CSE 022

Assessment of the Dielectric Type Test

Currently Applied on Mass-Impregnated
Non-Draining HVDC Cables

AUTHORS

M. RUNDE, Ø. HESTAD, N. MAGNUSSON, H. ENOKSEN

SINTEF Energy Research, Norway

Abstract
The technology and the operational patterns of HVDC links are changing, and
therefore, the type test requirements for mass-impregnated non-draining HVDC
cables are currently being reconsidered. A CIGRÉ working group is preparing a
revised type test recommendation. Measurements and numerical modelling (without
any connection to the CIGRÉ effort) of the of internal pressure, temperature and
electric eld distributions in mass-impregnated non-draining cables subjected to
different environmental and loading conditions have recently been carried out. With
basis in this work, it is discussed and assessed how well the loading cycle and
polarity reversal test duties applied in the existing type test re ect the stresses such
cables may experience in service. In particular, the potential risk associated with
formation of shrinkage cavities after load reduction is considered. Most of the
provisions in the existing type test are found to be appropriate and reasonable, but a
few possible improvements are proposed. Including a preconditioning procedure
prior to the load cycling duties could make the type test more realistic as it would
also include the contributions to the internal pressure from slow deformations of the
lead and polyethylene sheaths. Moreover, introducing load cycling duties with
currents beyond the rated load current and with shorter loading times (e.g., 0.5, 1 or
2 h) and at an intermediate ambient temperature (e.g., 20–30 °C) as a part of the
dielectric tests could qualify a mass-impregnated non-draining cable for temporary
overloading.

KEYWORDS

HVDC cables – Mass-impregnated non-draining cables – Type test – Cable insulation

1. Introduction

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The procedures and requirements currently applied for dielectric type testing of
mass-impregnated non-draining (MIND) HVDC power transmission cables are given
in CIGRÉ's Electra no. 189 issued in 2000 [1], and in an addendum in Electra no. 218
from 2005 [2]. Whether this type test still is appropriate and relevant is a matter of
discussion, mainly because: i) the technologies of HVDC links (both cables and
converter stations) are changing, ii) the operation patterns have become more
challenging with rapid and large load changes, and iii) the behaviour of the
insulation system of MIND cables is not yet fully understood. Against this
background, CIGRÉ established in 2018 Working Group B1.66 tasked with reviewing
these testing recommendations.

The insulation system of MIND cables is associated with certain peculiarities [3]. It
consists of two components—paper and high viscosity oil (often referred to as "mass")
—with very different thermal expansion and contraction. After large and rapid load
reductions and accompanying temperature drops in the cable, the mass contracts far
more than the paper, and if the pressure becomes suf ciently low, shrinkage cavities
or voids may form in the insulation. Such cavities are weak points, as they are prone
to partial discharging. The understanding of these phenomena is limited, but the
general perception is that under certain conditions the cavities may become so large
that the partial discharges are so powerful that they cause carbonization. This
process leads to permanent damages that gradually degrades the insulation.
Consequently, to verify that a MIND cable can handle rapid cool-downs the dielectric
type test includes extensive load cycling duties.

Obviously, the risk of having harmful shrinkage cavities is related to the internal
pressure in the insulation; more precisely when ambient and operating conditions
cause the pressure to stay at a very low level (close to vacuum) for an extended time.
The pressure levels and distribution throughout the insulation are in turn
determined by a multitude of cable design, operational and environmental factors.
To increase the knowledge and identify the critical parameters, extensive
experimental work on 4–5 m long samples of full-scale MIND cables has been carried
out recently [4–6]. Internal pressure and pressure dynamics in the insulation under
different ambient and loading conditions received much attention. Furthermore, as a
compliment to the measurements, a numerical model that reproduces the pressure
readings quite well has been developed [7]. The model also determines temperature
and electrical eld distributions in the insulation under dynamic conditions, which is
a far simpler task.

In the present work this numerical model is applied for the dielectric test duties of
the current type test that include load cycling. The quantitative information coming
out of such simulations provides new and additional perspectives concerning the
suitability of the type test. Temperature, electric eld, and internal pressure at the
innermost and outermost layers of the insulation during the two test duties that
involve load cycling will be presented. On this basis it is discussed and assessed how
well these parts of the type test re ects the stresses MIND HVDC cables may
experience in service. It is considered especially important to identify whether
changing operational conditions such as fast load up- and down-ramping, short-term
overloading, and rapid polarity reversal, are properly covered.

This work has been carried out without interaction with, or knowledge of the work
within the above mentioned WG B1.66.

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Initially, a brief overview of the three dielectric test duties is given, including
calculating and comparing the maximum electric elds generated during type
testing of a typical state-of-the-art MIND cable.

2. The Dielectric Test Duties of the "Electra no.

189" Type Test – An Overview
Before delving into the details of stresses and testing requirements, it is important to
recognize MIND HVDC subsea cables' excellent track record. Most failures in service
have been caused by external mechanical factors such as anchors and trawl doors.

