all). The shape of the potential/time curve
of the point X will now be given by eqn. (9). After the initial
potential-redistribution caused by the breakdown of the gap G,
has been effected, the subsequent events can be calculated on the
assumption that R 4 is then connected between the points W
and Y, so that the voltage rise across the gap G2 is given by
If (Cj + C3) is very much greater than C2, this becomes
VG1 — Ve-
so that, after a time 3i?4(C! + C3), the voltage across G 2 is
only 1-05K volts. The time-constant can be lengthened by an
increase in (Cl + C3) or in R4, or by the introduction of in-
ductance into the resistor R.
The values Cx and C3 depend upon the physical construction
of the generator, but can be increased artificially, whilst R4 is
fixed by the stage capacitance and the required length of wave-
tail. The authors are without practical experience of the third
method, which presents certain difficulties in application.
Besides making the observations recorded in Table 1, the
authors carried out oscillographic tests on another 12-stage
generator of 0 12-/u,F stage capacitance, and some of the
oscillograms are shown in Fig. 21.
The circuit was of the form shown in Fig. 20 with twelve
stages connected normally, except that the resistor on the
charging side of G 4 was omitted. (Rx = 10 kilohms.)
R4 was varied from 100 to 10 000 ohms and the additional
capacitances C (when used) were 230 /u/xF. The gap Gj was
set to break down at 88 kV and tests were made as follows:
(a) All gaps except Gx opened out.—The gap Gi was tripped
at zero time, and records were taken of the course of the voltage
(relative to earth) at points Y, W and U; the potentials at the
points Z and X differed from those at Y and W by the constant
amount of the charging voltage. The voltages across G 2 and
G 3 were the differences between the potentials of the points
X and Y and of the points W and U. These tests were made
with values of R4 of 100, 1 000 and 10 000 ohms and both
with and without additional capacitances of 230 ftjuF across the
first three supports.
One of the principal features of the results of these tests is
the extremely short duration of the over-voltage across G2,
which never exceeds 100%. This is shown by the full lines in
Figs. 21 (a)-21 (c). There is an appreciable difference in the time-
constant when R4 is reduced from 10 to 1 kilohm, and a much
more noticeable difference when it is reduced to 100 ohms,
when the over-voltage persists only for about 0-1 microsec.
It is also plain that the addition of condensers across the sup-
ports has the expected effect of raising the magnitude and
duration of the over-voltage, as shown by the dotted lines in
Figs. 21(a)-21(c).

0 0-5 1-0 1-5 0 0-5 1-0 0 O-5 1-0 1-5

Impulse length,JJ,S Impulse length,J
() w Impulse length, JJ.S
()

0 0-5 1-0 1-5 0 0-5 1-0 1-5 0 0-5 1-0 1-5 "
Impulse length,/us Impulse length,fxs
Impulse length,us ()
(d)
Fig. 21.—Oscillograms of voltages developed across spark-gaps G2 and G3 immediately after breakdown of gaps Gi and G2,
respectively (cf. Fig. 20).
Normal generator.
Generator with extra capacitance across three supports.
In all cases, Ri = R4 = Rs.
(a) and (d) Ri = 10 kd.
(6) and (<?) Ri = 1 k£2.
( c ) a n d ( / ) Rt = 100 Q.
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS 163
(Jb) All gaps except Gt and G 2 opened out.—The gap G 2 was knowledge, each of ten gaps broke down singly on ten successive
set at a slightly larger spacing than G ]} so that it broke down tests.
very shortly after the failure of G{ and the tests described in (a) An attempt was made to overcome the trouble by enclosing
were repeated. each gap in a large cylindrical shroud made of pressboard and
The principal features of these tests are that the voltage across greased on the inside. The immediate result was that the first
the gap G3 [Figs. 21(d)-21(f)] rises to about 2-4Kbut falls below gap broke down with great regularity and with inappreciable
2Kin less than 0-1 microsec, and that, with added capacitance deviations from the mean value, but none of the other gaps
across the supports, the over-voltage is reduced but is of rather failed at all, as the shrouds completely cut off the illumination
longer duration; as in the first test, the duration decreases as (from the spark passing across the first gap) which Meek24 and
R4 is reduced. others have since shown to be essential to a low impulse-ratio of
Tests were also made in which the over-voltages on the gaps breakdown, especially when the impulse is of very short duration.
