Power Factor Testing in Transformer Condition
Assessment - Is There a Better Way?
Alex Rojas, Member, IEEE
Abstract- Condition assessment of transformer core-coil as-
sembly, at the factory or in the field, includes one fundamental
test: insulation Power Factor (also known as Dissipation Factor or
Tan Delta). Although this test can be performed with decades old
technology, users have voiced their need for safer, faster, and more
portable test devices. This need calls for a review of what makes
older test equipment operate at higher voltages and currents. The
geometric and material properties examined when performing
such tests is discussed. Why the need for higher test voltages when
measuring insulation power factor: is it interference mitigation
or true material condition assessment? Modern high-power elec-
troniks and microprocessor controllers offer alternative methods
for packaging test instruments while maintaining accuracy, and
improving safety, speed and convenience.
Index Terms -- AC Test, Capacitance, Dielectric, Dissipation
Factor, Field Test, IGBT, Insulation, Power Factor, Noise,
Transformer.
I. INTRODUCTION
D emand for methods and instrumentation to determine the
condition of insulating components, assembled into
power apparatus, came with the vast expansion of electrical
power systems during the first half of the twentieth century.
Insulation failures prompted the industry to develop and
implement maintenance programs. The electrical industry was
on a steep learning curve and system voltage such as 110 kV
were considered very high at that time [1]. As it is today, early
testing methods and instruments were meant to assess the
condition of the insulation system at the time of testing.
Further efforts were made to predict the service life of
equipment based on collected data. However, electricity was a
relatively new field at that time and long term deterioration of
insulation was less well understood.
Chronologically, DC insulation test instruments were
employed first. Then and now, test sets measured insulation
resistance in MEGOHMS and were/are typically conducted at
higher voltage levels on equipment that was designed to
operate at higher potentials. One marked difference versus
subsequent AC test methods is that voltage stress is distributed
distinctively. When applying a DC voltage across the
terminals of the equipment under evaluation gradients
developing within its assembly are distributed according to the
Alex Rojas is with Megger, Dallas, TX 75237 USA (e-mail:
alex.rojasamegger.com).
1-4244-0288-3/06/$20.00 (©2006 IEEE
localized insulation resistance. Conversely, when utilizing
AC, gradients are distributed according to another
material/geometric property - namely capacitance.
The second method, an AC test, was typically referred to
as the measurement of "Capacitance and Power Factor"
(C&PF) in North America and as "Capacitance and
Dissipation Factor" (C&DF) in Europe. To this date,
specialists argue about the value of each test, DC vs. AC,
which provides more information, and which is more useful in
forecasting the life of electrical insulation.
At the factory, fully assembled transformers are tested for
compliance to previously determined performance levels.
Most end-users refer to domestic or internationally accepted
standards/guides (i.e. ANSI, IEC, NMX, etc.) to communicate
their specific factory test requirements and performance
levels. In defining tests for medium/large power transformers,
many users make exceptions to standard test levels and
procedures in order to fit their custom design requirements.
Once in the field, acceptance tests are performed prior to
putting the power transformer into service. These are
principally done to determine if damage in shipping has
occurred and to confirm proper reassembly of some
components taken out for shipping. Another very valuable
product of initial field testing is that base line results will
provide the best yardstick for determining the transformer's
future condition. Further, this initial assessment is being
conducted under field conditions and using similar test
equipment that will be utilized in subsequent testing.
Numerous field test protocols are observed in determining
the condition of the material and geometry in the transformer
dielectric and conductive (electrode) components. Test
programs include all or part of the following: winding and
bushing power factor, leakage reactance, winding turns ratio,
winding resistance, core excitation current, core loss and
excitation power factor, core ground, Sweep Frequency
Response Analysis, and more.
The remainder of this document focuses on arguably the
most widely performed transformer condition assessment field
test: Capacitance and Power Factor (C&PF).
 2