This experience may — in our view — provide support for contradicting viewpoints
about the suitability of the current type test. On one hand, it can be maintained that
this demonstrates that the existing type test has served its purpose in an excellent
way and, therefore, should not be relaxed or changed. On the other hand, based on
the rarity of dielectric breakdowns seen in failure statistics, it could be claimed that
the type test probably is too severe and has caused excessive safety margins to be
built in, thereby not fully exploiting the power transmission capability of MIND
cables.

The dielectric part of the type test succeeds the mechanical test and consists of three
test duties: i) a loading cycle test, ii) a polarity reversal test, and iii) lightning impulse
/ voltage surge tests. Some of the test conditions and requirements are explicitly
listed in the Electra no.189, whereas other are deduced from cable ratings /
characteristics / properties agreed upon between the cable manufacturer and the
client. To be able to specify the parts of the dielectric type test considered here, the
following parameters must be declared:

Rated voltage U0
Rated current I0
Lightning impulse withstand voltage UP1
Switching surge withstand voltage UP2
Maximum rated operation temperature of the conductor
Minimum and maximum ambient temperature in the installation
Maximum temperature drops across the insulation and between the conductor
and ambient

Usually, the type test program is carried out for both the highest and lowest ambient
temperatures in the installation using two test objects (except for the lightning
impulse / voltage surge tests which are only done at the highest temperature of the
installation).

Under the loading cycle test and the polarity reversal test, Electra no. 189 explicitly
states that the test voltages should be 1.8U0 and 1.4U0, respectively. For the impulse
tests, in contrast, no speci c voltage levels are prescribed, and this must be agreed
upon between vendor and client. Typical values have been in the range 1.8–2.8U0,
with the higher values in older projects.

The maximum electric eld the insulation experiences during these tests does not
depend solely on the test voltage but is also a function of conductor temperature and
temperature gradients in the insulation. Moreover, an uneven space charge
distribution also contributes to the eld. Changing the load or the polarity causes the
space charges in the insulation to start moving, but this movement is slow,

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particularly at low temperatures. It takes a considerable time (several hours and
even days) before a space charge redistribution is completed. Some of the type test
duties include load and polarity changes that take place before the space charge
distribution has settled. Consequently, when determining the electric eld in the
insulation during a type test, the "dynamics" of the space charges also need to be
considered. In practice, numerical modelling must be applied.

Some ideas about the magnitude of the electric eld during type testing can,
however, be obtained by taking the simpler approach by assuming that stationary
conditions — both with regard to temperature and space charge distributions — have
been reached at each polarity or load change. By using this simpli ed method and
applying the dimensions and ratings for a typical modern 700 MW cable as an
example, the maximum eld is calculated for each of the three duties. Table I lists
the results. Einner and Eouter refer to the eld at the innermost and outermost part of
the 20 mm thick insulation layer, respectively. Egeo denotes the geometrical or
Laplacian eld, whereas Estat denotes the eld when stationary conditions have been
reached, i.e., after the space charge distribution has settled. Estat is calculated by an
iterative algorithm that accounts for the space charge distribution under the actual
temperature pro le in the insulation [8]. The conductor temperature is in the
calculations set to 20 and 55°C which corresponds to ambient temperatures of
approximately 5 and 40°C. An impulse test voltage of 2.2U0 and standard values for
the resistivity of the copper conductor and for the electrical conductivity of mass-
impregnated paper are used [3].

Table 1 - Maximum electric eld during the different test duties of the dielectric type test calculated for
a typical 1600 mm2 / 500 kV / 1400 A cable. A simpli ed model was used, assuming that stationary
conditions have been reached before load and polarity are changed.

In all duties of the dielectric type test, the maximum eld occurs in the innermost
part of the insulation.

The intrinsic dielectric strength of mass-impregnated paper insulation is typically in

the range 115–125 kV/mm [9]. With the simpli ed approach and the values used in
the calculations, the maximum electric elds of the three test duties become for this
cable approximately 50%, 55% and 75% of the intrinsic strength, with the impulse
testing creating by far the highest eld. The impulse/surge test voltage must be
lowered to around 1.6U0 for the maximum eld to become comparable with that of
the polarity reversal test.

For the sake of comparison: Immediately after energising a cable (that has not
carried current for a while) with rated voltage and rated current, the highest eld is
near the conductor and is for this cable design 34.6 kV/mm for all temperatures.

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When stationary conditions eventually are reached, the highest eld which is in the
outermost layers of the insulation becomes 28.6  kV/mm when the ambient
temperature is 40°C. In the innermost part, space charges have now reduced the
eld to 20.5  kV/mm. Hence, in "normal" service (i.e., without impulse/surge
overvoltages and without polarity reversals) this MIND cable will experience an
electric eld that is approximately 25% of the intrinsic dielectric strength of the
insulation. Immediately after polarity reversals the eld may reach 48.7 kV/mm or
40% of the intrinsic strength.