G 2 and G 3 arising from the breakdown of the previous gap The introduction of narrow slits at the top and bottom of
(Gj or G2) were measured by the spacings of the gaps themselves each shroud permitted the irradiation from the first spark-gap
for various values of inter-stage resistance, and the results are to fall on the second one and so on, and thereafter the per-
given in Table 2. formance of the generator was usually satisfactory. It was
Table 2
found, however, that although the axes of the gaps were in one
vertical plane the slight horizontal displacement of alternate gaps
THE EFFECT OF INTER-STAGE RESISTANCE AND OF ADDED reduced the intensity of the illumination impinging on them
CAPACITANCE ON THE OVER-VOLTAGES ACROSS GAPS G 2 AND G3* from the gap below, and this sometimes resulted in irregularity
of firing. With a small constructional modification, the gaps
Ratio of voltages were arranged to be in a vertical line; the performance was then
Resistance of
inter-stage resistors
quite reliable.
Ri, R 4 and R 5 With no extra With extra
capacitance capacitance of
230 uptF (6) GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
(6.1) Requirements for an Impulse Generator
ohms
The requirements for an impulse generator are: low inductance
Between gaps G 2 and G\ (Gi firing) (for production of steep wavefronts), low height, mechanical
100 1-3 1-4 stability, ease of access and of adjustment of movable or moving
1 000 1-4 1-6 parts and ease of extension. The charging voltage must be a
10000 1-6 1-75
compromise between conflicting requirements. A low charging
Between gaps G3 and G\ (G2 firing) voltage permits the use of a small and cheap d.c. charging set
100 1-4 1-5 but requires an increased number of stages. The total cost of
1000 1-6 1-9 the condensers having a given energy-storage capacity will not
10000 20 2-2 usually vary widely with the number of stages.
The voltage selected should preferably be about 10-15% less
* Cf. Fig. 20. than the open-circuit voltage of the d.c. set if the time of
charging is to be kept down to a reasonable value. For the
In these tests, each gap was well irradiated by the spark from large generators now common in commercial practice, with an
the gap below it, which thus tended to reduce its impulse ratio output voltage of 1 000 kV or more and a discharge capacitance
(see Section 5.4). On the other hand, the very short duration of of 0-01-0-03 [AF, the most suitable charging voltage is probably
the over-voltages would increase the impulse ratio, but, whatever about 170 kV. When the discharge capacitance is only 0-002-
the inaccuracies introduced into the measurement by these two 0 008 fiF at a few hundred kilovolts, 20 or 25 kV may be used
opposing effects, the ratios given in Tables 1 and 2 are the values as the charging voltage, but with a radically different form of
which must be assumed if the setting of the gaps is based on construction for the impulse generator.
B.S. 358. The irregularity of operation of the gaps of impulse The discharge capacitance depends upon the nature and
generators has been noticed, but not explained, by various magnitude of the load. A simple calculation shows that the
10 23
observers. - energy-storage capacity required in the generator is a minimum
With the circuit shown in Fig. 19, the over-voltage across the when the discharge capacitance of the generator is the same as
second spark-gap is reduced even more than is shown by the the load capacitance, so that on discharge the initial voltage at
above calculations, as the current flowing through R t after the the generator output terminals is twice the maximum voltage
breakdown of the first gap causes a further drop in the voltage actually applied to the load and the voltage efficiency is 50%.
applied to the second one. Such a calculation, however, is almost purely academic and
ignores many important practical aspects of generator design.
(5.4) Effect of Dust and of Illumination on Rapidity and The cost of the condensers is only a part of the total cost of
Regularity of Breakdown of Gaps the equipment, so that the arrangement giving minimum con-
The presence of dust introduces a serious practical difficulty denser cost may be very uneconomical in other respects. If a
into the operation of a multi-stage generator. It has been multi-stage circuit is used, for which the charging voltage is
shown that the available over-voltage is small and of short fixed, then at least twice as many stages are needed as the output
duration, so that both the second and subsequent gaps cannot voltage nominally demands.