II. TEST SPECIMEN PROPERTIES
C&PF testing of electrical insulation has been embraced by
many in the insulation field as it provides information on the
dielectric constant of the insulating materials as well as the
dielectric losses. The dielectric constant is an intrinsic material
property that influences the capacitance between two
electrodes at different potential. In turn, the capacitance
influences the voltage gradient distribution within assembly
components. Uneven concentration of high voltage gradients
in the insulation, typically measured in kV/mm, contributes to
increased dielectric power loss where the gradient is higher.
In turn, higher power loss heats the insulation. Localized hot
spots may develop which start deteriorating the insulation that
would eventually lead to dielectric failure.
For example, one of the byproducts of insulation
decomposition is water. As water content in the insulation
increases, so does its power loss (Watts). The detection and
removal of moisture from equipment is very important, as the
presence of moisture causes the insulation to deteriorate faster.
As a transformer with a 2.5% moisture content ages ten times
faster than the transformer at 0.25% moisture, it is imperative
to detect and rectify such a situation [1].
In practical terms, a C&PF test instrument sees a two
winding transformer as if it were a three terminal capacitor
illustrated in figure 1. The "H" electrode represents all HV
conducting components (three windings tied together in three-
phase equipment). Likewise, the "L" electrode represents all
LV conducting components. The transformer tank, typically
grounded, is represented by the electrode "G".
ammeter. The power factor definition in equation (1) applies
equally in power delivery to electric loads, as it does to
insulation systems. However, optimum operating points are at
opposite positions. When designing/operating power delivery
systems, we strive for maintaining the PF closest to unity.
Whereas, when designing/operating insulation systems we
target a number closest to zero.
Figure 2 helps visualize the current vector which develops
from applying the above described test voltage V. The current
taken by an ideal capacitor (no losses, Ir = 0) is purely
capacitive, thus leading the voltage by 900 (0 = 900). In
practice, no insulation is perfect but has a certain amount of
loss, and the total current I leads the voltage by a phase angle
0 (0< 900). Some find it more convenient to use the dielectric-
loss angle 6, where 6 = (900 - 0). For low power factor
insulation Ic and I are approximately the same magnitude
since the loss component Ir is very small.
Basic trigonometry yields the following relationships:
Power Factor = cos 0 Ir (2)
I
and the dissipation factor is defined as:
Dissipation Factor = tan 5 Ir (3)
Ic
Z

mI
W

I 0

Fig. 2. Test Current Components

I

Power factor is particularly recommended for detecting

moisture and other loss-producing contaminants in
Fig. 1. Transformer Without Tertiary Windings transformer windings and bushings. Some argue that the
power-factor test is more revealing than the DC insulation-
In the simplest terms, power factor expresses the ratio of
resistance test when there is a high-loss dielectric in series (as
values obtained from applying AC voltage across any in a transformer winding surrounded by oil), and is less
capacitor equivalent component illustrated above: influenced by surface leakage components. Other users have
Power Factor Watts absorbed in insulation reported cases where high-power-factor readings indicated
Applied Voltage x Charging Current moisture in the windings, while the oil dielectric tests were up
to standard [2].
Therefore, it is not surprising that early instirument Oil-paper insulation systems exhibit flat capacitance and
configurations for conducting this test were made up of a set loss curve with respect to test voltage. Thus, measurements at
of the following components: wattmeter, voltmeter and voltages lower than rated could be readily used to represent

the insulation characteristics at rated voltage. Dry-type
insulation, however, exhibits an increase in power factor
values within 2.5 kV and 10 kV. Motors, generators or
smaller transformers with dry assemblies, have been typically
tested at several voltages in order to determine the tip-up for
the insulation. Such tip-up may be at 100%, 50% and 25% of
the phase-to-phase voltage, or 100%, 50% and 25% of rated
phase voltage.
III. TEST INSTRUMENTATION AND TECHNIQUES
Realizing the benefits of C&PF testing, field test
instrumentation and techniques operating at lower voltages
were devised. Early on, a test voltage of 2.5 kV was used. The
selection of such test voltage was justified by two criteria:
* It was sufficiently high to provide an acceptable signal-
to-noise ratio in (then) typical field applications.
* The typical insulation to be tested was an oil-paper
assembly.
Traced back to 1915, the classical instrument circuit
configuration for performing C&PF testing is the Schering
Bridge with a null detector. Today, it continues to be
manufactured by various companies, but due to operating
limitations; it is primarily used in standards and test
laboratories. A notable variation from the basic configuration
is the "Inverted Schering Bridge" which was cleverly
packaged for commercialization using the capacitance
between the grounded case and the bridge assembly as the
reference capacitor.
The next worthy happening was the invention of the
"transformer ratio arm bridge" (TRAB). This circuit measures
capacitance (C) and dissipation factor (DF). The bridge is
useful only at one frequency and its readout is equivalent to
the series connected RC circuit. The loss (W) needs to be
calculated from F, C & DF.
The latter end of the twentieth century brought with it
important developments in analog as well as digital
measurement technologies. These technologies made it
possible for a variety of test set configurations to be realized.
One such a configuration is the combination of a bridge circuit
with readout of the residual value. Another configuration is
that of a voltmeter-ammeter-wattmeter (VAW) using digital
and DSP technology. Such technology has been very
effective especially when combined with test frequencies
other than the power frequency.
IV. TEST VOLTAGE EVOLUTION
As the electric power transmission and distribution industry
evolved it increased system operating voltages to transmit
more power. Operators managed to keep line losses as low as
possible by keeping line currents at acceptable levels, while
transmitting larger amounts of power at higher voltages. This
new field test environment brought on a new challenge to test
instrumentation manufacturers: immunity to electrostatic
interference. Consequently, the 2.5 kV test level was
increased to 10 kV in order to provide an acceptable signal-to-
3
noise ratio. Some went even further to device test sequences
where 1OkV is applied at frequencies other than the
fundamental 60 or 50 Hz. One of these methods initially
applies test voltage at lower than power frequency; to
overcome the frequency bias, a second test is performed at
higher than power frequency. The test result is the average of
both. Still another approach uses a modulated test voltage,
avoiding the power frequency by producing test voltage with
two frequency components - one above and another below the
power frequency.
Today, a classic application for lower test voltage power
factor test instruments is in the drying-out process at
manufacturing operations. The transformer is heated under
partial vacuum conditions to vaporize and remove moisture
from the insulating material (see figure 3). Outputting a test
voltage of approximately 28 Volts the instrument is connected
to the transformer during this process. The power factor of
core and coil assembly drops as the paper dries out (typically
from 30% to 0.5%). The power factor reading from the
instrument is used to determine when to terminate the process.
Proper insulation condition monitoring is accomplished
without complicating the process to make provisions for high
voltage testing.
Fig. 3. Core & Coil Assembly at Dry-Out Chamber
V. NEW INSTRUMENT DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
Since the driver for utilizing higher test voltages is to
attenuate the effect of conducted and emitted noise; future
work should focus on identifying contemporary noise
canceling techniques. The industry would benefit from novel
approaches to filter-out interference encountered in the field
(i.e. high voltage substations, manufacturing sites, etc.).
Traditional tools of harmonic analysis and cancellation
techniques are generally based on Fast Fourier Transforms
(FFT) which assume that only harmonics are present and the
periodicity intervals are fixed. However, periodicity intervals
in the presence of interharmonics are variable and very long
[5]. New signal analysis methods are being proposed to take
this characteristic into account.
Those instrument users wanting to test at higher voltages