3. The Loading Cycle Test

3.1. Existing Test Duty

Fig. 1 illustrates the current and voltage applied during the loading cycle test.

Figure 1 - The loading cycle test (schematically)

The test consists of 10 load cycles (8 h at rated load + 16 h without load) at +1.8U0
and 10 cycles at -1.8U0. It is common to do this test at both the minimum and
maximum ambient temperatures for cable systems installed in areas with large
seasonal variations, typically at 5 °C and 35–40 °C, respectively.

After nishing the rst 10 load cycles and before starting the load cycles with the
opposite polarity, there should be a resting time of at least 8 h duration with no
current and voltage applied and with the conductor connected to the sheath.

3.2. Modelled Temperatures, Internal Pressures and

Electric Fields
The initial conditions used in the modelling assume that the cable has been stored at
22 °C before being placed in the ambient temperature prescribed by the type test,
here set to 5 and 40 °C, respectively. The cable is then kept (unloaded and
unenergized) at these temperature for 24 h before voltage is applied and the 1400-A
load cycling initiates.

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The temperatures in the innermost and outmost layers of the insulation are shown in
Fig. 2 for the two cases.

Figure 2 - Temperature near the conductor / in the innermost layers of the insulation (red) and under
the lead sheath / in the outermost layers of the insulation (blue) during load cycling at ambient
temperatures of 5°C and 40°C.

The modelling shows that the cable's thermal time constant is such that stationary
temperature conditions are reached during the 16-h load turn-off period, but not
during the 8-h loading part. Hence, the temperature pro les of all load cycles are
virtually identical. The temperature drop across the insulation (i.e., the difference
between the blue and red lines) becomes approximately 1.5 °C higher at 40 °C
ambient than at 5 °C. This is due to the somewhat higher conductor losses at the
higher temperature.

Figs. 3 and 4 show the amplitude (i.e., the absolute value) of the electric eld and
internal pressure in the innermost and outermost parts of the insulation for the two
ambient temperatures. Note that the scaling of the pressure axes differs greatly.

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Figure 3 - Pressure and electric eld (absolute value) in the insulation near the conductor (red) and
under the lead sheath (blue) during load cycling at an ambient temperature of 5°C.

Figure 4 - Pressure and electric eld (absolute value) in the insulation near the conductor (red) and
under the lead sheath (blue) during load cycling at an ambient temperature of 40°C.

The by far highest dielectric stresses in this duty occur immediately after energising
the cable in the rst and 11th cycles. In the 5°C case a considerable amount of space
charges is still present after the 8-h rest period after the 10th cycle, generating an
electric eld of around 11 and 7 kV/mm at innermost and outermost layers of the
insulation, respectively. When energizing with the opposite polarity at the start of the
11th cycle, this space charge eld adds to the eld generated by the applied voltage,
resulting in Einner peaking at more than 72 kV/mm. However, extending the rest
period between the 10th and 11th cycle — which the CIGRE type test permits — makes
it possible to avoid this additional contribution to the eld also for the cold ambient
duty.

For the remaining part, the absolute value of the eld remains approximately
between 40 and 50 kV/mm in both cold and warm ambient, but the location of the
highest stressed area alters, sometimes being the innermost and other times the

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outermost insulation layers.

The difference in thermal expansion between mass and paper causes the internal
pressure in a MIND cable to vary greatly with temperature. At high temperatures the
mass expands and increases the pressure, at low temperature it contracts, and the
pressure drops. Both the mass and the paper have been carefully degassed during
the cable manufacturing so the gas pressure inside shrinkage cavities and in the
surrounding mass-impregnated paper may come down to very low levels. At a
certain intermediate temperature, here referred to as the "full-impregnation
temperature", the volume of the mass is exactly suf cient to impregnate the paper.
Then no cavities exist, and the internal pressure in the cable equals the ambient
atmospheric pressure. The full-impregnation temperature is mainly determined by
the manufacturing process but may not be precisely known. Moreover, the
viscoelastic behaviour of the outer sheaths (see Section 5.4) complicates matters
further, causing the full-impregnation temperature to change somewhat, depending
on the loading and ambient conditions the cable has been exposed to earlier.  

When modelling internal pressures, the full-impregnation temperature is a

parameter that must be set as an initial condition. It turns out — as expected — that if
the average temperature in the insulation is near the full-impregnation temperature,
the calculated pressures are very sensitive to the value selected for this parameter.
For the current modelling work, the full-impregnation temperature is — somewhat
subjectively and based on experience from extensive laboratory measurements of
the internal pressure dynamics in MIND cables [4–6] — set to 10°C. This implies that
pressure calculations for the loading part of the cycles in a 5°C ambient (where the
average temperature in the insulation reaches around 12°C) are less trustworthy
than after load turn-offs and during of the load cycling at 40°C.