be set to break down at a voltage much higher than that at With a given discharge resistance, the length of the wavetail
which the first gap breaks down. On the other hand, the dis- is proportional to the generator discharge capacitance plus the
persion of the breakdown values on direct voltages in the load capacitance, and if these are equal it will double on changing
presence of excessive dust may be so great that if the difference from no-load to full-load conditions. B.S. 923: 1940 permits a
in settings is small any one of the gaps may fail irregularly at variation of ± 2 0 % from the nominal value, so that, if the
less than the intended voltage; in a case within the authors' resistances give the correct wavetail at one-half of full load, the
164 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
wavetail will depart from this value by 33 % at full load and no
load. At least two sets of resistors will therefore be required,
and the length of the wavetail will be very sensitive to any
capacitance changes in the external circuit.
If the open-circuit output voltage is to be double the
required test voltage, the building will need to be big enough to
afford clearances in all directions for twice the test voltage.
As the ratio of generator capacitance to load capacitance is
increased, the required open-circuit voltage decreases and the
circuit characteristics become less and less dependent on the
external load. However, the gain is subject to the law of
diminishing returns, so that the conflicting technical, economic
and constructional requirements combine to make the optimum
capacitance ratio somewhere between 4 : 1 and 10 : 1 for a pure
capacitance load such as a bushing or a cable.
The V.D.E. rules of 1933 prescribed a minimum value of 5 : 1
for the ratio of generator capacitance to load capacitance (plus
all stray capacitances, including that of the measuring circuit),
and recommended several times this ratio at the lower voltages,
where the cost of the condensers would not be prohibitive.
In the 1939 revision these recommendations were omitted,
but both versions specify a minimum discharge capacitance
of 1 000 /-ijU-F, which would now seem extremely small for
any purpose. B.S. 923: 1940 follows the old V.D.E. rules in
laying down a minimum ratio of 5 : 1, but without qualification.
The problem of the selection of the optimum ratio is not
susceptible to exact mathematical analysis, as the sizes of the
available condensers change in fairly large steps and there are
many imponderables (such as the value—expressed in monetary
terms—of an increase in available test voltage) which make
precise calculations useless. Each particular case is therefore
best considered on its merits, but an approximate mathematical
treatment does yield some interesting results.
Let Cj — Discharge capacitance of generator.
C2 = Load capacitance.
V = Open-circuit output voltage of generator.
Vc — Crest value of initial voltage (assumed to be non-
oscillatory) applied to load.
Then
Table 3 has been compiled from eqn. (10) to show the effect inconvenient shape; it also requires an insulating supporting
of an increase in CXIC2 on the value of V.
Table 3
EFFECT OF RATIO CJC2 ON REQUIRED OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE,
V, OF IMPULSE GENERATOR
Successive Total reduction
Increase in C1/C2 reductions in V* in V*
1-2 0-50 0-50
2-3 0-17 0-67
3-4 008 0-75
4-5 005 0-80
5-6 003 0-83
6-10 007 • 0-90
10-CXD 010 100
• As a fraction of the crest value of the initial voltage, Vc.
Clearly, the successive reductions in V for successive equal nected in parallel at each stage. A 2 000-kV generator of this
increments of C{IC2 are becoming extremely small when Cj/C2 type is shown in Figs. 22 and 23.
exceeds 5, and in practice this ratio is rarely exceeded, since
C2 is the maximum load expected.
As a practical example may be mentioned the case of a stages in the form of a spiral, so that although with, say, four
generator which was to be capable of applying 1 500 kV (Vc) columns each support has to withstand an impulse voltage of
to a load of 5 000//fiF (C2). The first suggestion, arising
from a knowledge of the largest size of condenser available,
was to construct a generator of 0 01 /xF (Cj) discharge capaci-
tance with an open-circuit output voltage of 2 400kV (V).
Charge-sharing and the voltage loss on the wavefront (of a
1/50-microsec wave) would have brought the load voltage down
to about the specified minimum. With the wavetail resistances
adjusted to produce a 50-microsec tail with a load of 2 500 fx/xF,
the wavetails at zero and full load would have been just within
the tolerated limits.