may benefit from power electronics that would readily and
reliably control the magnitudes of their test voltage, current,
and frequency. Along with the rapid evolution of digital
signal processors (DSP) the power industry has seen an
evolution in high power switching devices that these DSP
devices would control. High-power semiconductors have
evolved from early thyristors, to gate turn off thyristors
(GTOs), gate commutated turn off thyristors (GCTs), and
more recently high/low voltage insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs) [3]. For example, High-voltage IGBT
semiconductor technology has matured and been embraced by
most in the electric power network industry and many in the
traction business [4]. Single-unit commercially available
voltage classes include 3.3 kV, 4.5 kV and 6.5 kV
components. Such offering provides test instrument power
electronics designers with new alternatives to package high-
voltage power supplies. Potential savings in assembly weight,
size and cost are very real. Future work would involve
identifying the best technology for packaging into portable
test instruments.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Capacitance and power factor testing of transformers has
been an integral part of condition assessment at the factory
and in the field for many decades. As electric grid voltages
increased, conducted and radiated noise in measurement
environments has posed a challenge for obtaining stable
readings. Capacitance and power factor measurements in
paper-oil insulation systems are independent of applied
voltage in the 28V and lOkV range. The implementation of
alternative noise-reduction techniques and modern high-power
electronics offer promising packaging improvements. The
continued implementation of these technologies, along with
evolving test methods, will lead to the improved safety, speed
and convenience of test instruments.
4
VII. REFERENCES
[1] Oleh Iwanusiw, "Capacitance and Power Factor testing of Electrical
Insulation", Application Note, August 2005.
[2] US Bureau of Reclamation, "Testing Solid Insulation of Electrical
Equipment", Volume 3-1, 2000
[3] Katsumi Satoh and Masanori Yamamoto, "The Present State of the Art
in High-Power Semiconductor Devices", Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol.
89, No. 6, June 2001.
[4] Sibylle Dieckerhoff, Steffen Bernet, "Power Loss-Oriented Evaluation
of High Voltage IGBTs and Multilevel Converters in Transformerless
Traction Applications", IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,pp.
1328-1336, Vol. 20, No. 6, November 2005
[5] Z. Leonowicz, T. Lobos, and Jacek Rezmer, "Advanced Spectrum
Estimation Methods for Signal Analysis in Power Electronics," IEEE
Transaction on Industrial Electronics, pp. 514-519, Vol. 50, No. 3, June
2003
[6] Oleh Iwanusiw, "Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance",
Application Note, May 2001.
VIII. BIOGRAPHY
Alex Rojas is a Senior Applications Engineer at
Megger. He supports internal and external
customers in the use of test instrumentation for
condition assessment of substation and distribution
equipment. He joined Megger in 2004 from Beacon
Power Corporation where he was Applications
Engineering Group Leader (manager) contributing
in the development and application of power quality
solutions for the utility and distributed generation
markets. From 1996 until 2001 he was an R&D
consulting engineer at ABB's US technology center in Raleigh, North
Carolina. At ABB he led projects ranging from applied research through
design and manufacturing implementation of new power distribution
equipment. His projects included long-term R&D assignments in Europe and
product launches throughout South/Central America. Prior to this role, he
served five years as design engineer at an ABB transformer design and
manufacturing facility which later became Waukesha Electric Systems. In
Waukesha he was responsible for the electrical, electromechanical, and
thermal design; as well as test program definition of oil-filled power
transformers. Mr. Rojas has an MSEE with highest honors from Michigan
Technological University (thesis topic: Dielectric Breakdown in Board/Oil
Interfaces), and a BSEE from The Ohio State University. Mr. Rojas is a
member of NETA and IEEE. Email: alex.rojasC&meggencom