Changing the ambient temperature from its initial value of 22°C to 5°C or to 40°C,
leads to large changes in the internal pressure even before the current cycling starts,
see Figs. 3 and 4. In the cold ambient case the internal pressure drops to well below
atmospheric and remains so throughout the loading cycle test duty. The low valued
found in the innermost part of the insulation suggests that cavities may form here in
the cooling part of every cycle. Under the lead sheath the pressure is a little higher,
but the small pressure difference across the insulation combined with the high
viscosity of the mass at such low temperatures virtually prevent radial mass ow.

This contributes to that the pressure under the lead sheath remains higher than in
the conductor also during the loading part of the cycles, even though the
temperature near the conductor becomes up to around 10°C higher. A second
contributing factor is that the external 1 bar atmospheric pressure, which
throughout the load cycles at 5°C is higher than the internal pressure in the cable
insulation, exerts a compressive force on the cable and apparently in uences (i.e.,
slightly increases) the pressure immediately under the lead sheath but not as far in
as the conductor. Measurements of pressures at both sides of the insulation during
load cycling at low temperature have demonstrated that the pressure can be lower
near the warm conductor than in the colder parts under the lead sheath [6].

Initially rising the ambient temperature to 40°C increases the internal pressure to
more than 32 bar near the conductor and to around 18 bar under the lead sheath,
see Fig. 4. The considerable pressure gradient causes a radial mass ow, and after 24
h when the load cycling starts, the gradient has disappeared. Applying load—and
thereby generating heat in the conductor and a temperature gradient in the
insulation—again brings the pressure up. In the subsequent load cycles the

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amplitudes of the pressure uctuations remain large and considerably greater near
the conductor than under the lead sheath. After 6–7 load cycles or 150 h the
pressure in the innermost part of the insulation drops to virtually zero just after load
turn-offs, suggesting that cavities may form. However, compared to the 5°C case, the
pressure stays at such a level for a much shorter time. This is consistent with the
general experience that cavity-induced breakdowns are more common during the
loading cycle test at low temperatures than at high.

4. The polarity Reversal Test

4.1. Existing Test Duty

The current and voltage applied during the polarity reversal test are shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5 - The polarity reversal test (schematically)

Also in this case 8 h on / 16 h off load cycles are employed, both in warm and cold
ambient (typically 5°C and 35–40°C). At each ambient temperature 10 load cycles
are carried out. The applied voltage is ±1.4U0, and the polarity is reversed every 4 h,
synchronized with the load cycles as shown in the Fig. 5. The recommended duration
for the polarity reversal is 2 min.

4.2.  Modelled Temperatures, Internal Pressures and

Electric Fields
The electric eld and pressure close to the conductor and under the lead sheath for
ambient temperatures of 5°C and 40°C are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The electric eld
distribution is essentially the same in all ten load cycles, so only two cycles are
included in each gure. (Obviously, the temperature and the pressure pro les
become the same as in the loading cycle test duty presented earlier, see Figs. 2–4.)

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Figure 6 - Pressure and electric eld in the insulation near the conductor (red) and under the lead
sheath (blue) during the rst two load cycles of the polarity reversal test at 5°C ambient

Figure 7 - Pressure and electric eld in the insulation near the conductor (red) and under the lead
sheath (blue) during the last two load cycles of the polarity reversal test at 40°C ambient

The starts and stops of the current loading parts of the cycles are easily visible as
pressure rises and drops near the conductor (broken red line) whereas changing
polarity appear as instantaneous changes in the electric eld (solid lines).

The highest elds occur immediately after the polarity reversals, with maximum
values of approximately 60 and 56 kV/mm in 5°C and 40°C ambient, respectively. For
most of the time during this test duty the maximum eld is much lower than this, in
the range 40-50 kV/mm in cold ambient and 35-40 kV/mm in the warm ambient.

The temperature dependency of the space charge redistribution is evident when

comparing how fast the elds change in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. The eld returns much
faster towards its steady-state eld when the polarity reversal is done on a cable that
has been loaded for four hours in a 40°C ambient than after having been unloaded
for 12 h at 5°C. This difference is especially visible for the eld near the conductor

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where the temperatures change the most. Within some 20 min after a polarity
reversal in the loaded / 40°C case, the space charges have moved to such an extent
that the eld in the innermost layers of the insulation is reduced by approximately
50%, (see, for example, after 244 h in Fig. 7). In the four hours after a polarity
reversal during the unloaded / 5°C case, the electric eld at the innermost layers of
the insulation is, in contrast, reduced by a mere 6% (see, for example, after 44 h in
Fig. 6).

5. Stresses in Service vs. Type Test

Requirements
Various aspects of MIND cable operation and ambient conditions that are assumed to
be potentially harmful to the integrity of the insulation system will now be reviewed.
With basis in the general service experience as well as results from the recent
experimental and modelling work, it will be assessed how well the type test re ects
the stresses MIND cable may experience in normal service. One phenomenon /
property / stress type is considered at a time. Concluding comments and
recommendations are given in italic, usually at the end of each section.