Unfortunately, the building was not quite high enough to
house this unit, and so the stage capacitance was increased by
50% and the number of stages reduced by 15%; the discharge
capacitance was thus increased by 75% and the same output
voltage was obtained on load. The energy-storage capacity
of the generator was increased by 30%, but the saving in acces-
sories due to the reduced number of stages and—much more
important—saving in the necessary clearances caused by the
reduction both in the height of the generator and in the voltage
for which the clearance to the roof was required, tended to
offset the extra cost. Clearances to the walls were also pro-
portionately reduced.
If, in this example, the stage capacitance had been increased
by 100% instead of 50%, with a reduction of 20% in the number
of stages, the discharge capacitance would have been increased
by 150% instead of 75% and the energy-storage capacity by
60% instead of 30%. The cost of the second increase would
have been greater than that of the first, but the additional
saving in height would have been only one-third of the first
saving. Actually, the first increase was sufficient and the second
would not have been considered unless the only alternative had
been a major building operation, such as the digging of a large
pit in unsuitable ground in order to increase the sparking
distance to the roof.
(6.2) Effect of the Type of Condenser on Design
Three main types of condenser are used in the construction of
impulse generators. The first of these consists of hollow
cylinders of varnished paper with concentric metallic layers
(10) inserted at suitable intervals. This type, which is now rarely
used, has many disadvantages, including low working stress and
framework which is large and expensive.
Oil-impregnated condensers in metal tanks have a higher
working stress than those just mentioned, and can be made
weatherproof. They require an insulating framework, and have
the minor disadvantage that the voltage for which they can be
conveniently designed is rather low, so that two or more con-
densers must be connected in series for each stage. A number
of very large generators have been built on this principle.
Oil-impregnated condensers in insulating containers have the
dielectric assembled in an insulating cylindrical container of
porcelain or varnished paper with plane metal end-plates;
they are usually designed to operate in the vertical position.
The advantage of this form of construction is that the condensers
in successive stages can be readily insulated from one another
by supports of the same size as the condensers, but without the
dielectric. Fig. 20 shows the layout as well as the electrical
disposition of the components, which are arranged in two, four
or more columns according to the number of condensers con-
In a variant of this arrangement, advantage is taken of the
impulse ratio of flashover of the supports to assemble successive
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS
Fig. 2 2 . - 2 000-kV 0 01-juF 12-stage impulse generator.
Fig. 23.—Closer view of generator illustrated in Fig. 22.
165
three times the charging voltage, it can be made less than three
times as long as one support which has to withstand the d.c.
charging voltage. There is thus some economy in height, but
the simplicity of operation of the spark-gaps is lost.
Fins are sometimes provided on varnished-paper cylinders
and sheds on porcelain containers, in order to reduce the height
required for a given charging voltage.
If the charging voltage is low the condensers may be assembled
Fig. 24.—Small portable oil-immersed 400-kV 0-003-^F 2O-stage
impulse generator.
in one container in the manner shown in Fig. 24, the disposition
being arranged as shown in Fig. 12.
The influence of the design of the condenser on that of the
impulse generator has been discussed elsewhere.19
(7) AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
(7.1) Earthing Switch
It is essential that the generator should be fitted with a device
to earth the condensers when the equipment is not in active
operation. The device may take the form of a suitable switch-
arm which is operated mechanically or electrically, and may be
provided with signal lamps and interlocked with safety barriers
if this should be desirable. The switch arm is most conveniently
166 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
applied to the charging point of the impulse generator; all other
stages will then discharge through the various inter-stage
resistors.
During the operation of a generator it may be necessary in an
emergency to earth the equipment when the condensers are fully
charged. If this were effected with a short-circuiting switch of
the type mentioned, it would be equivalent to the sparking of
the lowest sphere-gap, which would cause all other gaps to
spark and so produce an unwanted impulse. This can be
avoided by inserting a suitable resistor, RE, in series with
the arm of the earthing switch, so that the time-constant,
R2{Cl + C2), of the circuit enclosed by the points T, Z and X
in Fig. 20, is small compared with RECE, where CE is the stray
capacitance to earth between the points Z and Y (including
that of the gap Gx). This ensures that the voltage drop along R2
(which is the voltage rise across the gap G2) is small. In practice,
C,, C3 and CE are all of the same order of magnitude, so that
the required condition is that RE shall be much greater than R2.