5.1. Thermal and Electrical Aging of the Insulation

Material aging caused by thermal and electrical stress is typically simulated by
applying a test voltage that is higher than the service voltage for a short time,
U = K·U . The factor K is deduced from so-called V-t characteristics for the
test 0
considered material under the assumption that the lifetime t at a voltage V follows
the inverse power law:

V −n ·t = constant .                      (1)

The inverse power law gives a relationship between test voltage and test duration,
and rated voltage and lifetime (both U and V here denote voltage):

U test n t design lif e

K= = .                           (2)
U0 t test

This approach requires knowledge of the exponent n, which needs to be determined

empirically from endurance tests. Reliable information about n for mass-
impregnated paper subjected to DC stress is, however, not available. It should also be
emphasized that applying the inverse power law for modelling of DC-aging of mass-
impregnated paper is weakly founded, not based on solid experimental evidence. 

Still, Jeroense has used this approach and has by considering dielectric test levels
and results from a dissection of a MIND HVDC subsea cable after 30 years of service
suggested that n is at least 9.5 [10].

Using n = 9.5, setting the design life to 50 years, the duration of the loading cycle and
polarity reversal tests to 500 h and 100 h, respectively (considering that in the
polarity reversal test, the highest stress only occurs in a part of the testing time),

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give Kload  cycl = 1.9 and Kpol rev = 2.25. It is here assumed that each test duty
"consumes" 25 years, i.e., half of the lifetime. (It is a requirement of Electra no. 189
that the two tests should be carried out sequentially on the same object.)

The numerical modelling shows the maximum eld during the loading cycle test of
the MIND cable considered stays at around 50 kV/mm, and for the polarity reversal
test is around 60 kV/mm. As pointed out earlier, the highest eld under stationary
conditions at rated current and voltage is 29 kV/mm. This implies that during these
test duties the elds are 1.7 and 2.1 times higher, and thus below the levels of 1.9
and 2.25 that are estimated to simulate a full lifetime. In other words, the voltage
and the duration of these type test duties are below what the inverse power law
approach and n = 9.5 specify for simulating 50  years of material aging at rated
voltage. Results from cable dissections following a successful type test support this
assertion. Typically, no severe carbonization or other traces of material degradation
are found.

On the other hand, to our knowledge no rm and credible observations of material

aging and/or increased failure rates have been made on MIND cables, even after
several decades of service. Accelerated aging tests of paper grades used in MIND
cables show that virtually no thermal aging occurs below 70°C [11].  This indicates
that thermal and electrical aging of the insulation material is not a major concern.

Consequently, from a material aging perspective there is no motivation for proposing

changes in the voltage or duration applied in the loading cycle and polarity reversal
type test duties.

5.2. Formation of Hazardous Cavities After Load

Reductions
The load cycling has—at least traditionally—been considered to introduce the most
demanding stress of the type tests. As described earlier, thermal contraction of the
mass after a load turn-off creates shrinkage cavities, and the resulting partial
discharge activity may gradually impair the insulation. Breakdowns typically occur a
few hours after a load turn-off, and post-mortem dissections reveal a 1–2 m long,
very characteristic carbonized channel in the insulation that appears to have
developed over some time [9, 12].

Experience has shown that load cycling in a cold ambient is more demanding than in
a warm ambient. This is attributed to a much lower internal pressure in the
insulation and thus a greater risk of forming cavities. However, not all shrinkage
cavities are harmful. Partial discharges occurring in small voids in the mass- lled
butt gaps of the insulation may have so low energies that they do not cause harm,
whereas much larger cavities extending between layers, "delaminating" the paper
insulation result in powerful partial discharges permanently damaging the
insulation. A proper design and manufacturing of the cable's insulation system (with
regard to paper lapping tension, impregnation procedures, lead sheath extrusion
process, steel band tension etc.) have been found to greatly reduce the risk of having
large and harmful cavities [9, 13].

The purpose of the loading cycle test is essentially to verify that the cable design is
sound and can handle these "mechanical" and "hydraulic" phenomena taking place
in the insulation during load cycling without compromising the dielectric strength.

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Because the stresses depend greatly on the loading pattern and the ambient
conditions the cable is exposed to, these parameters must be carefully de ned in the
test procedures.

In our previously reported experimental investigations [4, 6] the load was turned off
instantaneously; from rated load current to zero. This led to rapid and large drops in
the internal pressure. The type test also speci es instantaneous load turn-offs, and
the modelling shows that the internal pressure drops to very low levels during load
cycling both at 5°C and 40°C ambient. Moreover, the pressure difference across the
insulation disappears in both the 16-h and 8-h parts of the load cycle at 40°C
ambient. (At 5°C, almost no radial mass ow occurs.) Most importantly, at both
ambient temperatures the pressure in the innermost part of the insulation comes
down to levels where cavities may form and stays at this level for an extended time
(hours) while a high dielectric stress is maintained. 

Concerning cavity formation, an instantaneous load turn-off is obviously the most

severe case conceivable. MIND cables in service will hardly ever experience an
immediate reduction from full load to zero with the rated voltage maintained also
afterwards. (System requirements typically specify a maximum power ramping rate,
e.g., 30 MW/min, and during faults the voltage is also turned off immediately.)

Applying 24-h cycles has major practical advantages when doing laboratory testing
and is a convenient and natural choice.

In conclusion, for testing MIND cables' ability to deal with rapid reductions of the
internal pressure and the accompanying cavity formation, a complete and
instantaneous load turn-off is a demanding but also appropriate procedure. Using 8-
h on / 16‑h off cycles is a good solution.

5.3. Ambient Temperature

The numerical simulations indicate that the internal pressure dynamics, and
thereby also the risk of forming dangerous cavities, appear to be very different at 5°C
and 40°C ambient temperatures. Cavities do not form unless the pressure in the
insulation is well below atmospheric; measurements have suggested a few hundred
millibar or less [4–6]. In a 5°C ambient, measurements, modelling and not least type
testing experience indicate that such conditions exist and can be challenging.

Hence, specifying load cycling tests at the lowest ambient temperature in the
installation appears appropriate.

At 40°C ambient temperature the internal pressure dynamics become different than
at 5°C in important ways. The modelling shows much higher pressures, up to more
than 25 bar, and larger uctuations during the load cycles. At such high internal
pressures, the steel bands play a crucial role in providing elastic compressive forces
that prevent the lead and polyethylene (PE) sheaths, and the insulation to become
permanently deformed and damaged. Thus, to ensure that these parts of the cable
are properly designed testing at the highest ambient temperatures is necessary.

The electrical conductivity of mass-impregnated paper increases with increasing

temperature [2], and at some temperature a MIND cable insulation system will
experience a thermal run-away and fail. Testing the cable at rated current and with

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1.8U0 in cycles lasting for 8 h at the declared maximum ambient temperature
provides reassurance that thermal run-away will not occur in service.

Including load cycling tests at the highest ambient temperature of the installation
makes sense as it veri es important capabilities of the cable design and of the
properties of the materials involved.

It is reasonable to assume that during load cycling at 5°C ambient cavities exist in
the insulation most of the time, whereas at 40°C ambient, there will at most be a few
immediately after the load turn-offs (unless the cable has been stored or operated at
a high temperature for a long time, see the discussion in Section 5.4). At a certain
ambient temperature range somewhere between these extremes, the situation may
be quite different. During loading, the warmer parts near the conductor may have a
high pressure and no cavities, while the outer, colder parts have plenty of cavities
and thus a pressure well below atmospheric. Hence, a large radial pressure gradient
now exists in the insulation, forcing mass to ow outwards. Measurements on a MIND
cable in room temperature revealed such a situation [3]. When applying rated load
current to this cable the pressure difference across the insulation raised from zero to
more than 30 bars before slowly levelling off.  This is a considerably larger pressure
difference than the maximum of some 5 and 0.5 bar expected at 40 and 5°C ambient
temperature, respectively, see Figs. 4 and 5.

The outward mass ow may in such a case become substantially larger than under
the 5 and 40°C ambient conditions of the current type test, simply because the
driving force (the pressure gradient) is larger. More importantly, when turning off the
load after the radial pressure gradient has disappeared, the mass will to a far lesser
extent migrate back, because the pressure gradient now is lower. Thus, a permanent
redistribution of the mass has occurred, leaving the inner and most dielectrically
stressed paper layers with a poorer impregnation. Although this description may be
simpli ed as other mechanisms may in uence the internal pressure development,
for example slow mechanical deformations of the lead and PE sheaths (see Section
5.4), it points at some potentially important aspects of the internal pressure
dynamics.

Consequently, load cycling at intermediate temperatures during service may be

associated with certain potentially harmful processes not experienced during
loading cycle tests at the lowest and highest ambient temperatures.

5.4. Slow Sheath Deformations

Laboratory measurements have shown that if a MIND cable is kept at constant
ambient and loading conditions for a long time (several weeks or months) the
internal pressure gradually approaches the external pressure [6]. This occurs
irrespective of whether the ambient temperature is high or low, whether the cable is
loaded or unloaded, and both at atmospheric and elevated ambient pressures. The
essential prerequisite is that the conditions remain unchanged. The underlying
mechanism is viscoelasticity in the lead and PE sheaths that leads to small and slow
mechanical deformations that change the volume enclosing the insulation and
thereby also the internal pressure [5].