(7.2) Motor Operation of Spark-Gaps
A considerable improvement in operating convenience is given
by a remotely controlled motor which varies the setting of the
generator spark-gaps in conjunction with a remote indicator of
the setting. This principle should preferably be extended to all
the various controls, so that so far as possible all operations
and adjustments may be effected from a single panel. A full
description of the detailed mechanism of remote control and
indication is beyond the scope of the paper.
(8) TRIPPING OF THE IMPULSE GENERATOR
The simplest method of operating the impulse generator is to
allow it to "self trip." Thus, the lowest spark-gap is set to
flash over at a predetermined charging voltage, and the stages
are then charged until this occurs. The disadvantages of this
system are that the accuracy of the charging voltage is subject
to the vagaries of the first spark-gap, and that the instant of
discharge is not accurately predictable. The latter objection
also applies to a mechanical closure of the first spark-gap to
cause an impulse.
A simple electrical tripping circuit25-26 largely overcomes the
above-mentioned disadvantages and has proved convenient in
use. It employs a 3-electrode gap as the first spark-gap and
is so connected that the charging voltage is applied between the
outer electrodes. The central electrode may be earthed normally
by means of a high resistance or may be biased at some voltage
intermediate between those of the outer electrodes. The elec-
trode system is adjusted to withstand the required charging
voltage by a small margin, and tripping of the charged generator
is effected by applying an unbalancing voltage to the central
electrode. The tripping voltage may be a short pulse, in which
case the timing of the generator tripping is accurately controlled
by the pulse, or an alternating voltage may be applied to the
central electrode, when tripping will occur on or near the crest
of the alternating-voltage wave. By a suitably modified arrange-
ment,25 the tripping may be made to occur precisely on the wave
crest. Alternatively, the impulse may be synchronized with any
point of a voltage wave by the use of a phase-shift circuit in
the tripping supply. The simple 3-electrode gap may be replaced
by any other form of triggered gap, the tripping of the generator
being controlled in a similar manner.
(9) SYNCHRONIZATION OF THE OPERATION OF
OSCILLOGRAPH AND GENERATOR
When used with the impulse generator, the time-base of the
oscillograph must be triggered in accurate synchronism with the
generator discharge. The two methods of achieving this syn-
chronism are respectively designated as "controlled" and "uncon-
trolled" generator tripping. In the former method, the oscillo-
graph time-base circuit is tripped first and this causes a pulse
to be applied to the first gap of the generator, which is of the
3-electrode or triggered type. A short delay is introduced
between the initiation of the time-base and the application of
the pulse to the generator gap. Thus the cathode-ray beam
will have already traversed a small part of the screen or film
before the impulse reaches the deflection plates, so that the
initial changes of the impulse wave are clearly recorded.
The uncontrolled method may also be used with an oscillo-
graph, but the sequence of events is reversed. The generator is
first tripped or allowed to fire and the oscillograph time-base is
initiated by means of a pick-up aerial from the electrical dis-
turbance so produced. In order to obtain the requisite delay
for a complete record of the impulse wave, the voltage to be
recorded is conducted to the oscillograph by a delay cable
(100 m of air-insulated cable will give a delay of 0-3 microsec,
which is usually sufficient to allow the cathode-ray beam to
commence its time-sweep). The delay cable and the potential
divider form a unit and must be considered together, as the
presence of a long delay-cable imposes a lower limit on the
potential-divider ratio which may be used without introducing
undue errors in the response of the divider. This limitation is
largely obviated if controlled tripping is used, as the cable
between the potential divider and the oscillograph is then of
low capacitance.
In general, it is found that with uncontrolled generator
tripping the oscillograph may be operated with very simple
auxiliary tripping circuits, but a long cable is required having
low loss and low attenuation. Controlled tripping obviates the
need for a long cable, but the auxiliary circuits are more complex.
(10) IMPULSE VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
(10.1) Sphere-Gap
The sphere-gap is a recognized means of measuring the output
voltage of an impulse generator, and the conditions of its use are
specified in B.S. 368: 1939, which states that the accuracy of
measurement is within db 3 %, provided that the duration of the
impulse voltage is not less than that of a 1/5-microsec wave.