Hence, the internal pressure — and thus also the tendency for cavities to form after a
load reduction — is determined not only by the immediate thermal contraction, but
also by the loading and ambient conditions in the previous weeks and even months.

©2021 - CIGRE CSE N°22 October 2021 14

However, and this is possibly of considerable importance, the type test will not cover
this latter aspect. For example, a cable that has been stored in a warm ambient in the
weeks prior to the loading cycle test will have more cavities created after load turn-
offs than a cable that has been kept cold before the testing. The reason is that the PE
and lead sheaths of the cable that has been kept warm over time have been slightly
and slowly plastically deformed, resulting in a somewhat increased volume available
for the insulation (accompanied by a corresponding gradual reduction of the internal
pressure). The internal pressure in the cable that prior to the testing has been kept
cold, in contrast, remains low, and the PE and lead sheaths do not deform, and the
volume available for the insulation has not expanded. In other words, the current
type test does not properly account for the effects caused by such sheath
deformations.

After a load turn-off in a type test, the mass thermally contracts by a similar amount
in both cases (assuming the mass is incompressible). However, the "mass de cit"
after the turn-off becomes greater in the rst case since the volume inside the lead
sheath here is a little larger. Presumably, the combined volume of the shrinkage
cavities also becomes larger, resulting in a higher risk of cavity-induced problems.
Consequently, the combined volume of cavities generated after load turn-offs can — if
the current understanding is correct — to some extent be "manipulated" by storing
the type test object at a low temperature in the weeks prior to the testing.

Avoiding effects caused by different ambient conditions prior to the testing would
require a preconditioning procedure to be included in the test program. However, an
appropriate procedure would probably have to last for at least several weeks. This
would add considerable time, cost, and complexity to an already very expensive and
time-consuming type test program, and thus requires careful considerations and
cost/bene t trade-offs.

But again, it is sensible to take into consideration that experimental work has shown
quantitatively that the "history" in terms of current loading and ambient
temperature of a MIND cable greatly in uences the internal pressure. For example,
the internal pressure in the same unloaded cable at an ambient temperature of 40°C
has been shown to be as different as around 15 bar [5] and around 1 bar [4],
depending on what the cable has been subjected to in the previous weeks and
months. The tendency to form shrinkage cavities during a load cycling test duty will
be very different in these two cases, and this may affect the outcome of a type test.

Hence, including a preconditioning procedure prior to the load cycling duties could
make the type test more realistic as it would also include the contributions to the
internal pressure from slow deformations of the lead and PE sheaths.

5.5. External Hydrostatic Pressure

The hydrostatic pressure exerted on subsea MIND cables by the surrounding water
is believed to be bene cial since it can suppress cavity formation. Laboratory
measurements on a cable installed in a pressure vessel con rm this assumption, but
only in part [6]. If the ambient temperature is low—which is typically the situation for
a cable directly exposed to seawater at large depths—a load turn-off still makes the
internal pressure plunge to levels where voids may form. Moreover, in the innermost
parts of the insulation it may remain low for several days.

©2021 - CIGRE CSE N°22 October 2021 15

The MIND cable of any HVDC link is also subjected to atmospheric pressures, at least
for some parts of the route. Concerning the risk of creating harmful cavities, this is
less favourable, and if the cable has not been loaded for a while, the ambient
temperature may be as low as when surrounded by cold water at large depths.

Hence, the type test should — as it currently is — be carried out in an atmospheric

ambient as this is the most demanding case when considering the effects of the
external pressure.

5.6. Short-term Overloading

Short-term or temporary overloading of a MIND cable in practice means increasing
the current beyond its rated (and type-tested) value, while keeping the voltage at
rated value. Obviously, this needs to be tackled also by the converters. From an
operational (and nancial) perspective, allowing for short-term overloading is highly
desirable. However, the associated risks are dif cult to assess, and the type test has
no speci c provisions that concern overloading.

The resistive losses in the conductor are proportional to the current squared. For
example, a 20% overloading increases the losses in the conductor by 44%. (In fact, a
little more because the resistivity in the conductor becomes somewhat higher as the
temperature increases.) Obviously, temporary current overloading will increase the
temperature in the cable and the temperature difference between the innermost and
outermost layers. Detailed modelling is required to determine how much and how
fast, but short-term overloading clearly comes with some identi able risk factors:

First, the conductor temperature may exceed its declared maximum value. Typically,
this will occur at a few locations along the cable route where the thermal conditions
of the ambient are unfavourable (thermal bottlenecks). The risks are the same as
discussed for load cycling in a warm ambient in Section 5.3, i.e., thermal run-away
and excessive internal pressures.

Second, the higher temperature drop across the insulation creates a greater
difference in thermal expansion/contraction between the innermost and outermost
layers of the insulation. This may under certain circumstances lead to a greater
pressure gradient and possibly a larger outward ow of mass, resulting in an even
poorer impregnation of the innermost layers afterwards than after turning off a rated
load current.

Third, because the electric conductivity is temperature dependent, a larger

temperature drop across the insulation causes a greater space charge movement
and thus a higher maximum eld both during loading and immediately after a
polarity reversal.

Considering the large interest for allowing short-time overloading, the current type
test is clearly de cient. One option could be to include shorter cycling duties (e.g.,
0.5, 1 or 2 h) at overload conditions at an intermediate ambient temperature (e.g.,
20–30°C) as the pressure gradient and the radial mass redistribution then
presumably become highest.

5.7. Resting Time During Polarity Reversals

©2021 - CIGRE CSE N°22 October 2021 16

For the polarity reversals in the type test, it is recommended to apply a 2-min
"resting time" after turning off voltage and before applying voltage of the opposite
polarity. The background for this "pause" is technical constraints with the voltage
sources being used in the test laboratories.

It has been speculated — with basis in some experimental observations on at

samples consisting of just a few layers of mass-impregnated paper — that certain
charge injection and local space charge accumulation phenomena may cause
instantaneous polarity reversals to result in excessive electrical stresses [10]. With a
2-min resting time, it is hypothesised that the local stresses become lower. However,
no evidence or experimental veri cation proving this assertion correct and of
signi cance for complete MIND cables have been reported.

It can be argued that since the polarity reversal type test duty uses a 2-min resting
time rather than applying an instantaneous reversal, the same should be applied in
service. (A cable should not be exposed to something it has not been tested for.)
Consequently, as a precautionary measure the control systems of most LCC-based
HVDC links involving MIND cables are con gured to apply a 2-min resting time
during polarity reversals, but others do not. But again, whether the dielectric stress
in the two cases differs signi cantly, remains uncon rmed.

Some MIND cables are in service exposed to instantaneous polarity reversals. It is

not certain that the stresses these cables experience are re ected in the type test
procedures.

6. Conclusions
The procedures and requirements for dielectric type testing of MIND HVDC power
cables given in CIGRÉ's Electra no. 189 have been considered with basis in recent
measurements and modelling of internal pressure, temperature and electric eld
distributions in cables subjected to different environmental and loading conditions.
Most of the provisions are found to be appropriate and reasonable, but a few possible
improvements are proposed:

Including a preconditioning procedure prior to the load cycling duties could

make the type test more realistic as it would also include the contributions to the
internal pressure from slow deformations of the lead and PE sheaths.
Introducing load cycling duties with currents beyond I0 and with shorter loading
times (e.g., 0.5, 1 or 2 h) and at an intermediate ambient temperature (e.g., 20–
30°C) as a part of the dielectric tests could qualify a MIND cable for temporary
overloading.

7. Acknowledgements
The authors thank J. Rantanen for fruitful comments.

This work was supported in part by the Norwegian Research Council, Nexans Norway,
Fingrid, Statnett, and Svenska Kraftnät under contract no. 256405/E20.

8. References

©2021 - CIGRE CSE N°22 October 2021 17

 1. CIGRE Working Group 21-02, “Recommendations for tests of power transmission
DC cables for a rated voltage up to 800 kV,” Electra, no. 189, pp. 39–55, 2000.
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transmission DC cables for a rated voltage up to 800  kV,"” Electra, no. 218, pp.
39–45, 2005.
3. M. Runde, R. Hegerberg, N. Magnusson, E. Ildstad, and T. Ytrehus, "Cavity
formation in mass-impregnated HVDC subsea cables—Mechanisms and critical
parameters," IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 30, pp. 22–33, 2014.
4. M. Runde, E. Jonsson, N. Magnusson, and K.T. Solheim, "Internal pressures and
pressure gradients in mass-impregnated HVDC cables during current cycling,"
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., vol. 27, pp. 915-923, 2020.
5. M. Runde, S.M. Hellesø, E. Jonsson, and N. Magnusson, "Plastic deformations of
the sheaths of mass-impregnated HVDC cables and their effect on the internal
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6. M. Runde, E. Bjerrehorn, E. Jonsson, and N. Magnusson, "Internal Pressure
Dynamics of Mass-Impregnated HVDC Subsea Cables at Different Sea Depths",
CIGRE Sc. and Eng., vol. 23, 2022.
7. Ø. Hestad, H. Enoksen, M. Runde, and N. Magnusson, "Modelling of internal
pressure dynamics in mass-impregnated HVDC subsea cables," (submitted
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8. E. Occhini and G. Maschio, "Electrical characteristic of oil-impregnated paper as
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9. P. Gazzana Priaroggia, P. Metra, and G. Miramonti, "Research on the breakdown
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Trans. Electric Power, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 321–330, 1993.
10. M. Jeroense, Charges and Discharges in HVDC Cables, doctoral thesis, Delft: Delft
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11. C. Lesaint, K.B. Liland, Ø. Hestad, "Chemical ageing of subsea mass impregnated
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Contact Author: M. RUNDE 

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