The sphere-gap is connected across the output of the generator
circuit and directly in parallel with the test apparatus. A
resistor should not be used in series with the sphere-gap, as the
capacitance of the latter modifies the waveshape of the voltage
between the spheres, and this leads to further inaccuracies in
the measurement. The impulse sparks usually produce only
minor damage to the sphere-faces.
The sphere-gap measures the peak voltage of the impulse wave
and probably includes the superimposed oscillations if these
should be present. It is possible, however, that such oscillations
would have a different quantitative effect in flashing-over or
breaking-down other types of air-gap and other types of insula-
tion, and it is for this reason that the presence of superimposed
oscillations is undesirable.
(10.2) Cathode-Ray Oscillograph and Potential Divider
The single-sweep cathode-ray oscillograph is the most satis-
factory means of examining the shape of an impulse wave;
it may be used to obtain visual or photographic records of the
wave-trace, and the amplitude of the wave may be determined
by direct measurement on the screen or on a record.
The oscillograph is usually constructed to record amplitudes
of a few hundred volts only, and it is necessary to use a potential
divider to reduce the voltage of the impulse wave. The divider,
 DESIGN OF HIGH-VOLTAGE IMPULSE GENERATORS 167
which may be of the simple capacitance or resistance type or a 120
combination of the two, has been described in principle at
various times.27-28 For most impulse testing, a simple capaci-
tance-type potential divider has proved quite satisfactory and \
-C 100 x
has the advantage of providing a basic capacitance load on the \ \ Resistor
generator. This facilitates tests on specimens having a wide
range of capacitance, by reducing the variation required in the
<
80 \?
circuit parameters to maintain a standard waveshape. o0
An oscillograph has been constructed to measure moderately
high impulse-voltages directly without a potential divider.29 This 60
instrument was provided with a pair of low-voltage deflection :?L.
plates and could be used in conjunction with a potential divider, A<vndB
-•4
which permitted it to be employed in an investigation of the 40
response of a potential divider to impulse voltages of short
duration.
(11) EXAMPLE OF TESTING TECHNIQUE 20
(11.1) Impulse Flashover Tests on a Carbon-Type Resistor
Some tests were carried out to demonstrate the suitability of
carbon-composition-type resistance units for use as series 00 2 4 6 8
resistors on an impulse generator. The particular applica- Nominal wavetail duration, fj.s
tion in view called for a series resistance of about 30 ohms per
stage of the generator, with a stage capacitance of 0-23 fiF and Fig. 25.—Impulse flashover of carbon-type resistors.
a maximum charging voltage of 167 kV per stage. Thus, the Flashover voltages.
series resistor would have to withstand a maximum voltage and Starting voltages of streamers.
Resistors A and B .. . . 20 ohms, 10 in long.
energy of discharge corresponding to these values, on the assump- Resistor C 10 ohms, 8 in long.
tion that the resistance and the internal stage inductance formed
the only impedances of each stage circuit. If the inductance
were neglected, the resulting discharge wave would have a wave-
tail of about 5 microsec, and the tests described below were
conducted with wavetails of this order of length.
The carbon resistors were supplied in units, each about 8 or
10 in long and of 1-in diameter, with a nominal resistance of about
10 or 20 ohms per unit. An impulse generator having a normal
stage capacitance of 0-11/uF and no internal series resistors
was used. This was connected to operate as a 3-stage generator
with a series discharge-capacitance of 0 074 or 0-15/xF, by
connecting two or four of the normal stages, respectively, in Fig. 26.—Oscillograms showing modification of waveshape across
parallel to form single efFective stages for these tests. The test resistor A (see Fig. 25) caused by streamers as peak voltage is
resistor was then connected in series with a protective resistor raised.
directly across the output of the generator, the protective resistor Period of timing oscillation, 2 microsec.
being used to dissipate the energy of the generator if the test
sample flashed over. The test resistor was therefore subjected should be noted as the sparking became more severe at the
to a proportion of the total generator energy and output voltage, higher voltages.
and this proportion could be varied by changing the value of In Fig. 25, the full lines show the flashover voltages and the
the protective resistor. A cathode-ray oscillograph was used dotted lines the starting voltage for streamers, and it will be
in conjunction with a capacitance-type potential divider across seen that the streamers were first observed at a voltage which
the test resistor. was substantially constant irrespective of the nominal duration
It was found that the circuit inductance caused an appreciable of the wavetail. In addition, the short resistor C gave values
voltage drop and modified the waveshape of the voltage applied nearly equal to the values for the longer resistors A and B.
to the resistor. A similar effect is to be expected with any Complete flashover did not occur until the voltage across
generator, however, and tends to reduce the voltage across an A and B was increased considerably. The voltage gradient
internal series resistor. For comparative purposes, the induc- for each resistor was only about 6-8 kV (peak) per inch of
tance was neglected in the calculation of the nominal duration of length for complete flashover with the longer wavetails. These
the wavetail. low values are not uncommon with low-resistance resistors of
Impulses were applied to each resistor and the voltage was this type. The difference between A and B was perhaps due to
progressively increased until flashover occurred. It was noted the different shapes of their metallized end-caps.
that streamer discharges occurred across parts of each sample These tests demonstrated that the carbon-type resistors would
at voltages below the flashover value. The results are plotted be suitable for the series resistor of an impulse generator, pro-
in Fig. 25 with the measured peak voltages across the test vided that the voltage gradient along the resistor did not exceed
resistor as ordinates and the calculated wavetail durations as the value at which streamers started.
abscissae. The voltages were measured from oscillograms, an On account of the circuit inductance, the peak voltage which
example of which is shown in Fig. 26, which was determined would appear across such a resistor would be less than the stage
when negative impulse waves of 35, 48, 62, 67, 73 and 81-kV charging-voltage. The relationship between these two voltages
amplitude were applied to the resistor A. Surface streamers or was established approximately from the measurements made
sparks first occurred at 62 kV, and the change in waveshape during the preceding tests, and, as the circuit loops and generator
168 EDWARDS, HUSBANDS AND PERRY: THE DEVELOPMENT AND
dimensions were similar in the experimental arrangements and (9) MARX, E.: "Versuche iiber die Priifung von Isolatoren mit
in those occurring in practice, this information provided a Spannungsstossen," Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1924,
further guide to the conditions under which the resistor would 45, p. 652.
operate. (10) MARX, E.: "Die Erzeugung und Messung der verschie-
denartigen Spannungen. IV Spannungsstoss," Mit-
(12) CONCLUSIONS teilungen der Hermsdorf-Schomburg-Isolatoren G.m.b.H.,
It is shown that for the standard waveshape (1/50 microsec), 1925, 17, p. 466.
the quartic equation for the impulse generator and load circuit (11) British Patent No. 344862. B. L. GOODLET,
can be simplified to a quadratic without great loss of accuracy. (12) PEEK, F. W.: "Dielectric Phenomena in High-Voltage
The evolution of the multi-stage circuit from the original ideas Engineering" (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1929),
of Marx has progressed to a point where impulse voltage p. 145.
generators can now be designed to meet any load conditions (13) MINER, D. F.: "Surge Generating Equipment," Electric
likely to occur in practice. Journal, 1926, 23, p. 596.
It is shown that stray capacitance and other parameters play (14) MINER, D. F.: "Insulation of Electrical Apparatus"
an important role in the operation of an impulse generator. (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1941), p. 383.
The effect of dust on the performance of impulse generators (15) MARX, E.: "Hochspannungspraktikum" (Julius Springer,
is mentioned, and a method of avoiding trouble due to this cause Berlin, 1941).
is suggested, whilst the importance of adequate irradiation of (16) BOUWERS, A.: "Elektrische Hochspannungen" (Julius
the sphere-gaps is emphasized. It is also shown that the design Springer, Berlin, 1941).
of an impulse generator must be considered in conjunction with (17) ACKERMANN, O.: "New Surge Generator for Testing
that of the building. Transformers," Electric Journal, 1932, 29, p. 61.
To illustrate the versatility of the modern multi-stage generator, (18) ELSNER, R.: "Production of Standard Wave-forms in Surge
an example is given of testing in which the test object is a type Generators," Fachberichte des Verbandes Deutscher
of resistor used in impulse-generator circuits. Ingenieure, 1936, 8, p. 159.
(19) EDWARDS, F. S.: "Recent Developments in High-Voltage
Impulse Generators," C.I.G.R.fi., Paris, 1939, Paper
(13) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No. 305.
The authors wish to thank Sir Arthur P. M. Fleming, Director (20) British Patent No. 498021. F. S. EDWARDS and G. J.
of Research and Education, and Mr. B. G. Churcher, Manager SCOLES, 1937.
of the Research Department, the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical (21) NEWMAN, M., and KEMPPAINEN, O.: "High-Voltage Installa-
Co. Ltd., for permission to publish the paper. tion of the Precipitation-Static Project," Proceedings of
the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1946, 34, p. 247.
(22) FOUST, C. M., KUEHNI, H. P., and ROHATS, N.: "Impulse
(14) BIBLIOGRAPHY Testing Technique," General Electric Review, 1932,
(1) "Surge Phenomena," E.R.A. Report Ref. S/T35. 35, p. 358.
(2) ALLIBONE, T. E., and PERRY, F. R.: "Standardization of (23) "Surge Generators," Micafil News, December 1939, p. 21.
Impulse-Voltage Testing," Journal I.E.E., 1936,78, p. 257. (24) MEEK, J. M.: "The Influence of Irradiation on the Measure-
(3) GOODLET, B. L.: "Electromagnetic Phenomena in High- ment of Impulse Voltages with Sphere-Gaps," Journal
Voltage Testing Equipment," ibid., 1934, 74, p. 377. I.E.E., 1946, 93, Part II, p. 97.
(4) THOMASON, J. L.: "Impulse Generator Circuit Formulas," (25) EDWARDS, F. S., and SCOLES, G. J.: "A 2 000 kV Impulse
Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1934, 53, p. 169. Generator," Engineering, 1937, 144, p. 222.
(5) Deutsches Reichspatent No. 455933. E. MARX, 1923. (26) WHITE, E. L.: "A Tripping Circuit for a Multi-Stage Gene-
(6) GRt)NEWALD, F.: "Das Verhalten der Freileitungs-Isola- rator," Journal of Scientific Instruments, 1948, 25, p. 307.
toren unter der Einwirkung hochfrequenter Span- (27) BURCH, F. P.: "On Potential Dividers for Cathode-Ray
nungen," Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1921, 42, p. 1377. Oscillographs," Physical Magazine, 1932, 13, p. 760.
(7) PEEK, F. W.: "The Effects of Transient Voltages on Dielec- (28) DAVIS, R.: "The Calibration of Sphere-Gaps with Impulse
trics—III," Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1923, 42, Voltages," Journal I.E.E., 1938, 82, p. 645.
p. 940. (29) NUTTALL, A. K.: "A Cathode-Ray Oscillograph for the
(8) GOODLET, B. L.: "The Testing of Porcelain Insulators," Direct Measurement of High-Voltage Transients," ibid.,
Journal I.E.E., 1929, 67, p. 1177. 1936, 78, p. 229.

DISCUSSION BEFORE THE INSTITUTION, 11TH JANUARY, 1951

Mr. R. Davis: In principle, the surge generator is an extremely
simple piece of equipment. It consists of a charged capacitor
which, at an appropriate instant, discharges into an external
network of resistance, inductance and capacitance. The output
from the generator is applied to a load, which may be an insulator
string or a transformer winding, etc. Simple calculation can give
considerable guidance as to the waveshape of the voltage delivered
to the load when the latter can be represented by capacitance.
Thus, the natural period of the circuit consisting of a capacitor
discharging into a load capacitance is 2TT-\/LC where C is the
capacitance of the two capacitors in series and L is the inductance
of the whole circuit. The duration of the wavefront cannot be
less than one-quarter of this period. Such a circuit is rendered
aperiodic by series resistance equal to or greater than 2V(L/C),
and the duration of the surge or the time above half-value can be
determined by considering the circuit as a charged condenser of
capacitance equal to the sum of the generator and load capaci-
tances discharging through a resistor, R, and therefore having a
time-constant of CR. The operational methods of Heaviside are
admirably suited to the carrying out of the necessary calculations.
The complication of exact calculations is illustrated by the authors
—a complication enormously increased if attempts are made to
analyse the multi-stage generator circuit, with its many degrees
of freedom, coupled with the difficulty of assigning precise values
to many of the parameters such as stray capacitance to earth at
different points in the circuit. Simple calculations such as those